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nejOURNALof
GEOGRAPHY
An illustrated monthly magazine devoted to the interests of teach-
ers of geography in Elementary, Secondary, and Normal
Schools. Successor to the Journal oif School
Geography, Vol. V, and the Bulletin
of the American Bureau of
Geography, Vol. n
£D/ro/^s
RICHARD E. DODGE
Professor of Geography ^ Teachers College^ Columbia University^ New York City
EDWARD M. LEHNERTS
Frofessor of Geography^ State Normal School, iVinona^ Minnesota
VOLUME III
1904
OFFICB OF PUBLICATION
The JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY
Room 560* 160 Adams St.. Cbiaico, IlHnoU
tun 1 1 Mardi 19, IMS. »t Cbkactt, HI., m weoad-clMS nttn. udcr Art of Coaffim af lUnh S, 18Tt
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
PUBUSHED MONTHLY, EXCEPT JULY AND AUGUST
An lilttstrat^d Magasin9 D9Vot9d to tht inffsts of T^achtrs of C^ographp in
EUm9ntarw» Smcondary, and fiormat Schools
Successor to tYke Journal of School Geography^ Vol. V., and the Bulletin of the
American Bureau of Geography^ VoL II.
EDITORS
RICHARD E. DODGEr
Professor of Geography .^ Teachers College^ Columbia University^ New York City,
EDWARD M. LEHNERTd
Professor of Geography^ State Normal School^ Winona^ Minnesota.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
CYRUS C. ADAMS Geographical Editor, N. Y. Sun
OTIS W. CALDWELL . Professor of Botany, Stale Normal Sc/iool, Charleston, J II.
JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN, Prof of Geography, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.
HENRY C. COWLES . . . Associate in Botany, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.
WILLIAM M. DAVIS. Professor of Geology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
N. M. FENNEMAN . . Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, H'^is.
J. PAUL GOODE, Assistant Professor of Geography, University of Chicago, Chicago, III.
GEORGE B. HOLLISTER, Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
M. S. W. JEFFlS.KSO'ii, Professor of Geography, State Normal School, Ypsilanti,Mich.
EMORY R. JOHNSON, Asst. Prof of Transportation and Commerce, Univ. of Penna,
EDW. D. JONES, Asst. Prof of Commerce and Industry, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor
VERNON L. KELLOGG, Prof of Entomology, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ., Palo Alto, Cal.
CHARLES F. KING Master of Dearborn Sclu>ol, Boston, Mass.
S. J. Maclean, Asst. Prof, of Economics, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ., Palo Alto, Cal.
FOREST RAY MOULTON, Assistant Professor of Astronomy, University of Chicago
JACQUES W. RED WAY Author, Mount Vernon, N. Y.
ELLEN C. SEMPLE Writer in Anthropogeography, Louisville, Ky.
FREDERICK STARR, Associate Prof of Anthropology, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, III.
RALPH S. TARR, I^ofessor of Physical Geography, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
SPENCER TROTTER Professor of Biology, Swarthmore College, Pa.
ROBERT Dec. WARD . . Assistant Professor of Climatology, Harvard University
ASSOCIATE EDITORS FOR GREAT BRITAIN AND CANADA
A. J. HERBERTSON, Lecturer in Regional Geography, Oxford University, England
• JOHN A. DRESSER Prince Albert School, St. Henry de Montreal, Quebec
TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION
• • •
*••$!. 50 a Year in Advance Single Copies, 20 cents
Pric9 in all foreign countries in the Universal Postal Union, $1.90 {10 numbers), postpaid
• ; On sale with E. McGegan, Outlook Tower, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Subscriptions and advertisements should be sent to
TNB JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Room 560, x6o Adams Street, Chicago, 111., or Winona, Minn.
Copyright, 1904, by E. M. Lehnerts.
THE CONTENTS
JANUARY
PAGE
Wind Effects Mark S. W. Jefferson 3
A Scheme of Geography William M. Davis 20
Geographical Notes: Some Facts About Panama, 32 — The Ship
Canals of the World, 34— Dalney, The Township, 38 — ^The Bag-
dad Railway and German Commerce in Asia Mmor, 41 — A Plan
Which Interested a Geography Class, 42 — Addition to the List
of Geographical Societies of America, 44 — Current Articles on
Commerce and Industry, 44.
Geographical Queries 47
Editorial: Signs of the Times, 51.
Reviews: Field and Laboratory Exercises in Physical Geography.
Chamberlain (C. B. K.), 83.
Recent Publications 53
News Notes 54
FEBRUARY
The Geography Course in the Chicago Normal School.
Part I Frank W. Darling and Elizabeth Smith 55
Map Making and Map Reading Robert Marshall Brown 65
Inductive Method of Teaching Change of Seasons. . . .R. S. Holway 75
MEDii«VAL Trade and Trade Routes C. Raymond Beazley 79
Geographical Notes: The Production of Sugar in the Hawaiian
Islands, 89 — The World's Maritime Statistics, 90 — Area, Popu-
lation, and Density of Population of the South American
Republics. 90 — Manufacture of Ice in Palestine, 90 — Raising
Crops in the Far North, 91 — Standard Time in South Africa, 91
— Manufacture of Perfumes in Grasse, 92 — Destruction of
Cork Forests in Italy, 92 — Current Articles on Commerce and
Industry, 93.
Geographical Queries 94
Editorial: Geography Teaching in Normal and Training Schools, 95.
Reviews: The Geography of Commerce, Trotter, (E. D. J.), 97 —
Elementary Geography, King, (L. W. H.), 97.
Recent Publications q8
News Notes 100
MARCH
The Republic of Panama Col. G. E. Church loi
Transportation. Part I John Thorn HoldswortH 112
Authors are personally responsible for opinions and statements expressed
in the JOURNAL,
%^^*t\
IV THE CONTENTS
PAGE
The Geography Course in the Chicago Normal School.
Part II Frank W. Darling and Elizabeth Smith 122
Geographical Notes: Controlling Sand Dunes in the United
States and Europe, 131 — Climate of San Francisco, 134 — Cur-
rent Articles on Commerce and Industry, 136.
Geographical Queries 137
Editorial: The Geographic Congress and the School Teacher, 138.
Recent Publications 139
News Notes 140
APRIL
The Motions of the Earth. Part I Forest R. Moulton 145
Transportation. Part II John Thorn Holdsworth 150
The Course in Geography in the State Normal School at
Salem, Mass William Charles Moore 163
Geographical Notes: Plans for Home Geography Study, 179 —
The Effective Teacher of Geography, 182 — The Eastern Shore
of Virginia. 184 — An Interesting Atmosoheric Phenomenon,
185 — Standard Times, 186 — The English Mile Compared with
Otner European Measures, 187 — Decisions of the L . S. Board
on Geographical Names; Approved January 6. 1904, 187 —
From Paris to Pekin by Rail, 188 — Snow Cr>'stals. 188.
Editorial: Is Geography Receiving Sufficient Attention in Ele-
mentary Schools? i8g.
Reviews: Commercial Geography, Redway (E. D. J). 191.
News Notes *. ' 192
MAY
Summer Courses in Geography Edward M. Lehnerts 193
The Delta of the Mississippi Francis E. Lloyd 204
The Motions of the Earth. Part II Forest R. Moulton. ... 213
The Functions of Geography in the Elementary School: A Study
in Educational Values William Chandler Bagley 222
Geographical Notes: Wind-Blown Trees. 27,7, — Our Proportion
of the World. 234 — Primary' Geography, 234 — Current Articles
on Commerce and Industry, 235.
Editorial: Geography for Teachers During the Coming Stmimer, 237.
Reviews: New Physical Geographv, Tarr (W. R. C), 238 — A
Laboratorv Manual for Phvsical (geography. Darling (C. B. K.),
239 — The Yellowstone National Park. Chittenden (R. E. D.),
240.
Recent Publications 240
JUNE
The Geographic Importance of the Louisiana Purchase 243
Albert Perry Brigham
The Surface and Climate of the Louisiana Purchase. A'. //. Darton 251
Explorations Within the Louisiana Purchase \. C. Howland 261
THE CONTENTS
PAGE
Present Industries Within the Louisiana Purchase 270
Spencer Trotter
The Value and Development of Irrigation in the Louisiana Pur-
chase Tract George B. HoUister 278
Geographic Influences in the Development of St. Louis 290
Ellen Churchill Sent pie
Denver, the Queen City of the Plains C. E. Chadsey 300
Geographical Xotes: Area and Population of States and Terri-
tories within the Louisiana Purchase. 304 — Rank of Principal
Manufactures in the Several Louisiana Purchase States. 1900,
304 — Agriculture in the Louisiana Purchase. 305 — Grazing in
the Louisiana Purchase Territory', 1900. 305 — Localization of
Industries in the Louisiana Purchase, 305 — Bibliography of the
Purchase, 305 — Current Articles on Commerce and Industry',
306.
Editorial: The Louisiana Purchase, 307.
Recent Publications 308
News Notes 309
SEPTEMBER
The First American Geography Clifton Johnson 311
The School Excursion and the School Museum as Aids in the
Teaching of Geography I). (\ Ridgeley 322
The Human Response to the Physical Environment. .J. Paul Goode 333
Geographical Notes: ''Sensible Temperatures," 343 — Public
Schools in Russia, 348 — Cost of Construction of the Trans-
Siberian Railway, 348 — Advisable Omissions from the Elemen-
tary Curriculum, 349 — Current Articles on Commerce and
Industry, 349 — Economic Importance of the Coffee Industry,
351 — The Climate of the Argentine Republic, 352 — Map Draw-
ing in Histor\', 353 — Commercial Japan in igo4, 354.
Editorial: The Emphasis of Details in School Geography, 354.
Reviews: Geology. Chamberlin and Salisbury, Vol. I. (J. P. G.),
356 — The Indians of the Painted Desert Region. James, 356.
Recent Publications 357
News Notes 358
OCTOBER
Geography and History in the United States 359
Albert Perry Brigham
Emphasis Upon Anthropo-Geography in Schools 366
Ellen Churchill Sentplc
Practical Work in School Geography R. H. Whitbcck 374
Physical Geography in High Schools Mary I. Piatt 379
Geographical Notes: State Geography — Cause and Effect —
Search Questions, 387 — The Geographical Field in Indiana,
389 — Cotton Cultivation, 392 — The Winter of 1903-04 in the
Great Lakes Region, 393 — Bermuda, 393 — Poultry and Eggs,
395.
4
VI THE CONTENTS
PAGE
Editorial: Clubs of Geography Teachers, 400.
Reviews: Commercial Gcograohy of the World Outside the
British Isles. Herbertson (R. E. A.), 401— The Land of Little
Rain. Austin (R. E. D.), 402.
Recent Publications 402
NOVEMBER
Excursions in College Geography William Harmon Norton 40^
Response to Surroundings — A Geographic Principle 409
R. H. Whitbeck
Transportation, Part III John Thorn Holdsworth 413
What a Child Should Gain From Geography R. P. Ireland 421
What the Child Should Know of Geography at the End of His
Grade Course Amos W. Farnham 424
Geographical Notes: Geographic Features of Alaska, 427 — A
Great Tunnel, 432 — British India, 433 — The Practical Use of
the Globe in Teaching Geography, 436 — First Lessons in Geog-
raphy, 440 — Acclimatization of the White Race in the Tropics,
443 — Forests and Climate in Texas, 444.
Editorial: Home Geography, 445.
Review: North America, 446.
DECEMBER
Final Results in the Study of Geography. . . Jacques W. Redway 447
Results of an Elementary Course in Geography Philip Emerson '50
Foundational Experiences Arthur P. Irving 454
What Should (tRaduates from Elementary Schools Know About
Geography Isaac O. Winslow 458
Commercial Importance of Continents George D. Hubbard 462
Later Geographies Clifton Johnson 467
Geographical Notes: Trade and Commerce in Persia, 486.
Editorial: What a Child Should Gain from His School Course
in Geography, 487.
Reviews: Handl){>ok of Commercial Geography. Chisholm (Geo.
G.), 487— Stories of Discovery. Hale (Edward E.), 488.
News Notes 488
THE INDEX
Agriculture, A Text-book of the
Physics of, F. H. King (review),
309
Agriculture in the Louisiana Pur-
chase (note), 305
Agriculture, New Elementary, for
Rural and Graded Schools (review).
358
Alaska, Geographic Features of
(note), 427
Anthropo-Geographv in Schools,
Emphasis Upon, Ellen C. Seniple,
366
Argentine Republic, The Climate
of the (note), 352
Around the World in the Sloop Spray,
Capt. J. Slocum (review), 309
Asia Minor, The Bagdad Railway
and German Commerce in (note),
41
Atmospheric Phenomenon, An In-
teresting (note), 185
Austin, Mary, The Land of Little
Rain (review), 99, 402
Bagdad Railway and German
Commerce in Asia Minor (note),
41
Baglev, William Chandler, The
Functions of Geography in the
Elementary School, 222
Beazley, C. Raymond, Mediceval
Trade and Trade Routes, 79
Bermuda (note), 393
Bibliography of the Louisiana Pur-
chase (note), 305
Blair, Emma H., and Robertson
James A., Tlw Philippine Islands
(review), 99, 139, 240
Brigham, a. p.. Geographic Impor-
tance of the Louisiana Purchase,
The, 243
Brigham, Albert P., Geography and
History in the United States, 359
Brown, Robert M. (note), 192 •
Brown, Robert Marshall, Map Mak-
ing and Map Reading, 65
Bulletin of tne American Geograph-
ical Society (note), 144
Caribbean ami Across Panama,
Around the, Nicholas (review), 54
Carpenter's Geographical Reader: A us-
tralia. Our Colonies, and Other
Islands of the Sea, F. G. Carpenter,
357
Chadsey, C. E., Denver — The Queen
City of the Plains, 300
Chamberlain, James F., Field and
Laboratory Exercises in Physical
Geography (review), 53
Chamberlin, Thomas C., and Salis-
bury, Rollin D., Geology (review),
308, 356
Chisholm, George G., Handbook of
Commercial Geography (review),
98, 487
Chittknuen, Hiram M., The Yellow-
stone National Park (review), 99,
240
Church, Col. G. E., The Rei)ublic of
Panama, 101
Climate, Forests and, in Texas
(note), 444
Climate of San Francisco (note),
134
Climate, The, of the Argentme Re-
j)ublie (note), 352
Climate, The Surface and, of the
Louisiana Purchase, Darton, 251
Coffee Industry, Economic Im-
portance of (note), 351
Commerce and Industry, Current
Articles on, 44, 93, 136, 235,306,
349
Commerce in Asia Minor and the
Bagdad Railway, German (note),
41
Commerce, Trade and, in Persia
(note), 486
Commercial Geography, Handbook of,
Chisholm (review), 98, 487
Commercial Geography of the World
Outside the British Isles, Herbert-
son (review), 401
Commercial Importance of Conti-
nents, Hubbard. 462
Cork Forests in Italy, Destruction
of (note), 92
Cornell Summer School of Geog-
raphy, The (note), 358
VIU
THE INDEX
Cotton Cultivation (note), 392
Course in Geography in the State
Normal School at Salem, Mass.,
Moore, 163
Course of Geography in the Chi-
cago Normal School, The, Darling
and Smith, 55, 122
Courses in Geography, Summer,
193
Crops in the Far North, Raising
(note), 91
Cumberland Road, The, Hulbert (re-
view), 130
Current Articles on Commerce
and Industry, 44, 93, 136, 235, 306,
349
Dalny, The Township (note), 38
Darling, Frank W., A Laboratory
Manual for Physical Geography
(review), 139, 239
Darling, Frank W., and Smith,
Elizabeth, The Geographv Course
in the Chicago Normal Scliool, 55,
122
Darton, N. H., The Surface and Cli-
mate of the Louisiana Purchase,
251
Davis, William M., A Scheme of
Geography, 20
Decimal System, The (note), 489
Delta of the Mississippi, The,
Lloyd, 204
Denver — The Queen City of the
Plains, Chadsey, 300
Descriptive Chemistry, Newell (re-
view), 99
Descriptive Geography from Original
Sources: Australia and Occanica,
Herbertson and Herbertson (re-
views), 54
Discovery, Stories of, Hale (review),
488
Dopp, Katharine E., The Tree-Dwell-
ers (review), 139
Dubois and Kergomard, Precis de
Geographie Economique (review),
98
Early Western Travels, 1 748-1846,
(review), 308, 402
Earth, The Motions of the, Moulton,
Editorials, 51, 95, 138, 189, 237,
307. 354, 400, 445, 487
Eggs, Poultry and (note), 395
Elementary Curriculum, Advisa-
ble Omissions from the (note), 349
Elementary Geography, King (re-
view), 54
Emerson, Philip, Results of an Ele-
mentary Course in Geography, 450
English Mile Compared with Other
European Measures, The (note),
Excursion and the School Mu-
seum as Aids in the Teaching of
Geography, The School, Ridgeley,
322
Excursions in College Geogra-
phy, Norton, 403
Explorations within the Louisiana
Purchase, Rowland, 261
Farnham, a. W., What a Child
Should Know of Geography at the
End of His Grade Course, 424
Field and Laboratory Exercises in
Physical Geography, Chamberlain
(review), 53
Final Results in the Study of
Geography, Redway, 447
First American Geography, The,
Johnson, 311
Forests and Climate in Texas
(note), 444
Foundational Experiences, Irving,
454
Geographen-Kalender (review), 357
Geographic Congress, The Eighth
International (note), 140, 309
Geographic Congress and the
School Teacher, The (editorial),
138
Geographic Importance of the
Louisiana Purchase, The, Brigham,
243
Geographic Influences in the De-
velopment of St. Louis, Semple,
290
Geographic Names; Approved Jan-
uary 6, 1904, Decisions of the
U. S. Board on (note), 187
Geographic Names, Rules for
(note), 488
Geographic Principle — Response
to Surroundings, Whitbeck, 409
Geographical Field in Indiana,
The (note), 389
Geographical Societies of Amer-
ica, Addition to the List of (note),
44
Geographies, Later, Johnson, 467
Geography and History in the
United States, Brigham, 359
THE INDEX
IX
Geography, Excursions in College,
Norton, 403
Geography, Final Results in the
Study of, Red way, 447
Geography, First Lessons in (note),
440
Geography for Teachers During the
Coming Summer (editorial), 237
Geography in the Elementary
School. The Functions of, Bagley,
222
Geography, Primary (note), 234
Geography, Results of an Elemen-
tary Course in, Emerson, 450
Geography, State (note), 387
Geography, Summer Courses in,
193
Geography, The First American,
Johnson, 311
Geography, The Cornell Summer
School of (note), 358
Geography Teaching in Normal and
Training Schools (editorial), 95
Geography, What a Child Should
Gain from, Ireland, 421
Geography, What a Child Should
Know of, at the End of His Grade
Course, Famham, 424
Geography, What Should Graduates
from Elementary Schools Know
About, Winslow, 458
Geography Course in the Chicago
Normal School, The, Darling and
Smith, 51;, 122
Geology, Chambcrlin, Thomas C,
and Salisbury, RoUin D. (review),
3o«. 356
Glacial Period, The Cause 0} the, True
(review), gg
Globe, The Practical Use of the, in
Teaching Geograj>hy (note), 436
(jRAZIng in the Louisiana Purchase
Territory (note), 305
Great Lakes Region, The Winter
of 1903-04 in the (note), 393
Goode, J. Paul, The Human Re-
sponse to the Physical Environ-
ment, 333
Hale, E. E., Stories of Di scolder y
(review). 488
Hatfield, H. R., Editor. Lectures on
Contftterce (review), 308
Hawaiian Islands, Production of
Sugar in the (note), 89
Herbertson, a. J., Commercial
Geography of the World Outside the
British Isles (review), 401
Herbertson, A. J. and F. D., De-
scriptiiw Geography from Original
Sources: Australia and Oceanica
(review), 54
High Schools, Physical Geography
in, Piatt, 379
History, A Brief, of Rocky Mountain
Exploration, with EspecicU Refer-
ence to the Expedition of Lewis and
Clark, Thwaites (review), 357
History, Geography and, in the
United States, Brighara, 359
History, Map Drawing in (note),
353
Hitchcock, Ripley, The Louisiana
Purchase (review), 309
Holds WORTH, John Thorn, Trans-
portation, 112, 150, 413
HoLLiSTER, G. B., The Value and De-
velopment of Irrigation in Louisi-
ana Purchase Tract, 278
HoLWAY, R. S., Inductive Method of
Teaching Change of Seasons, 75
Home Geography (editorial), 445
Home Geography Study, Plans for
(note), 179
Howland, a. C, Explorations with-
in the Louisiana Purchase, 261
Hubbard, George D., Commercial
Importance of Continents, 462
HuLBERT, Archer B., The Cumber-
land Road (review), 139
HuLBERT, Archer Butler, Waterways
of Western Expansion (review), 53
Human Response to the Physical
Environment, The, J. Paul Goode,
333
Ice in Palestine, Manufacture of
(note), 90
India, British (note), 433
Indiana, The Geographical Field in
(note), 389
Indians of the Painted Desert Region,
James (review), 54, 356
Inductive Method of Teaching
Change of Seasons, Holway, 75
Industries in the Louisiana Pur-
chase, Localization of (note),
305
International Congress of Geog-
raphy, Educational Papers of the
(note), 192
International Geographic Con-
gress, Washington, 1904, Eighth
(note), 140, 309
IrrELAND, R. P., What a Child Should
Gain from Geography, 421
THE INDEX
Irrigation, The Value and Develop-
ment of, in Loiiisiana Purchase
Tract, HoUister, 278
Irving, A. P., Foundational Experi-
ences, 454
Italy, Destruction of Cork Forests
in (note), 92
James, George Wharton, Indians of
the Painted Desert Region (review),
54. 356
Japan, Commercial, in 1904 (note),
354
Jefferson, Mark S. W., Wind Ef-
fects, 3
Johnson, Clifton, Later Geographies,
467
Johnson, Clifton, The First Ameri-
can Geography, 311
Johnson, William Henry, Pioneer
Spaniards in North America (re-
view), 98
King, Charles F., Elementary Geogra-
phy (review), 97
King, F. H., A Text-Hook of the Phys-
ics of Agriculture (review). 309
Land of Little Rain, The, Austin
(review), 99, 402
Later Geographies, Johnson, 467
Lectures on Commerce, edited by Hat-
field (review), 308
Lloyd, Francis E., The Delta of the
Mississip[)i, 204
Louisiana Purchase, The, Ripley
Hitchcock (review), 309
Louisiana Purchase, Agriculture
in (note), 305
Louisiana Purchase, Area and Pop-
ulation of the States in the (note) ,
304
Louisiana Purchase, Bibliography
of (note), 305
Louisiana Purchase, Explorations
within the, Howland, 261
Louisiana Purchase, Localization
of Industries in the (note), 305
Louisiana Purchase, Present In-
dustries within the, Trotter, 270
Louisiana Purchase, The Geo-
graphic Importance of the, Brig-
ham, 243
Louisiana Purchase, The Surface
and Climate of the, Darton, 251
Louisiana Purchase States, Rank
of Principal Manufactures in the
Several (note), 304
Louisiana Purchase Territory,
Grazing in the (note), 305
Louisiana Purchase Tract, The
Value and Development of Irriga-
tion in, Hollister, 278
MacClintock, Samuel, The Philip-
pines (review), 99
McFee, Inez N., Outlines in United
States Geography (review), 402
M c M u R R Y , Charles A., Special
Method in Geography (review), 53
Mann, C. E., Manual of Geography
and Language (review), 98
Manual of Geography and Language,
Mann (review), 98
Manufactures in the Several
Louisiana Purchase States,
Rank of Principal (note), 304
Map Drawing in History (note), 353
Map Making and Map Reading,
Brown, 65
Maps, Introduction of the Fractional
Scale on (note), 489
Maritime Statistics, The World's
(note), 90
MEDiiBVAL Trade and Trade
Routes, Beazley, 79
Method in Geography, Special, Mc-
Murry (review), 53
Moore, William Charles, The Course
in Geography in the State Normal
School at Salem. Mass., 163
Motions of the Earth, The, Moul-
ton, 145, 213
Moulton, Forest R., The Motions of
the Earth, 145, 213
Museum, The School Excursion and
the School, as Aids in the Teaching
of Geography, Ridgeley, 322
National Educational Associa-
tion in 1904, Meeting of (note),
54, 144 . J ,
Nicholas, Francis C, Around the
Caribbean and Across Panama
(review), 54
North America, Russell (review^, 358,
446
North Pole, A New Trial for the
(note), 100
Norton, W. H., Excursions in Col-
lege Geography, 403
Outlines in United States Goegraphy,
McFee (review), 402
THE INDEX
XI
Panama, Some Facts About (note),
32
Panama, The New Republic of
(note), 54
Panama, The Republic of, Church,
lOI
Papers on Geography at the Na-
tional Educational Association
(note), 310
Paris to Peking by Rail, From
(note), 188
Perfumes in Grasse, Manufacture
of (note), 92
Persia, Trade and Commerce in
(note), 486
Philippine Islands, The, Blair and
Robertson (reviews), qq, 139, 240
Philippiftes, The, MacClintock (re-
view), 9Q
Photographs, Publication of (note),
492
Physical Environment, The
Human Response to the, (joode,
Physical Geography, A Laboratory
Manual j or. Darling (review), 139,
239
Physical Geography, Field and Labo-
ratory Exercises in. Chamberlain
(review), 53
Physical Geography in High
Schools, Piatt, 379
Physical Geography, Xew, Ralph S.
Tarr (review), 99, 238
Platt, Mar>' I., Physical Geography
in High Schools, 379
Plan Which Interested a Geog-
raphy Class, A (note). 42
Poultry and Eggs (note), 395
Practical Work in School Geog-
raphy, Whitbeck, 374 ,
Precis de Geographic Ecotu^ntique,
Dubois and Kergomard (review),
98
Present Industries within the
Louisiana Purchase, Trotter, 270
Questions, Search (note), 387
Redway, Jacques W., Commercial
Geograpfty (review), 191
Redway, J. W., Final Results in the
Study of Geography, 447
Republic of Panama, The, Church,
lOI
Republic of Panama, The New
(note), 54
Results of An Elementary
Course in Geography, Emerson,
450
Ridgeley, D. C. (note), 192
RiDGELEY, D. C, The School Excur-
sion and the School Museum as
aids in the Teaching of Geography,
322
Robertson, James H., and Blair.
Emma H., The Philippine Islands
(review), 99, 139, 240
Russell, I. C, North America
(review), ^58, 446
Russia, Public Schools in (note),
348
St. Louis, Geographic Influences in
the Development of, Semple, 290
Salisbury, RoUin D., and Chamber-
lin. Thomas C, Geology (review),
308, 356
Sand Dunes in the U. S. and Europe,
Controlling (note), 131
Scheme of Geography, A, Davis,
20
School Geography, Practical Work
in. Whitbeck, 374
Schools, Emphasis upon Anthropo-
Gcography m, Semple, 366
Schools, Public, in Russia, (note)
348
Sea of Azov, The (note), 192
Semple, Ellen C, Emphasis upon
Anthroi)o-Geography in Schools,
366
Semple, Ellen C. Geographic Influ-
ences in the Development of St.
Louis, 290
Sensible Temperatures (note), 343
Ship Canals of the World (note), 34
Signs of the Times (editorial), 51
Slocum, Capt. J., Around the World
in the Sloop Spray (review), 309
Smith, Elizabeth, and Darling, Frank
W., The Geography Course in the
Chicago Normal Schools, 55, 122
Snow Crystals (note), 188
South American Republics, Area,
Population, and Density of (note),
90
Spaniards in North America, Pioneer,
Johnson (review), 98
Standard Time in South Africa
(note), 91
Standard Times (note), 186, 490
State Geography (note), 387
Sugar in the Hawaiian Islands,
The Production of (note), 89
— . . — ^ raiiT
I ■.■■\- •.■<»tT' '.T- •ipiinn'^ '
■/-. ■ --1- Till n "ait
' ... .. . i i- • j*»'r irn.* 31 =
. ,/ ■ ' „ /. . f ... o< -r'-.'v^T •''" **'
# . . , / , . /i /,. . •'. y . :; ■ r / .-.-^ : Hts^«2^-
. . '.. I i', J
I I'ii I'l'/jH^rli'.'r] rji'Jht *3XK*'.
■. . M Mill! Ml. Statistics. The
\ \,i//.'ff.f/ l'iirk\ The,
X \. a. iwl, u u« V'* ^^\ «)<». 240
■/f New Boofc Which CorreJates Ceonraphv and Historg
Geographic Influences in American Histiiy
By Albert Perry Bric.iiam, Professor of Gfo/oiry in Coli^ate University.
Cloth. 366 pages. Illustrated. List price, $1.35.
IN this new book Professor Brigham has presented vividly and clearly those physio-
graphic features of America which have been important in guiding the unfolding
of our industrial and national life. The arrangement is mainly geographicaf
Among the themes receiving special treatment are: The Eastern Gateway of the
United States, The Appalachian Barrier, the Great Lakes and American Commerce,
the Civil War, and Mines and Mountain Life. Closing chapters deal with the unity
and diversity of American life, and with physiography as affecting American destiny.
An opinion from JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN, Teacher of
Geography, State formal School, Los Angeles, Cat,
I consider Brigham's ''Geographic Influences tn American History*'
a very strong hook. It will be of great value to all teachers of history because
it shows clearly the vital influence which geographic environment exerts upon
the history of a people. It will be very helpful to teachers of geography
because it brings out the very core of the subject.
GINN & COMPANY. Publishers
Boston New York Chicago London San Francisco Atlanta Dallas Columbus
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
RULES OF PUBLICATION
The Journal of Geography is an Illustrated Monthly Magazine devoted to the interests
of teachers of geography in elementary, in secondary, and in normal schools. It is
published the fifth of every month, excepting July and August.
Price — The subscription price is one and one-half dollars a year, payable in advance.
Twenty cents a copy.
Postage is Prepaid by the publi-shers for all subscriptions in the United States, Hawai-
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Mexico. For all other countries in the Universal Postal Union add forty cents for
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Change of Address — When a change of address is ordered, both the new and the old
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ond-class mail matter. Subscribers who do not observe this rule will not be sent
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THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Room 560, x6o Adams St., Chicago, Illinois
xu
THE INDEX
Summer Courses in Geography,
193
Surface and Climate of the Loui-
siana Purchase, The, Darton, 251
Tarr, Ralph S., New Physical Geog-
raphy (review), 99, 238
Temperatures, Sensible (note). 343
Texas, Forests and Climate in (note) ,
444
Thwaites, R. G., a Brief History of
Rocky Mountain Exploration with
Especial Reference to the Expedition
of Lewis and Clark (review), 357
Trade and Commerce in Persia
(note), 486
Transportation, Holdsworth, 112,
150. 413
Trans-Siberian Railway, Cost of
Constniction of the (note), 34S
Tree- Dwellers, The, Dopp (review),
139
Trees, Wind-Blown (note), 233
Tropics, Acclimatization of the
White Race in the (note). 443
Trotter, Spencer, Present Indus-
tries Within the Louisiana Pur-
chase, 270
Trotter, Spencer, The Geography of
Commerce (review), 97
True, H. L.. The Cause of the Glacial
Period (review), 99
Tunnel, A Great (note), 432
Value and Development of Irri-
gation in Louisiana Purchase
Tract, Hollistcr, 278
Virginia, The Eastern Shore of
(note), 184
Waterways of Westward Expansion,
Hulbert (review), 53
WiiiTBECK, R. H., Practical Work in
School Geograi)hy, 374
Whitbeck, R. H., Response to Sur-
roundings— A Geographic Prin-
ciple, 409
Whitbeck, R. H.. Slate Geography,
Cause and Effect — Search Ques-
tions (note), 387
White Rack, Acclimatization of in
the Tropics (note), 443
Wind Effects, Jefferson, 3
Winslow, 1. ()., What Should
Graduates from Elementary
Schools Know About Geography?
458
Winter of 1903-04, The, in the
Great Lakes Region (note), 393
World, Commrrcial Geography of the.
Outside the British Isles, Herbert-
son (review), 401
World, Our Proportion of the (note),
234
World's Maritime Statistics, The
(note) ,'90
United States, -Geography
History in the, Brigham,"359
and Yclioicstonc Xational Park, The,
Chittenden (review), 99, 240
■/f New Boofc Which Correlates Geography and History
Geographic loflveoces io Inericaii IlistoiT
By Albert Perry Bri(;ham, Professor of Gto/oj^y in Colgate University.
Cloth. 366 pages. Illustrated. List price, $1.35.
IN this new book Professor Brigham has presented vividly and clearly those physio-
graphic features of America which have been important in guiding the unfolding
of our industrial and national life. The arrangement is mainly geographicaL
Among the themes receivMng special treatment are: The Eastern Gateway of the
United States, The Appalachian Barrier, the Great Lakes and American Commerce,
the Civil War, and Mines and Mountain Life. Closing chapters deal with the unity
and diversity of American life, and with physiography as affecting American destiny.
An opinion from JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN, Teacher of
Geography, State formal School, Los Angeles, CaU
I consider Brigham' s ** Geographic Influences tn American History**
a very strong book. It will be of great value to all teachers of history because
it shows clearly the vital influence which geographic environment exerts upon
the history of a people. It will be very helpful to teachers of geography
because it brings out the very core of the subject.
GINN & COMPANY. Publishers
Boston New York Chicago London San Francisco Atlanta Dallas Columbus
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
RULES OF PUBLICATION
The Journal of Geography is an Illustrated Monthly Magazine devoted to the interests
of teachers of geography in elementary, in secondary, and in normal schools. It is
published the fifth of every month, excepting July and August.
Price — The subscription price is one and one-half dollars a year, payable in advance.
Twenty cents a copy.
Postage is Prepaid by the publishers for all subscriptions in the United States, Hawai-
ian Islands, Philippine Islands, Guam, Porto Rico, Tutuila, Samoa, Canada, and
Mexico. For all other countries in the Universal Postal Union add forty cents for
postage.
Change of Address — When a change of address is ordered, both the new and the old
address must be given. The notice should be sent one week before the change is to
take effect. Subscribers who fail to give notice of change are responsible for pay-
ment for all copies sent until notice is received. The postoffices do not forward sec-
ond-class mail matter. Subscribers who do not observe this rule will not be sent
duplicate copies.
Discontinuances — If a subscriber wishes bis magazine discontinued at the expiration of
his subscription, notice to that effect should be sent direct to the publisher, never to
an agent. Otherwise it is assumed thai a continuance of the subscription is desired.
Do not ask any publisher to discontinue your subscription without paying all
arrearages.
How to Remit — Remittances should be sent by Check, Draft on Chicago, Express
Order, or Money Order, payable to order of The Journal of Geography. Cash
should be sent in Registered Letter.
Letters should be addressed :
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Room 560, 160 Adams St., Chicago, Illinois
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interest of the second year (fifth grade) work. The study of geographical types is
continued, and adds to the interest.
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School Work
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TOPICS : Weekly Class Programs— For all Grammar Grades Including DepartmenUl Work.
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Supplementary Reading In Pri-
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Supplementary Reading In
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Writlnff
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Arithmetic
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Arithmetic of the Last Year.
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Historic Xew York-///Mii/ra<«l.
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Home Geography
T IS THE TASK OF THE
TEACHER OF HOME
GEOGRAPHY TO FIRST,
GIVE THE CHILD AN
ELEMENTARY KNOWL-
EDGE OF THE STATE
AND CONDITIONS OF
HIS HOME; SECONDLY,
TO LET HIM GAIN IN THIS WORK SUCH AN
ELEMENTARY ACQUAINTANCE WITH THE
PRINCIPAL OBJECTS, PROCESSES, AND LAWS
OF GEOGRAPHY AS MAY SERVE AS A BASIS
FOR THE INTELLIGENT STUDY OF THE
WORLD IN HIGHER GRADES; THIRDLY, TO
LEAD HIM, THROUGH THE OBSERVATION
AND REPRODUCTION OF REAL OBJECTS, TO
AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE CONVENTIONAL
LANGUAGE OF CARTOGRAPHY, THAT HE MAY
READ IT AS HE WOULD THE WORDS IN A
BOOK, TO GAIN FROM THE MAP ALL THE
INFORMATION WHICH HE NEEDS AND WHICH
IT CAN GIVE ISXA.— MARTHA KRUG GENTHE.
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. JANUARY, 1904 No. i
WIND EFFECTS
BY MARK S. W. JEFFP:RS0N
ProfeMor of Geography, State Normal College, Ypnilanti, Mich.
THE. following study is the outcome of attempts to improve the
teaching of cHmates by basing climatic features more and
more on weather or other concrete phenomena. We may
regard climate as ideal and weather as concrete, just as spheres are
ideal and balls are concrete. In teaching geometry, a good deal
of difficulty arises from lack of specific effort on the teacher's part to
help the beginner's mind to the ideal and abstract conceptions dealt
with. And climate, as taught in many schools, amounts to little
more than words to be memorized, because of utter lack of grounding
in the real. The facts of the weather arc real, concrete, and observable
everywhere. If these facts are observed and studied, the features
may be learned that characterize our climat(». The drawing of infer-
ences from the facts, however, involves mental processes in which
the beginner needs training. The reasoning ])rocess should carry
conviction. How often we hear a young thinker say, ''Yes; I see that;
but it does not seem as if it could be so." Familiarity with the induc-
tive method is needed to give faith in it, and there is especial need
of ever}^ possible test of the results. For this reason it is desirable
to come to our conclusions by as many roads as we can find.
Supposing it is desired to get the student to believe in our westerly
winds as an important climatic feature. We may work along three
lines:
1. Observe the weather vane and after some months find which
wind has blown oftenest.
2. Study the weather map and make out on it the procession of
highs and lows to eastward.
3. Look at the trees that have grown exposed to the force of the
winds for indication of thrust in one direction rather than in others.
Copyrights igo4, by E. M. Lehnerts
r -.-rfrt'sj. ffaiatttj, hH^kiiff ursl.
1904
WIND EFFECTS
Of the two pictures given, the first is a yellow birch in the Belknap
Mountains in New Hampshire. The trunk is a little inclined to the
west, owing to the common gravitative creep of the soil downhill,
but the growth of the branches suggests a strong eastward movement
of the air, although there was no wind at the time of the exposure.
The whole tree makes one think of the hill as a wind-swept height.
Such trees are not infrequently represented from mountains.* One
thinks of westerly storms as driving; these trees out of shape. So of
Fig. 3. Laurel, Central Park. Havana, looking west.
the windward side of the volcanic Caribbees, Hill says, ''The trade
^ind sweeps them with such ferocity that the vegetation all bends
in a cringing position towards the land.^t
The laurel of the second view stands over the road from Cabanas
fortress. There is no especial reason for speaking of violent winds
here. The tree is near sea level, though exposed to the trade winds
heightened in the daytime by the heating of the land. The "ferocity"
of the trades, in Mr. Hill's language, is suggested rather by the striking
effect than by the winds themselves. The trades are strong rather
than violent. From this same point, by the entrance to Havana harbor,
an avenue called the Prado leads off a little west of south, and down
* Chun, Atis den Tiejen des Weltmeers, p. 160. The pines near Cape Town,
t Hill, Cuba, Porto Rico, etc.. p. 328.
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
this again are seen many notable examples of the tnie-.sided growth
of the vegetal iuD. This is well shown in the laurels and franihoyaiies
of the Central I'ark at the end of the Tratlo. lli^ure 3 is typieaK
But continuity of direction in even rnnderate winds leaves reeord
as definite and unnnstakalde as niountain storms. Our prevalent
westerly wlruls are recorded in the <::rowth of tht^ uiap!f*s from New
England to MichijLran. When the tree is in leaf tlie restdt is a tnie-
sided growth, weJl displayed in Figure 4, while in the twi*! the effeet
is still clearer, as in tlte al>solutely typical cxa tuple froni Ypsilanti.
Figure 5.
About Y|)silaTdi the white poplar points its branches in unison
down the wirul, as does a fine exanii>le of the same tree in the Boston
Public Gardc'u. figure 6 is a poplar at Ypsilanti,
The distinction between ef^ustant and (UfvahiU wiuds ( riters largely
intcj the difTereure la'tvveen liie climates of the trades ami westerly
wind l>elts. which l>cHwe(4i them urcupy the greater portion of the
earth. In the traifps arc clear skies, even teni[>enrtures, -And winds
always in the same <|Uarter. rising and falling with some swinii in
WIND EFFECTS
Fk;. o. White poplar, YpsiUimi. lookiufi north.
direction at the .shore; in the westerlies, spells of fine and spells of
stormy weather, with winds veering and backing through all the points of
the compass. To teach this pro])erly, we must begin with the westerlies
about us. But the westerlies are only an average, only an excess of
one wind direction over others, and a difficulty for beginners lies at
this point.
Suppose that we have gathered observations like those of the
accompanying table, the percentages of the whole year that the wind
is in each direction, at Detroit, for instance.
l)rR.\TioN OF Each Wind Direction in Percentages of
THE Whole Year
iMtitude
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
xw
Calm
Boston
42°
8
9
10
4
7
20
23
19
0
Detroit
42°
5
15
9
7
5
31
13
15
0
San Francisco
38°
6
4
3
8
8
38
23
9
1
Dodge City
38°
13
15
5
24
18
6
4
15
0
Key West
25°
9
22
28
22
6
5
2
6
0
Santiago, Cuba
20°
18
28
4
10
17
10
2
4
7
Santo Domingo
18°
46
9
4
18
7
2
1
11
2
San Juan, P. R.
18°
1
8
39
36
6
5
1
•)
3
Barbados
13°
1
30
48
19
1
1
0
0
(>
Curasao
12^ 0 9 79 11 1 0 0
8
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHV
jAQuary
That is, for 59 |>er cent of the tiine the wind at Detrfnt is either
ill the NW, W, or S\V. Yet a faet tlnit always looks very large to a
beginner is that the wind is NE a.s often as NW, and oftener than it
is west. Morenver 50 per rent is only a little nKure than half the
time. If ho has access to the other numbers, he may find some
r(?assurance in the data for Boston and San Francisco, but he will l>e
certain to seize on Dotl^^^e City as giviiijtc the whole case away. Here
is a place in the latitntle of the westerlies with more east winds than
west! All that this means is that concrete details have a reality thai
Fig. 7, i choatiUi paltu^ tii .':n,iuiu t ru.
■i".' !huTSl.
is not possessed in like degree by the conclusions drawn from them.
If, however, we can now coTiHrm these eonchisions in any way, we
shall strengthen the reasoning ]>r<»cess. A map of the United States
on whicli are laid dr»wn the average directions of all the wintls at all
places adds defi nit en ess here. But as the effects of an excess of one
\\4nd direction are al^sfthilel}* real ami definite^ the evi<lence of the
trees that have been inHuejiced by it in their growth is of the
greatest value in teaching.
Spells of cyclonic and anti-cyclonic weather shoulii be watched
as they go by, with the help f>f the daily weather map, though they
have not for the beginner so nuich reality.
That iempirav zouv is a niisiK>mer for the 1>e]t of westerly winds
has long been known. Probably there is nothing characterizes these
regions so sharply as their wiiuis. i>revailing westerly, but interrupted
by winds from all other ct^mpass jioints in succession. Nrjthing will
WIND KP^FECTS
give a better notion of trade-wind weather than an absence of these
fluctuations. Figures such as those for Curat/ao and Barbados in the
table may be contrasted with the figures for Boston or Detroit to get
this idea. It is easier to grasp the average conditions in the trades
since they occur daily. The other points for w^hich wind directions
are given in the table, however, have their average less distinct. Local
influences such as the direction of the coast line are plainly influential
here. What approach to these facts could be more real than such
pictures as Figure 7?
Where sea and land breezes alternate, the excess in strength of the
sea breeze comes out well in the growth of trees along shore. In some
way, it is desirable to get the picture of these effects into the pupil's
mind. A need for an explanation will then arise.
All this is antipodal to the method by which climates were taught
first, and the weather never reached in teaching it all. As a result,
the ideal thing, climate, existed in our minds as a lot of disconnected
phrases that burdened the memory and left no more definite conceptions
than that the Nile rose in summer or winter — one did not certainly
remember which. The naming our zone Temperale seems only to
rest on the climatic conception of our average temperature, some 60°,
which sounds mild and temperate. Yet the actual weather could
hardly be less temperate, ranging through temperatures from 100°
to - 40°. Nowadays we like to look for vigor and bracing for deeds
in these immoderate ranges. It is in the belt of westerlies, with weather
in spells, that civilization is taking the greatest strides in history, and
there it seems Hkely to make others.
Civilization began in Babylonia and Egypt, in the belt that on
sea is characterized by trade winds. It failed there, to try again in
Mediterranean countries, on the border of the trade and w^esterly
belts. There, too, a few centuries of progress ended in the shock with
barbarism and collapse. With the revival of learning came men who
accomplished things in the belt of westerlies, and there has been
more of human progress in a few hundred years than in all the long past
of the race.
Spain, the land that lay across the border of the belts, lingered in
power into the daw^ning of the new epoch. The trade winds bore
Columbus to America almost irresistibly, when once his mind w^as
made up to go. Clear skies with fair and balmy winds accompanied
him all across the Atlantic. There was no obstacle to his progress
but the fear of the great unknown ocean that opened out wider and
lO THE JOCRXAL OP GEOGRAPHY Jaattarj
wi/Jer Vjf'forf thfrn day after flay. Down the coa^^t of Africa to the
Canaries and Cajje N'erde. and thence straight acrtiss to the Antilles,
the unfailing brer-ze* wafted horde> of Spanish conc|uistadores to Mexico
and Feni- The return was less easy, but any Spanianl who could buy
a ve«i«el and get together a crew Ijecame at once a sea captain and
made his way to the new world of gold and opportunities.
A little farther north, where the English lived, other winds blew.
The Englishman that cn^.seii the Atlantic did so in the face of \iolent
gales. Onlys^'amen dare<l re|>eat the trip. Presently, when the In\in-
cible Armada apfx-ared in the English Channel, and the English came
out in their trim seafaring ships, snug and stanch and well-handled,
as the Spanish shifts were not and could not Ix*. the wind had only to
rise to destroy Spain's pretense at naval power forever. The English
had beffu to the lx*st of schools of seamanship. The Spanish had lived
by a tranquil s<'a. with all this schooling omitteil. In Asia, India has
given promise, but a lK»tter fulfillment seems reserveil for Japan, and,
perhafw, China, in the westerlies. In the new world, too, all the early
hopes were founded on the trade-wind countries in the West Indies.
Mexico, and Peru. To-f lay's fulfillment is all beyond in the westerly
belt, here in our country, in Chile, and the Argentine Republic, as in
South Africa, New Zealand, and southern Australia.
The typical wind effect is not an inclination of the trunk. The
willow often has its trunk inclined to the east and its western branches
fairly over the base of the tree. But this may be in some part due to
the softness of the wet ground that this tree affects, which may yield
somewhat to the force of the wind pulling on the roots. On the St.
Clair Flats, Michigan, the delta of the St. Clair River, willows have
been planted along the l)anks of the United States ship canal, and here
and there about the buildings along the banks of natural channels.
These willows, by their wind effect, enable the traveler to follow the
windings of the canal as readily as a compass in hand. The electric
road from Port Huron to Detroit, on the land just to the west of the
St. Clair River and Lake, touches at the town of Algonac on the Flats
and then, to continue to Detroit, has to make a long detour to west
and north. During a first trip over the line, while the motor rendered
the compass useless, the growth of the I^ombardy poplars along the
roadside seemed unintelligible. Upon examining a map, however, it
became clear that they all showed an admirable wind effect to NE.
The Lombardy poplar often grows erect in the wind.
In orchards, too, the trunks are usually inclined when the ground
WIND EFFECTS
I I
beneath is cultivated, so that in the Michigan Fruit Belt it is the cus-
tom to set out the trees with a lean to the southwest, that they may
be straightened by the wind. Here again it is possible that the cul-
tivation softens the ground so as to allow the inclination in question.
Fig. 8, Willow, Ypsilanti, looking south.
No trees in groves show really typical wind effects, since the outer
trees protect those within. In dense forest growth this causes light
effects to acquire especial importance. The outer trees develop
strongly in every direction away from the center, and those within
reach up vertically for the light, pruning away the lower branches by
failing to nourish them and their leaves. The best trees to examine
are those that have grown in isolated fields, or in open order along
roadsides. The typical effect is a bending or inclining of the Uvigs
to leeward, and for this reason the best season for these studies is after
the fall of the leaf. When trees are leaved out the main effect is a
one-sidedness of the top. Not every tree standing alone has grown
alone. Southern Ontario has many single trees, elms, and others.
12
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
January
along the line of tht* Michigan Central Railn^ad, which seem exce|>
tionally regular in growth. Their naturally pruned trunks and the
abiindaut .stunips about, however, indicate that these trees grew in a
wood ami were protected from the wind. Mo8t trees that grow in the
open brancli frojii near the ground up, and by this they may l>e known.
The residts of this infidification of free growtli are in<iividual with
each kinil of tree. Cotton woods in the country about Ypsilanti seem
to grow uninfluenced by the wind, however exposed their situation.
Figure 9 is a fair example. Yet all the cottonwoods in the Boston
Public (la nien, though less exposed to the wind than many of the trees
at Ypstlanti, incline their branches off distinctly to the east. In the
West Indies the royal palm stands vertical and columnar, though in
this case, strangely enough^ the newest leaf, rolled into a tight cane
at the summit of the tree, leans slightly against the wind, as if some
force that availed to keep the trunk nprigVit against the wind-thmst,
bent this lender shoot over backward. In tlie picture, Figure 10, the
*#*'i
^ #»
Fig. 0. Cottotituood at wesi t-uJ ,' ( 'ro::s >fr.,.' brjd)^i\ Ypsihfiti, htokirin north.
leaves are actually driven to one side by the trade \viml which is blowing,
and the new leaf or penacho of each tree is incUned to the northeast,
from which direction the wind was blowing. This w^as found to be
an almost invariable ni!e with thousands of these trees examined this
L
M
WIND EFFECTS
13
Fig. 10, Royal palms near Cardenas, Cuba, looking northwest.
summer in Cuba. While the oottonwood, at least about Ypsilanti, is
thus resistant to wind effects, its cousin, the white i)oplar, shows them
in a high degree. Indeed, while a careful observer has no difficulty
in distinguishing the two trees, a novice would ask no better guide
than the degree in which they yield to the influence of the wind.
In the poplar, curves are strongly developed. On the east side of
the tree, the branches form curves concave to the ground. On the
west, vertical lines would cut not a few branches in two points w^th
the curve between concave to the east, so strongly are they bent to
leeward as they grow\ (See Figure 6.) In this case it is a branch
effect rather than a twig effect, while the individuality of the poplar
comes out in the curve. The Ypsilanti poplars show these forms,
even when poorly exposed to the wind, and reference has already been
made to the one in the Boston Public Garden.
The maple succeeds better in rearing its greater branches vertically
into the air. There is a djstinct curving here, too, in the more slender
branches, but much less in degree. The maple runs to slender and hair-
like twigs, and the development of the twigs is almost horizontal on
the east side of the tree and vertical on the west, as if they had been
combed upward on one side and outward on the other. (See Figure 5
and the tailpiece.) Maples give excellent wind effects everywhere
that I have observed them. If there are any about Dodge City, Kansas,
it would be of interest to know how they grow.
Elms, too, are available for observation through a wide stretch
Fio. II, Elm. sQUtliiL'ist cornef of Boston Cc^mmmi looking north across BoylstQn Street.
of this country. The elm branches grow longer to eastward than to
wTstwardy whieli enables the slender ends to hang nearer the groivnd
on the east. The trunk stands almost in%'ariably to west of the mid
tree-top. A fine example stands near the oKl burial ground on Boston
Common, The twig effect on the elm is not unlike that of the maple,
but the greater length of the pendulous end twigs takes away the
appearance of combing upward on the w-est side. The tips of the
lower limbs on both sides hang directly dtnvnward, but toward the
I
WIND EPPECTS
'5
top of the tree tlie efTects are alniost identical with those observeil mi
the maple. The crown of the elm, however, is flat. The Boston elm
was photographed in September while still in leaf. Figure 12 is an
example in twig, A pliotograph of the same tree from the west is
quite symmetrical.
Fu> I?. Ehn at YfisHnnti. lookinf! h<tt//i.
The oak and the hickory show the same excess in h^nglh of eastern
over western branrhes, and the eastern ones also nsnally spring out
more nearly horizontally. This appears very well in Figures 13 and
14, wliieh arc tyi>icaL Orcasiunally the oak shows a curving of its
branches, but the type is stilT, crooking a little on either side of straight
lines. The hickory brancli is excessively crnf>ked. Another crooked
Vjranched tree is the sycamore, or buttonw(»od, as shown in the tail-
piece. Hut the crooks of the s^^amore are rather in the smaller twigs.
and the twigs are more of the combed type, as in the maple, having a
considerable approach to parallelism, while the twigs of the hickory
present a mere tangle. The \vind effect on the liiekory is thus a matter
of one-sided ness, dependent on length of branch. In the sycamore
it is equally evident in the ilirection of the twigs.
The bhick walnut also usually shows a greater development of top
to leeward. A tulip tree east of the soldiers* monument in Boston
this sort by standing in the middle of a .street that ruri8 north and
south and looking along the street. It will be found in this eomitry
that tlie meeting of the branc^hes overhead is well to east of the middle
of the road. The Charles Street mall of Boston Common offers a
trood ilhiytration. The Ceiba or silk cotton tree is regarded In* the
Cubans as their national tree. It gri»ws alone in the plains, with
trunk rhbiii naked a considerable height to tfie thick top whieh is
always strongly developed to leeward.
Our pines and spruees comtnonly grow in woods or clusters and so
are little atifected by tlie winds. Even in the Now Hampshire fulls
only excejitioiial examjvles were found. Creole pines may be seen
planted in ttie gar<lens about Havana showing admirable effects. The
arbor vitaes (thuyas) in the garden at Cardenas all lean to westward.
But tliis garden is a new one, cornnnMUorating with its monument the
dead of the recent war. So the trees have probably been planted
within the last four or hve years, and may have l»een simply pushed
to one side before the roots got a firm hold on the grouinL It is curious
that the wind-thrust on these trees has Iteen from the east, as in all
cases near the shore at Cartlenas, while the northeast side of each tree
has a blighted look, as if the l:>ranehes f>n that side had been killed by
some storm from the northeast. S^nnething of this IjUghted hiok may be
seen in the picture.
In fact J both east and northeast winds prevail in northern Cuba.
From an examination of the records of the United States Weather
1
WIND EFFECTS
19
Bureau at Havana for the years 1900, 1901, and 1902, it appears that
the wind is in the east fifteen hours a day and in the northeast the
rest of the time. This is true summer and winter. The seasonal
differences are slight. But it appears that the greatest force is during
the time that the northeast wind is blowing, so that five or six more
miles of wind go by during the briefer period. It is from 11 a. m. to
7 p. M. that the Brisa blows, when the sun has heated up the ground.
It is, therefore, to be regarded as a true sea breeze. Occasionally a
land breeze springs up during the night. At other times it merely
falls off in velocity and settles back into the east. The following
table gives the data for every other hour:
Average Wind Direction and Velocity at Havana,
1900, 1901, \ND 1902
a. m. p. m.
Time 13579 11 135 79 11
Direction E E E E E NE NE NE NE NE E E
Miles per hour 7.7 7.3 7.2 7.4 10.1 13.2 15.1 16.6 15.5 12.6 10.3 8.9
Fig. 17. White birch on the west slope of Baldfacc, Gilford.
looking, north-northwest.
The east wind has an average velocity of 8.4 miles an hour; the
northeast, 14.6. The vegetation suggests the northeast winds for
most points between Havana and Cardenas, but shore places at Cardenas
and Matanzas indicate easterly winds. Such studies may afford a
20 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
method of determining prevalent winds in regions meteorologically
unexplored.
Light effects on tree growth are of much interest in connection with
these wind studies. Trees tend to grow strongly toward the light. A
singular example of an elm on the flood plain of the Huron, south of
Ypsilanti, i^dth a strong top growth to the northwest, was found to
have alongside it the stump of a cut-away mate that had prevented
it from developing to eastward. But more has been attributed to
light effect than observation warrants. White poplars may be found
close to the west of a house, but growing strongly toward it. Such
observations as have l>een made seem to justify the statement that
light usually has less effect on trees fairly exposed to the wind than
the wind does. When they work in opposite directions the light
effect is masked by that of the wind. It is not certain that the direct
sunlight has more influence on tree growth than the diffuseil light of
the sky. If it were, east and west rows of trees should have a greater
development to the south. Is this observed?
An interesting persistence of wind effect is seen in Figure 17. Appar-
ently hillside creep has caused the trunk to lean downhill, as the earth
yielded beneath it. As there was free exposure to Hght and wind the
twigs have continued to grow over to eastward. There is no sign of
a stump or branch lost from the east side.
I ])eheve school teachers who are willing to go out-of-<.ioors will
find value in observations like these.
r -I-
V.'
A SCHEME OF GEOGRAPHY *~
BY WILLIAM M. DAVIS,
I*rofe»9or of Geology. Harvard Unireraity, Cambridge, Mom.
THERE is a certain profit in looking forward to the time when
the Earth and its inhabitants shall have been so well studied
that if all then known about them were put in print, the volumes
thus formed would include the whole content of geography. The
material there gathered might be arranged follo\\ing either one of two
♦ Reprinted by permission of the author from The Geographical Journal, October,
1903.
I904 A SCHEME OF GEOGRAPHY 2 1
plans. According to one plan, everything about a certain country
would be brought together; this would make a treatise on regional
geography. According to the other plan, all things of the same kind
would be brought together; this would constitute a treatise on sys-
tematic geography. Under either plan, convenience would be served
by adopting some reasonable scheme that might be invented for the
arrangement of the parts into which the subject might be divided.
Under regional geography, for example, the arrangement might be
according to the continents and their political subdivisions. Under
systematic geography, the arrangement might follow the usual order
of globe, atmosphere, oceans, lands, inhabitants. Under each plan,
use would be made of the other as a secondary guide. All the items
under Mexico in a regional treatise should follow a systematic order
of presentation; while all examples of a certain kind of lakes in a sys-
tematic treatise should follow a regional order of presentation.
A complete geographical treatise, regional or systematic, would
be inconveniently bulky. Abbreviated editions would be in demand,
and they might be abbreviated in several ways. In one way, unim-
portant or inconspicuous items would be omitted, and important or
conspicuous items retained, wherever or whatever they might be. Tn
another way, remote items might be omitted and home items retained.
In a third way, difficult items would be omitted and elementary items
retained. Thus hand books and school books would be developed.
There can be little doubt that the abbreviated or simplified editions
would gain in value with the approach to completeness of the treatises
on which they were based, as well as with the competence of their
authors. A hundred years ago the best geographies were necessarily
silent concerning the then extensive unexplored parts of the world.
To-day the best geographies contain a much larger body of information
than their predecessors, but they are still silent concerning many of
the more advanced problems of geography. A hundred years hence
there may be still much to learn, but great progress will by that time
have been made in the more philosophical phases of geography, to
which attention is not yet sufficiently directed. It is with the object
of calling attention to some of these phases that this note is written.
The direction in which geographical progress is to be made in the
next hundred years may perhaps be forecast from the direction of
progress in the last hundred. Geography used to be a ''study of the
Earth and its inhabitants." Items were brought together in great
number; they were described more or less empirically; but there was
22 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY January
no sufficient effort made to explain and to correlate them. Correlation
was greatly promoted by Ritter and his followers. Geography then
became, not simply a study of independent' items, but a study of the
Earth and its inhabitants in their mutual relations. With the advance
of science in general, the description of geographical items became
more and more explanatory; but progress in the larger problems of
correlation was retarded for half a century by the prevalence of a
teleological philosophy, and until this was replaced by the doctrine
of evolution, the modern phase of geography could not be reached.
In its present modern phase, geography is essentially concerned
with the rational correlation of the items that fall under its two parts:
on the one hand, the items of inorganic conditions that constitute the
physical environment of living forms ; and on the other hand, the items
of organic response made by living forms to their environment. The
first of these two parts is commonly called physical geography. In
the United States this term is coming to be condensed into physiog-
raphy.* The second part has no name; it includes certain phases of
political and commercial geography, and it goes much further than
either, because it is concerned with all forms of life instead of only
with man and what is useful to him. It will here be called ontography;
the main root of the word corresponding to that of paleontology, and
the termination agreeing with that of physiography and of geography.
Thus understood, geography is concerned with the combination of
physiography and ontography; that is, with the correlation between
inorganic environment and organic response. Individual items, such
as the course of an ocean current, the path of a valley, the area of a
forest, the population of a village, fall under the physiographic or the
ontographic division of tlie subject, and must there be studied as
carefully and rationally as possible ; but they will fail to attain a truly
geographic quality as long as they are treated independently, instead
of being brought into proper correlation with their fellows. The
physiographic items, regarded as elements of controlling environment,
must be associated in thorough-going geographical work with the
ontographic responses that they have evoked. The ontographic items,
regarded as responses to environing conditions, must be associated
with the physiographic controls by which they have been governed.
The course of a current will affect the distribution of living forms or
* Thus employed, physiography is not directly concerned with astronomy and
geology, or with physics and chemistry, as it has come to be, unfortunately, in my
opinion, in England.
A SCHEME OF GEOGRAPHY
23
the lines of navigation; the path of a valley will determine the location
of roads and villages; the area of a forest is the response to latid form,
chmate, and soil ; the population of a village depends on many environ-
ing factors.
No full measure of geographical treatment will be reached by the
student who restricts his work either to the inorganic or to the organic
half of the subject. Those who wish to train themselves to be fully
equipped geographers should gain not only the capacity, but also the
habit of giving due attention to ontography and physiography com-
bined. The best geographical works to-day clearly enough exhibit
the beginning of this double consideration of their subject, but they
usually fall short of carrying the treatment thoroughly and uniformly
over all aspects of the subject, and they commonly fail to show that
their plan of treatment has been adopted in accordance with a suffi-
ciently comprehensive view of geography as a whole. It is still usual
in the best modem books to find many facts described as if they were
lonesome, individual occurrences, instead of members of a recognized
class, and to find their description closed before they have been sys-
tematically correlated with their responses or their controls.
The quality of geography, as a whole, may be presented and empha-
sized by a simple graphic device that experience has shown to have
some value. Imagine the four frameworks, E, A, 0, L, Figure 1, to
24 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
stand in a vertical plane over the line EL, and to contain compartments
for all the topics of systematic physiography under the larger headings
of the Earth as a globe, tfie atmosphere, the oceans, and the lands.
The compartments may be taken to represent types, with respect to
which actual examples arc classified. It may be briefly pointed out,
although it is not intended to delay here in explaining all the practical
value of this part of the device, that the observer is greatly aided in
his work if he carries mentally into his field of study a well-arranged
framework on which the types that embody the results of all previous
investigations are carefully defined and arranged; for there can be no
question that the habitual treatment of every observed physiographic
item as far as possible as a member of a known class, is a most practical
and serviceable aid in field observation and record. The framework
must not be imagined to represent a rigid and unchangeable scheme;
it should be elastic and adjustable, constantly modified in response
to accepted suggestions for improvement as investigation progresses.
Physiography is, to-day, relatively well developed; and the classi-
fication of its parts representablo in a framework is fairly well advanced,
although, for that matter, there is yet by no means so general an
agreement among physiographers, with respect to the systematic sub-
division and arrangement of the items with which they have to deal,
as there is among botanists and zoologists with respect to the syste-
matic classification of plants and animals. Some physiographers, for
example, treat rivers and oceans in one division apart from the lands;
others treat oceans and coasts together, before the lands have been
studied; but both these plans are fortunately unusual. Ontography,
on the other hand, has hardly any recognized scheme of treatment;
it has still to be systematically studied. The framework on the
farther side of Figure 2, by which a classification of organic responses
is here roughly indicated, must therefore be taken for the present as
suggesting what may yet be done ratlier than as representing what
has already })cen done in this direction.
Even the limits of ontography are not yet agreed upon, and in
considering with historians, zoologists, and botanists how far this
division of geography may be reasonably extended, it is sometimes
the case that one encounters certain indications of jealousy and accu-
sations of trespass. Here, however, as in other sciences, it is not so
much the object studied as the relation in which it is studied that
determines its place in a scientific classification. The same object
may be studied in its varied relations under several different sciences.
1904
A SCHEME OF GEOGRAPHY 25
Surely history, zoology, and botany make use of geographical items
so often that there can be httle ground of just complaint if geography
finds occasion to examine facts that are comm.only associated with
these other divisions of knowledge.
The most reasonable method of determining the limits of ontography
seems to be the following: Select certain examples of undoubtedly
ontographic facts, and then, under the principle of continuity, follow
the lead of the classes to which these facts belong as far as they can
be traced; otherwise the limits must be arbitrary or conventional.
Thus there will be found certain facts that are indisputably and cen-
trally ontographic, while others are peripheral, and are more or less
shared with other sciences; but in the latter case, all the sciences
concerned are equally trespassers. These abstract considerations may
be illustrated to advantage by some concrete examples.
The location of a village at the head of a bay on the sea-coast must
be considered by every one to be a geographic item, and, according to
ihe plan here presented, it will fall under the ontographic half of the
subject. In old-fashioned geography, such an item would have been
empirically stated, without explanation of its meaning; in more
modem geography, it would be rationally described as an example of
a class of responses in which man\s way of doing things is determined
by his physiographic surroundings. Need having arisen of interchange
between land and sea (this itself being an important ontographic matter),
the coast line gains importance because it separates two kinds of
activities; and protected points on the shore line, such as bay heads,
become of exceptional importance, because here the interchange
between the two kinds of activities can be effected with the least
difficulty. Now, the essential quality of this item is that certain
organic inhabitants of the Earth have found it to their advantage to
be guided in certain actions by the conditions of their inorganic environ-
ment. Hence, under the principle of continuity, every other item in
which an organism is thus guided to act in certain ways is also of an
essentially ontographic quality. Tt matters not whether the organism
is man, animal, or plant, whether the action is conscious or unconscious,
whether it is of great or little importance; the essential feature is that
the item must involve a response or reaction of organism to environ-
ment. It is only by adopting an arbitrary limit for ontography, and
hence also for geography, that anj-'thing narrower than this broad
definition can be regarded as indicating its field.
The whole content of ontography, thus broadly defined, is not
26 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
known, because its field has not yet been carefully examined; but
enough is already known to show that the subject is of great and
varied interest. It may be reviewed in two ways: All kinds of itenois
found in the physiographic framework may be examined as to their
responses in the organic world; or all kinds of organisms may be exam-
ined to see how far their structures, actions, and distribution are
responses to physiographic controls. For example, in response to the
important physiographic control of gravity, one finds the development
of dorsal and ventral structures in many animals ; those which escape
this control are the minute organisms that are wafted about in the
atmosphere, and the jelly-like organisms that float indifferently in
one attitude or another in water. Again, one finds many details of
bony structure and muscular arrangement adapted to support the
body against the pull of its weight. The habit of building walls ver-
tical, and of grading railroads nearly horizontal come under the
same control. Even language is affected indirectly, as in such adjec-
tives as grave and upright, in their figurative meanings. On the other
hand, one finds in the growth of trees the responses to many controls —
to gravity and the search for ground water in the growth of the roots;
to gravity and the search for light and air in the growth of the stem;
to form of land surface and depth and character of soil, as well as to
various elements of climate in the determination of distribution.
It is evident that in most cases the responses above mentioned are
not the result of the immediate adjustment of organism to environ-
ment, but of a gradual adjustment through long periods of past time,
perpetuated through inheritance, provided the controlling conditions
and need of adjustment still persist. The use of oxygen in respiration,
universal in all plants and animals, is a case in point. This habit
must be taken as indicating the presence of free oxygen in the ocean
(dissolved) or in the atmosphere since the earliest geological periods
from which fossils are preserved; the habit persists because the need
and the opportunity still endure. The fur of many land mammals
is a response to chmatic controls; but in the marine mammals, that
are in all probability descended from fur-bearing ancestors, the fur is
replaced by blubber. Examples of more immediate adjustment are
chiefly found in actions, as when horses and cattle on the western
semi-arid plains of the United States wear paths from pasturing uplands
to watering-places in the valleys, and yet here, as before, habit formed
through long inheritance is the mainspring of action.
The classification employed in the ontographic framework may,
X904
A SCHEME OP GEOGRAPHY
27
in view of what has now been said, be imagined to follow either one of
two plans. In one plan, all the responses to one kind of control are
gathered in a single compartment, and there would be as many onto-
graphic as physiographic compartments; this plan is followed in Figure
2. In the other plan, each compartment would correspond to a kind
of organism, and there would be as many compartments as might be
needed to contain the subdivisions of the vegetable and animal king-
doms. Whichever plan is adopted, there can be little doubt that when
fllJtIife
3*5 si
riG. 2.
ontography is as well developed as physiography, geography will be
greatly advanced. That stage of the development of our subject may
be represented in Figure 3, in which the correlation of physiographic
and ontographic items is indicated by lines that stretch across from
one framework to the other, the first of the above-mentioned two plans
for ontographic classification being here again illustrated. The con-
scious recognition and discussion of the correlations thus indicated
graphically by the cross-lines is indispensable for the full development
of modern geography.
It should be noted in passing, but for the present only in the
briefest manner, that there are innumerable correlations to be found
also among the items of each framework, considered alone. For exam-
ple, London markets are to-day supplied with meat products from
28
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
January
Argentina and Australia, where herds of cattle and flocks of sheep find
cheap pasture on broad plains fit for few other uses than grazing:
these are correlations among items on the ontographic framew^ork.
On the other hand, the cliffs of Cornwall result from the interaction
of waves driven by winds excited by sunshine and of currents involved
in tides excited by lunar attraction, on the rocky structures exposed
FIG. 3.
along the present coast line by crustal movements. Again, in a
maturely dissected region, such as the Piedmont belt of North Carolina,
one may recognize the wonderfully delicate interdependence of hillside
slopes, soil creep, stream wash, and river work that is involved in the
thoroughly organized condition of the drainage systems there estab-
lished. Both these examples exhibit correlations of items on the physi-
ographic framework. None of those correlations are, however, shown
in the diagrams, for fear of too great a confusion of lines. With this
digression, we may return to the consideration of Figure 3.
Imagine now a vertical piano, MN, parallel to the planes of the two
I904 A SCHEME OF GEOGRAPHY 29
frameworks and midway between them. This new plane will be
intersected by all the cross-lines of correlation, and the summary of
all the points of intersection may be taken to exhibit the whole content
of systematic geography. The plane may be shifted towards one of
the other frameworks, if it is desired to give greater emphasis to one
or to the other part of geography, but the well-balanced geographer
will doubtless prefer to hold a plane midway in a position as here
indicated. In case the biological classification of ontographic items
were adopted, the lines of correlation would not be parallel; a group
of lines would radiate from each kind of physiographic control in the
framework to all of its ontographic responses, and various lines from
numerous kinds of controls would be focused on the kind of organism
in the further framework that responded to them.
It was stated above that this graphic device has been found by
experience to have some value in indicating the compound nature
of geography, as it is here defined, and in illustrating the relation of
its parts. It has a further value, namely, an aid in the practical
analysis of a geographer's work. If, in the course of exploration or other
study, an item of physiographic nature is found, the geographer must
at once seek to place it in its proper relation to all other physiographic
items, and to discover all the ontographic responses that it has excited.
If an ontographic item is discovered, its physiographic controls must
be sought for. The correlations between the two must be studied out.
This may seem so simple, so manifest, that it is hardly worth the
saying; yet if any standard work on geography is examined and ana-
lyzed, it will be found far from complete in the sense of completeness
here indicated. The work undoubtedly will give, more or less explicitly,
many examples of correlation betw^een controlling environment and
responding organism, and it will thus confirm more or less clearly the
compound nature of geography here exposed; but it will be only by
way of rare exception that both phases of the subject are systemat-
ically presented, and that the correlations between them are consciously
and completely analyzed. Exploration, in so far as matters of occur-
rence and location are concerned, has now been w^ell advanced; explo-
ration, in so far as thorough analysis of cause and effect, is concerned,
still affords plentiful opportunity for the investigator. There can be
little question that studious observation and thorough record will be
greatly aided when some such method of analysis as is here indicated
shall have become familiar and habitual.
A few illustrations may be given to exhibit the breadth of geography,
30 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
when it is expanded by the due consideration of its many parts. One
is taken from an account of the oasis of Suf, in the Algerian Sahara,
by Brunhes of Freiburg. This obser\'er points out a relation between
the sandy surface of the oasis and the character of the people, as follows:
Every walking animal leaves its track in the sand, and from this follows
an extraordinary skill on the part of the natives in tracking men and
beasts; individual footprints can be recognized and followed through
a confusion of crossing trails, where the untrained eye of a European
would be unable to distinguish one track from another. As a result,
theft is said to be less common in the sandy Suf than in the stony oases;
the thief is so surely tracked and found that thie^dng is. unprofitable.
Another example is furnished by Lug^on of Lausanne, who describes
the relation between villages and alluvial fans in the higher valleys
of the Alps. The fans offer the best sites for occupation ; nearly every
fan has its own village, each with its own organization, and the distri-
bution of villages depends closely upon the distribution of fans. As
most of the fans are of small area, most of the villages must be of small
size. An earher writer has instanced the development of these small
village communities as illustrating the innate spirit of independence
in the Swiss people; But Lug(5on points out that small communities
necessarily result from the small fans, and then aptly inquires whether
the spirit of independence is not more probably a consequence than a
cause of the subdivision of village communities.
Instances of this sort might be given in great number. Baku, the
petroleum port on the arid shores of the Caspian, has rapidly grown
to a population of something like one hundred fifty thousand souls in
consequence of the discovery and exploitation of rock oil near by.
So large a population needs an abundant water-supply, not easily to
be had in a region of so dr>^ a climate as that of western Asia. Water
could be brought at a considerable expense from a river over fifty miles
away, but capitalists hesitate to undertake the construction of so long
an aqueduct for a city whose population will mostly move away when
the oil-wells give out; hence, at present, the local supply from wells of
unsatisfactory quality is supplemented by distillation from the brackish
Caspian, oil fuel being very cheap, and an ingenious system of boiling
and condensation producing four pounds of distilled water for one
pound of fuel. Nowhere else in the world is a distillery nm on so large
a scale and w'th so temperate an object ! And who shall say that Baku's
rapid growth and uncertain life, as well as its peculiar water-supply,
are not ontographic items?
1904 A SCHEME OF GEOGRAPHY ^l
It is not intended to assert that all the examples of cause and con-
sequence that might be given are established beyond dispute, but
rather that they show the importance of making a thorough collection,
a careful analysis, and a systematic classification of all such examples
in order to carry forward the development of geography and to discover
its entire content. Evidently errors may be made in speculations of
this kind; for example, it does not seem safe to follow the statement
of a famous geographer to the effect that the (supposed) taciturnity
of the American Indian resulted from the darkness of the forest in
which he lived. It is on the careful analysis of abundant observations,
rather than on the refusal to speculate as to cause and consequence,
that geography will thrive.
It is desirable that geography should be presented, even to beginners,
as a subject involving the correlation of physiographic and ontographic
items. When the globular form of the Earth is taught, that is the time
to point out how largely the modern development of commerce results
from the nearly level form that a globe alone possesses. When the
size of the Earth is taught, that is the time for telling about the effects
of its size in isolating savage races, and thus producing differences of
language and customs, as well as for showing how greatly modern means
of transportation and communication have overcome the earlier effects
of isolation. With the form and rotation of the Earth there should be
immediately associated the modern habit of laying out the boundaries
of unsurv^eyed territories, as in North America, Australia, and Africa,
along the meridians and parallels; and so on through the whole subject.
Thus the young student may be thoroughly infected with the idea of
correlation, and from such an introduction to geography he may more
probably contribute afterwards to its advancement than if he has been
taught in the old-fashioned empirical way, or in the more modern
method of imperfectly developed correlation.
The most important steps towards the fuller development of geog-
raphy, therefore, seem to be: First, the formation of the habit of looking
for correlations of physiographic and ontographic items; and, second,
the development of a well-considered classification of all items, physio-
graphic and ontographic, so that all may be considered in reference to
their fellows.
32 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY January
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Some Facts About Panama. — The commerce of Panama amounts
to about three million dollars per annum; its population to about three
hundred thousand, and its area to 31,571 square miles, or nearly equal
to that of the State of Indiana. These figures are the latest available
data on commerce, population, and area. Those of commerce are from
the reports of the United States consuls at Panama and Colon, which
have just been received, and not yet published; those of population are
based upon the latest official estimate, which shows the population in
1881, and was based upon the census of 1871 ; while the figures of area
are from accepted geographical authorities and are those of the area of
the "Department of Panama" of the Colombian Repubhc. The prin-
cipal ports are Panama, on the Pacific coast, and Colon, on the Atlantic
side, and these ports are visited annually by more than one thousand
vessels, which land over one million tons of merchandise and nearly
one hundred thousand passengers, chiefly for transfer over the Panama
Railway, forty-seven miles in length, connecting the Pacific port of
Panama with the Atlantic port of Colon.
Colon, or Aspinwall, as it is sometimes called, has a population of
about three thousand persons. The city of Panama has a population
of about twenty-five thousand. It was founded in 1519, burned in
1671, and rebuilt in 1673, while Colon is of much more recent date,
having been founded in 1855.
The population, which, as already indicated, amounts in number
to about three hundred thousand, is composed of various elements —
Spanish, Indian, Negro, and a limited number of persons from the
European countries and the United States, especially those engaged in
commerce and transportation, and the operation of the Panama railway.
A considerable number of the population is composed of persons
brought to the isthmus as laborers for the construction of the canal,
and of their descendants. Since the abohtion of slavery in Jamaica^
a considerable number of blacks and mulattoes have settled on the
isthmus as small dealers and farmers, and in some villages on the
Atlantic side they are said to be in the majority, and, as a result, the
English language is much in use, especially on the Atlantic side. Some
of the native population have retained their customs, speech, and
physical type, especially those in the western part of the province, and
X904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
claim to be descendants of the natives found in that section by the
Spaniards when they discovered and conquered the country.
Of the commerce of Panama, the United States supplies a larger
share than any other country. The importations at the port of Colon
during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1903, as shown by the report of
the United States consul, amounted to $952,684, of which $614,179
was from the United States, $119,086 from France, $118,322 from
England, $76,386 from Germany. The figures of the fiscal year 1903
show a considerable increase from those of 1902, in which the value of
the imports at Colon were $776,345. Of the $614,179 imports from
the United States at Colon in 1903, $200,744 was dry goods, $189,333
provisions, $59,890 coal, $38,642 lumber, $32,900 kerosene, $30,400
liquors, and $31,940 hardware. The value of the importations from
the United States in 1903 exceeded those of 1902 by about one hundred
sixty thousand dollars. The exports to the United States from Colon
in 1903 amounted to $173,370, of which $75,432 was bananas, $54,960
cocoanuts, $12,472 turtle shells, $9,400 ivory nuts, $6,460 hides, and
$5,924 coffee.
From the port of Panama the exports to the United States in the
fiscal year 1903 amounted to $193,342, of which $56,767 was hides,
$49,974 india rubber, $27,805 cocobolo nuts, $16,598 ivory nuts,
$13,372 deerskins, and $6,908 coffee. The consul at Panama states
that the imported articles come mostly from England, Germany, France,
Italy, and the United States, but gives no statistics of the imports.
Panama is connected with San Francisco by a weekly steamer
schedule operated by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company, and with
Valparaiso by a weekly steamer schedule operated by the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company and South American Steamship Company. Two
passenger and two freight trains leave Panama daily for Colon, and
Colon daily for Panama. The time for passenger trains over the forty-
seven miles of railway is three hours.
From Panama there is one cable line north to American ports,
and one to the south. The actual time consumed in communicating
with the United States, and receiving an answer, is stated by the consul
to be usually about four hours. There are also cable lines from Colon
to the United States and Europe.
The money of the country is silver, the rate of exchange having
averaged during the past year about 150 per cent. — Bureau of Statistics,
Department of Commerce and Labor.
34 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY January
The Ship Canals of the World. — The ship canals of the world are
nine in number, as follows:
(1) The Suez Canal, begun in 1859 and completed in 1869.
(2) The Kronstadt and St. Petersburg Canal, begun in 1877 and
completed in 1890.
(3) The Corinth Canal, begun in 1884 and completed in 1893.
(4) The Manchester Ship Canal, completed in 1894.
(5) The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, connecting the Baltic and North
Seas, completed in 1895.
(6) The Elbe and Trave Canal, connecting the North Sea and
Baltic, opened in 1900.
(7) The Welland Canal, connecting Lake Erie with Lake Ontario.
(8 and 9) The two canals, United States and Canadian, respectively,.
connecting Lake Superior with Lake Huron.
THE SUEZ CANAL
The Suez Canal is usually considered the most important example
of ship canals, though the number of vessels passing through it annu-
ally does not equal that passing through the canals connecting Lake
Superior with the chain of great lakes at the south. In length, how-
ever, it exceeds any of the other great ship canals, its total length
being ninety miles, of which about two-thirds is through shallow lakes.
The material excavated was usually sand, though in some cases strata
of sohd rock, from two to three feet in tliickness, were encountered.
The total excavation was about 80,000,000 cubic yards under the
original plan, which gave a depth of twenty-five feet. In 1895, the
canal was so enlarged as to give a depth of thirty-one feet, a width
at the bottom of 108 feet, and at the surface of 420 feet. The original
cost was $95,000,000, and for the canal in its present form slightly in
excess of $100,000,000. The number of vessels passing through the
canal in 1870 was 486, with a gross tonnage of 654,915 tons; in 1875,
1,494 vessels, gross tonnage, 2,940,708 tons; in 1880, 2,026 vessels,
gross tonnage, 4,344,519 tons; in 1890, 3,389 vessels, gross tonnage,
9,749,129 tons; in 1895, 3,434 vessels, gross tonnage, 11,833,637 tons;
and in 1900, 3,441 vessels, with a gross tonnage of 13,699,237 tons.
The revenue of the canal is apparently large in proportion to its
cost, the Statesman's Yearbook for 1901 gi\ing the net profits of 1899
at 54,153,660 francs, and the total amount distributed among the
shareholders 51,538,028 francs, or about 10 per cent of the estimated
cost of $100,000,000.
lyn GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 35
The canal is without locks, being at the sea level the entire distance.
The length of time occupied in passing through the canal averages
about eighteen hours. By the use of electric Hghts throughout the
entire length of the canal, passages are made at night with nearly
equal faciUty to that of the day. The tolls charged are 9 francs per
ton net register, "Danube measurement/' which amounts to slightly
more than $2 per ton United States net measurement. Steam vessels
passing through the canal are propelled by their own power.
THE KRONSTADT AND ST. PETERSBURG CANAL
The canal connecting the Bay of Kronstadt with St. Petersburg is
described as a work of great strategic and commercial importance to
Russia. The canal and sailing course in the Bay of Kronstadt are
about sixteen miles long, the canal proper being about six miles and
the bay channel about ten miles, and they together extend from Kron-
stadt, on the Gulf of Finland, to St. Petersburg. The canal was opened
in 1890 with a navigable depth of 20i feet, the original depth having
been about nine feet ; the width ranges from 220 to 350 feet. The total
cost is estimated at about $10,000,000.
THE CORINTH CANAL
The next of the great ship canals connecting bodies of salt water,
in the order of date of construction, is the Corinth Canal, which connects
the Gulf of Corinth with the Gulf of /Egina. The canal reduces the
distance from Adriatic ports about 175 miles and from Mediterranean
ports about 100 miles. Its length is about four miles, a part of which
was cut through granitic soft rock and the remainder through soil.
There are no locks, as is also the case in both the Suez and Kronstadt
Canals already described. The width of the canal is seventy-two feet
at bottom and the depth 26J feet. The work was begun in 1884 and
completed in 1893 at a cost of about $5,000,000. The average tolls
are 18 cents per ton and 20 cents per passenger.
THE MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL
The Manchester Ship Canal, which connects Manchester, England,
with the Mersey River, Liverpool, and the Atlantic Ocean, was opened
for traffic January 1, 1894. The length of the canal is 35^ miles, the
total rise from the \vater level to Manchester being sixty feet, which
is divided between four sets of locks, giving an average to each of fifteen
feet. The minimum width is 120 feet at the bottom and averages 175
feet at the water level, though in places the width is extended to 230 feet.
36 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
The minimum depth is twenty-six feet, and the time required for navi-
gating the canal, from five to eight hours. The total amount of excava-
tion in the canal and docks was about 45,000,000 cubic yards, of
which about one-fourth was sandstone rock. The lock gates are operated
by hydraulic power; railways and bridges crossing the route of the
canal have been raised to give a height of seventy-five feet to vessels
traversing the canal, and an ordinary canal, whose route it crosses, is
carried across by a springing aqueduct composed of an iron caisson
resting upon a pivot pier. The total cost of the canal is given at
$75,000,000. The revenue in 1901, according to the Statesman's
Yearbook, was £621,128, and the working expenses, £483,267. For
the half year ending June 30, 1900, the canal yielded £16,488 toward
paying the £112,500 of interest which the city of Manchester has to
pay on the capital invested in the enterprise. The freight-paying tolls
on the canal amounted to 1,487.841 tons in the half year, an increase
of 12 per cent over that of the corresponding period of the preceding
year.
THE KAISER WILHELM CANAL
Two canals connect the Baltic and North Seas through Germany,
the first, known as the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, having been completed
in 1895 and constructed largely for military and naval purposes, but
proving also of great value to general mercantile traffic. Work upon
the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal was begun in 1887, and completed, as above
indicated, in 1895. The length of the canal is sixty-one miles, the
terminus in the Baltic Sea being at the harbor of Kiel. The depth
is 29i feet, the width at the bottom seventy-two feet, and the minimum
width at the surface 190 feet. The route lies chiefly through marshes
and shallow lakes, and along river valleys. The total excavation
amounted to about 100,000,000 cubic yards, and the cost to about
$40,000,000. The number of vessels passing through the canal in 1900
was 21,571, with a tonnage of 4,282,258, and the dues collected
amounted to 2,133,155 marks.
SHIP CANALS CONNECTING THE GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA
Three ship canals intended to give continuous passage to vessels
from the head of Lake Superior to Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence
River are the Welland Canal originally constructed in 1833 and en-
larged in 1871 and 1900; the St. Marys Falls Canal at Sault Ste.
Marie, Mich., opened in 1855 and enlarged in 1881 and 1896, and the
Canadian Canal at St. Marys River, opened in 1895. In point of
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 3/
importance, measured at least by their present use, the canals at the
St. Marys River by far surpass that of the Welland Canal, the number
of vessels passing through the canals at the St. Marys River being eight
times as great as the number passing through the Welland, and the
tonnage of the former nearly forty times as great as that of the latter.
One of the important products of the Lake Superior region, iron ore,
is chiefly used in the section contiguous to Lake Erie, ^nd a large
proportion of the grain coming from Lake Superior passes from Buffalo
to the Atlantic coast by way of the Erie Canal and railroads centering
at Buffalo. The most important article in the westward shipments
through the Sault Ste. Marie canals, coal, originates in the territorv
contiguous to TiSke Erie. These conditions largely account for the
fact that the number and tonnage of vessels passing the St. Marys
River canals so greatly exceed those of the Welland Canal.
The Welland Canal. — The Welland Canal connects Lake Ontario
and Lake Erie on the Canadian side of the river. It was constructed
in 1833 and enlarged in 1871 and again in 1900. The length of the
canal is twenty-seven miles, the number of locks twenty-five, the total
rise of lockage 327 feet, and the total cost about $25,000,000. The
annual collection of tolls on freight, passengers, and vessels averages
about $225,000 and the canal is open on an average about two hundred
and forty days in a year.
The Satdt Ste. Marie Canals. — The canals of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.,
and Ontario, are located adjacent to the falls of the St. Marys River,
which connects I^ake Superior with l^ake Huron, and lower or raise
vessels from one level to the other, a height of seventeen to twenty feet.
The canal belonging to the United States was begun in 1853 by the
State of Michigan, and opened in 1855, ^the length of the canal being
5,674 feet, and provided with two tandem locks, each being 350 feet
in length and seventy feet wide, and allowing passage of vessels drawing
twelve feet, the original cost being $1,000,000. The United States
Government, by consent of the State, began in 1870 to enlarge the
canal, and by 1881 had increased its length to 1.6 miles, its width to
an average of 160 feet, and its depth to sixteen feet; also had built a
single lock 515 feet long and eight}'^ feet wide, with a depth of seventeen
feet on the sills, which was located 100 feet south of the State locks.
The State relinquished all control of the canal in March, 1882. In 1887
the State locks were torn down and replaced by a single lock 800 feet
long, 100 feet wide, and a depth of twenty-two feet of water on the
sills. This lock was put in commission in 1896. The canal was also
38 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY January
deepened to twenty-five feet. The Canadian canal, IJ miles long, 150
feet wide, and twenty-two feet deep, with lock 900 feet long, sixty
feet wide, with twenty-two feet on the miter sills, was built on the
north side of the river during the years 1888 to 1895. The number of
vessels passing through the United States^canal in 1902 was 17,588, and
through the Canadian canal 4,204. In 1900 the number of vessels
passing through the United States canal was 16,144, and through the
Canadian canal 3,003, showing an increase of 1,200 in the number of
vessels passing through the Canadian canal, 'and a slight decrease in the
number through the United States canal, the increase in the number
passing through the Canadian canal having been due to the development
of the Michipocoten district. The tonnage passing through the United
States canal in 1902 was: Registered tonnage, 27,408,021 tons; in 1901,
22,222,334 tons, against 20,136,782 in the year 1900; the freight tonnage
in 1901 was 25,026,522 tons, against 23,251,539 tons in 1900. The
Canadian canal shows: Registered tonnage in 1902, 4,547,561; in 1901,
2,404,642 tons, against 2,160,490 in 1900. A marked contrast between
the business of the St. Marys Falls and Welland Canals is found in a
comparison of their figures for a term of years. The number of vessels
passing through the Welland Canal in 1873 was 6,425, and in 1899,
2,202, a reduction of more than one-half in the number of vessels. The
number of vessels passing through the St. Marys Falls Canal in 1873 was
2,517, and in 1902, through the American and Canadian canals, 22,659.
— Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor.
Dalny, The Township. — The township of Dalny comprises an area
of 75 square versts (21,000 acres), and during the current year it is pro-
posed to purchase an additional tract of 25 square versts (7,000 acres)
on the northwest of the township.
The lands forming the townshij) of Dalny were purchased in 1899
by the Chinese Eastern Railway Company from the local inhabitants
at a price fixed by a committee of appraisers. On these grounds were
formerly several small Chinese villages, the inhabitants of which were
principally devoted to agriculture and fishing.
The city of Dalny is picturesquely situated in an extensive valley
which slopes gently down to the deep and wTll-protected bay of Talien-
wan,and is surrounded on three sides by a range of hills rising to a height
of 800 feet. It is divided into three parts — The Administration City,
the European and Commercial City, and the Chinese City.
Administration City. — The Administration City borders on the harbor
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 39
and bay and is 108 acres in extent. All space in the administration
quarter is reserved for the use of the Chinese Eastern Railway Company
and its officials. In this section are the residences and offices of the
governor and other officials of the railway company. There are over
200 buildings erected, besides a large area of temporary structures for
minor employes and workmen.
Among the principal buildings are one hundred and twelve handsome
brick and stone residences, the Administration Building, the port office,
the seagoing-service office, the Greek church and school buildings, the
railway company's hospital (for one hundred and eighty-six patients),
the post, telegraph, and telephone offices, the Service Club and Concert
Hall, the Yacht Club, Hotel Dalny, the Russo-Chinese Bank, police
office and jail, the electric plant, machine shops, and the principal stores
and shops.
The city is supplied with water and electric lights throughout, and
has an adequate police force and fire brigade, which extends also to
the Commercial City.
The permanent buildings of Dalny are at present confined almost
entirely to the Administration quarter.
European and Commercial City. — The European and Commercial
City, which has an area of 1,100 acres, borders on the harbor and ex-
tends to the range of hills on the south and east.
Along many of the principal avenues and streets of the Commercial
City a large number of shops, stores, hotels, and dwelling-houses have
been built for the accommodation of both the large native population
and foreigners. Most of these buildings, however, are only temporary.
They are put up on the company's land with permission of the city
authorities, and are to be removed in case the lots upon which they
are built are sold or leased.
The most central part of the Commercial City is Nicholas place, from
which ten avenues branch. Around this circle (which is 700 feet in
diameter) it is intended that the public buildings, banks, hotels, and
office buildings shall be erected. Nicholas place is connected with the
piers and shipping quarter by Moscow avenue, which is to be the main
business thoroughfare of the city.
The residential section is to be on the elevated ground of the European
City.
Chinese City. — The Chinese quarter is separated from the Adminis-
tration and European cities by the town park and nurseries, which are
upon the site of an old Chinese village.
40 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY January
Climale of Dalny. — The climate of Dalny is agreeable, healthful, and
dry. According to the weather bureau of Dalny, the t<?mperature in
winter for the last four years has not been below 19° C. (3° F. below
zero). During very severe winters the bay becomes frozen, but ice
breakers are to keep the channel and harbor open for navigation.
Building the City. — In the construction of the city thousands of
Chinese laborers are daily engaged in the enormous excavations, the
making of streets and roads, and the completion of the work on the
harbor. Numerous steam and tram lines are used for the conveying
of earth and stone and for filling in the piers and water front.
The harbor is the scene of the greatest activity at present. The
small harbor has been dredged to a depth of 18 feet, and the pier for
coast steamers (which has been in use for over a year) is nearly com-
pleted and has a railroad to its end.
The work on the large dry dock is progressing rapidly; the cofferdam
is built and tlie excavation well under way. This dry dock is to be
630 feet long, 88 feet wide, and 28 fec^t in depth, and wnll cost about
1,800,000 rubles («927,00()).
The eastern side of the largo pier for ocean steamers is completed
and in use nearly to its end ; on the west side the walls are nearing com-
pletion, and one of the iron wharv(\s for light-draft vessels is built.
Three railway tracks connecting with the main line and two storage
w^arehouses, with a floor area of 19,600 square feet each, are completed.
This pier is 1,925 feet long and 350 fo(^t wide, and has a depth of water
of from 18 to 28 feet, and when completed will contain seven railway
tracks and nine large warehouses.
One can judge from this splendid pier how thoroughly and substan-
tially the construction of the harbor is i)eing done. The foundation
is laid with 50-ton concrete blocks and the walls finished with the best
of dressed granite.
For the outside pier, the foundation only is laid. The wharf between
the two piers is completed and in use. The foundation of the break-
water is finished for a distance of 2,800 feet and the sea wall along St.
Petersburg quay is built.
Work A ccomplished. —
Area of port territory filled in, square yards 6,800,000
Dredged from harbor, cubic yards 3,166,000
Earth excavated, cubic yards 12,916,000
Stone brought by rail, cubic yards 375,412
Stone brought by sea, cubic yards 882,210
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 4 I
Length of streets made, yards 77,000
Streets macadamized, yards 20,300
Sidewalks made, miJes 6
Suburban roads made, miles 14
Railway Service. — The branch railway connecting Dalny with the
main line of the Chinese Eastern Railway at Nangalin was built and
formally operated by the engineers in charge of the construction of
Dalny. At the beginning of the current year this branch road was
given over to the control of the main line, and Dalny was connected
by daily service of through trains with Port Arthur, Harbin, and Man-
churia. Prior to this, the Manchurian trains did not come to Dalny,
passengers and freight being transferred at NangaHn. Besides the
Manchurian service, there are now two daily trains between Dalny and
Port Arthur and two weekly express trains between Dalny, Moscow,
and St. Petersburg.
On February 21, 1903, the first passenger express train from St.
Petersburg and Moscow arrived at Dalny, and the weekly Trans-
Siberian express service was inaugurated. Tlie demand for passages
on this quick and comfortable route became so great that another
train was soon added.
The Trans-Siberian express leaves Dalny on Tuesdays and Saturdays,
making a trip to Moscow — a distance of 5,375 miles — with a change of
cars at Manchuria Station and Baikal, in thirtecMi and one-half days.
The 'Hrain de luxe'' is a solid vestibuled train, composed of coaches
of the International Sleeping Car and Express Train Company, having
first and second class compartments and sleeping car and dining car. —
Consular Reports, September, 1903.
The Bagdad Railway and German Commerce in Asia Minor. — There
exists to-day a railroad from Constantinople to Konieh, in Asia Minor,
which is called the Anatolian Railway. It has branches to Smyrna
and Angora. German financiers have succeeded in getting a con-
cession from Turkey to continue this route from Konieh to Bagdad, and
eventually through to Koeit, on the Persian Gulf. A corporation
for the purpose of building the road has been formed in Constantinople,
under the name of the Imperial Ottoman Bagdad Railway Company,
with a capital of $3,000,000. Its president is one of the managers of
the German Bank in Berlin. The Anatolian line to Konieh will not
be merged into the larger concern, but its cooperation with the new
42 . THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY January
enterprise has been assured. The approximate cost of the railroad is
$90,000,000, and it will be about 1,800 miles in length.
It is claimed that when the enterprise is completed it will bring
India three days nearer London. It will shorten, by fourteen days,
the journey by camel train from Aleppo to the valley of the Lower
Euphrates, where ahnost every square mile of land has its interesting
ruin or hidden treasure. Speaking of the country between the Euphra-
tes and Tigris, the Chemnitzer Tageblatt says: The railway will pass
through one of the oldest and richest countries in the world. The
most fruitful part of what was once ancient Mesopotamia is that part
of the country between Urfa and Mosul. So regular and plentiful are
the rains that out of every six or seven harvests only two fall short.
In other portions of the country rain is not so frequent, and the soil
must be nurtured by irrigation. The land is adapted to raising wheat,
barley, rice and cotton. A territory as large as Saxony and Italy
together will be opened up to German markets.
To find the shortest way to India is an achievement which has occu-
pied the attention of European commercial nations since the earliest
times. The highway built by the Persian satraps, the success of Vasco
da Gama in finding a water way around Africa, and the construction
of the Suez Canal mark epochs in the development of European com-
merce with India. The construction of the Bagdad Railway will prob-
ably be fraught with equally great results, as it will not only serve as
a connecting link between the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf, but it
will tap a large territory which in recent times has been of practically no
value to the commercial world at large. — Consular Reports^ August, 1903.
A Plan Which Interested a Geography Class. — While teaching in
a graded country school, I found the pupils looked upon geography
as a most uninteresting subject of study. I had, from a child, been
fond of the study of this subject and determined that if it were possible
IJwould awaken in these children a love for geography.
I found little trouble in interesting the first, second, and third
grade children, but found it more difficult with the fourth grade.
The pupils had been using the text-book alone for their material of
study. I examined the text and found it was not a poor one, but that
the children had grow^n tired of using it as a reader and reciting from
it in the same manner every day. I decided upon another plan of study.
In the neighborhood of the school was a natural clay bed. The
children of this class and I went there one afternoon and modeled a
X904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 43
number of objects until each child was interested and knew it would
not be impossible for him to model a large ball or globe. We chose
the best of the clay, and cleaned it from any sticks or lumps. Each
child carried home with him enough clay to form a globe nine inches
in diameter. The children were instructed how to make their globes
solid, how to place them to dry, and how, finally, with their mother's
permission, to bake them in their mother's ovens.
While the globes were drying, the children prepared papier mache.
This was done by tearing paper into very small pieces and cooking.
After the paper had been cooked and had cooled, most of the water
was poured off and the paper kneaded with the hands until it became
a smooth pulp. Each child prepared his own papier mache and brought
it to school in a clean cloth.
Some time was then spent in studying the relief maps of the different
continents and modeling them from their papier mache. None were
allowed to dry, but the pulp was returned damp to the cloth.
When the globes had been dried and baked and were brou'^ht to
school, the large globe on the teacher's desk was studied and carefully
compared with the ones they had made. The glol>e was studied in order
to learn the relative positions of the continents, the relative amounts
of land and water, and, finally, in a very general manner, allowing the
pupils to speak of anything about the globe that appealed to them.
Many of the globes were good in shape, solid, and free from cracks.
They were heavy and not easy to handle, but the pupils were delighted
with them, and protested they were not ''too heavy." After the
material had been prepared, the study of the book and globe made, we
were ready for the final work. The children placed their globes on
their desks and drew the zone lines and a few meridians. They then,
after careful measurement, drew an outline of each continent in its
proper place. They then put the papier mache on, and modeled the
continents in relief. This was allowed to dry, and when the globe was
completed, each pupil had a relief map of the world. Of course the
bare clay represented tlie water and the papier mache the land. The
water was not the regulation "blue." and as we had no water colors we
managed to be content witli a dull brown.
Now, of course, this work was not done in a day, week, nor month,
nor was it allowed to drag along until pupils grew despondent of i-^eeing
the end of their labors, but it did take time and thought on the part of
both teacher and pupil. Hut the device proved a success in interestin<i
the pupils in the study of geography. — The InteUi{]ena.
4
44 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
Addition to the List of Geographical Societies of America. — ^The
list of Geographical Societies published in the September, 1903, number
of the Journal of Geography failed to include mention of the Geo-
graphical Society of the Pacific, one of the oldest societies. Through
the courtesy of Professor Davidson of the University of Cahfornia, I am
able to add a notice.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF THE PACIFIC
The Geographical Society of the Pacific was organized March 16,
1881, by citizens interested in the geography and exploration of the
western coast of America, and of the islands and lands adjacent to the
Pacific. The purpose of the society is to gather geographical informa-
tion for publication, to conduct lectures by travelers and explorers, to
pubUsh material of interest to geographers, and to form a library of
geographical works, maps, and charts. The society was incorporated
January 5, 1892. It has a well- chosen library of books and charts, and
exchanges publications with 135 homo and foreign geographical soci-
eties. Meetings are held monthly and bulletins are published. The
membership of the societies consists of fellows, associates, honorary and
corresponding members. Honorary members are chosen on account of
their distinction in the science of geography, and not more than two
of them are elected in one year. Corresponding members are chosen
from those who have added to the advancement of geography, and
not more than three of them are elected in one year. Associates, cor-
responding, and honorary members have no voice in the management
of the society. There is provision made for junior members. Boys
and girls under ago are admitted as junior members at one-half rates.
The annual dues are $6.00. Any fellow of the society may be given a
life fellowship on the payment of SIOO. Persons who have rendered
valuable service to ihe society for ten years may l)e given life fellow-
ship without fees. Any fellow who shall have paid his dues continu-
ously for twenty years may become a life member without further
payment of dues. The society has rooms at 419 California Street, San
Francisco. The president is Professor George Davidson, of the Uni-
versity of California. — ./. Paul Goode.
Current Articles on Commerce and Industry :
SEPTEMBER
Argentina, Opportunities in, Bradstrccfs, September 26.
Boston: City Characters (Illus.), World To-Day.
Canal; Proposed Forth-Clyde Ship Canal, Cons. Report.
China, The Building of Dalny (Illus.), World To-Day.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 45
Copper Converting (lUus.), Set, Am.y September 26.
Cotton Crop of To-Day (Illus.), Rev. of Revs,
Cotton Problem in the South (Illus.), World To-Day,
Cuba, Commercial, in 1903, Mo. Summary of Commerce and Finance y
August.
Forest Planting in the U. S., Miss. Valley Lumberman ^ September
11 and 18.
German-American, The,. Makings Mag.
Gun Making (Illus.), World's Work.
Italy: Thirty Years of Progress, World's Work.
Macaroni Wheat Question, Bradstreet's, September 19.
Mexico, The American Influence in (Illus.), World's Work.
Mexico, Pulque and Mescal of (Illus.), Set. Am., September 19.
Potters and Their Products (Illus.), Clay Worker, September.
Railroad Accidents in America and Europe, World's Work.
Railroad Engineering, Modern Feats of (Illus.), World's Work.
Rice, Cultivation of in the United States, Jour, of Geography.
Rice Culture in the Philippines, Mo. Summary of Commerce of the
Philippines^ May.
Silk, Artificial, Sci. Am. Supp., September 19.
Storms, Frosts, and Their Effect on Business, Paint, Oil, and Drug
Rev., September 16.
Sugar Discovery in the Beet, Bradstreet's, September 12.
Tea-Raising Methods, Coram. Bull, and N. W. Trade, September 19.
Timber Standing in the Country, Miss. Valley Lumberman, Septem-
ber 18.
Time (Illus.), Jour, of Geography.
OCTOBER
Alaska as an Investment, Sci. Ain. Supp., October 24.
Alaska, the Rich Empire of the North (Illus.), World's Work.
Americanizing Scotland's Industries, Cofis. Report.
Canada: Turning Back to the Dominion, Success.
Chicago at the End of a Century (Illus.), World To-Day.
Cleveland (Illus.), World's Work.
Coal-Mining in the United Kingdom (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Colombia and the Panama Canal (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Diamond Mining in the Kimberley Field (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Fisheries Commission, Work of (Illus.), Sci. Am., October 24.
Garbage Disposal at Baltimore (Illus.), Sci. Am., October 31.
Geography and History, Jour, of Geography.
46 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
Holland: Reclaiming an Ocean Bed (Illiis.), McClure's.
Immigrants: Where They Settle (Illus.), World^s Work.
Industrial Schools in Germany, Sci. Ain. Supp., October 17.
Inventions, Epidemics in, Trade- Mark Record.
Iron and Steel Production of the World, Cons. Report.
Irrigation Question, A Phase of, BradstreeCs, October 3.
Japan, Foreign Commerce of, Cons. Report.
Java Petroleum Districts (Illus.), Sci. Am.^ October 10.
Lumber Transportation (Illus.), Sci. Am., October 17.
Metal-Working, The Modern Craft of (Illus.), Sci. Am. Supp.,
October 3.
Municipal Reform and Social Welfare in New York (Illus.), Rev.
of Revs.
Newspaper: Development of the Daily (Illus.), Mahin^s Ma^.
North Sea Fisheries, Sci. Am. Supp., October 3.
Philadelphia (Illus.), World To-Day.
Salt Mining and Manufacture (Illus.), Sci. Am. Supp., October 3.
South, a Seaboard Gatew^ay of the West (Illus.), World^s Work.
Sugar Supply of the United States, Sci. Am. Supp.y October 17.
, NOVEMBER
Beet Sugar Making, Comm. Bull, and X. W. Trade, November 28.
Camphor, Artificial (Illus.), Sci. Ain., November 21.
Camphor Industry of Formosa, Sci. Am., November 21.
Cane-Sugar Production of the World, Crop Reporter.
Chicago: How a (Jreat City Is Fed (Illus.), World To-Day.
Coal-Mining Industry in the United Kingdom (Illus.), Engineering
Mag.
Corn-Growers (Illus.), World's Work.
Cost of Living, Bull, of Bureau of Labor, November.
Country Merchant Come to Town, World's Work.
Cuba, Cons. Report.
Dairy Farming (Illus.), Country Life in Am.
Denver: Character Sketches of Cities (Illus.), World To-Day.
Galveston's Great Sea Wall (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
Kimberley Diamond Mines (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Labor Boss: The Trust's New Tool, McClure's.
Linseed Oil, Making of. Paint, Oil, and Drug Rev., November 25.
Louisiana Purchase. Bradstreet's, November 7.
Moseley's Industrial Inquiry, Cons. Report.
New Zealand, Labor Conditions in, Bull, of Bureau of Labor.
1904
GEOGRAPHICAL QUERIES 47
Onion-Seed Farm in California (lUus.), Set. Am., November 7.
Panama, Commerce of, Hide and Leather, November 21.
Post Office and the People (Illus.), World's Work.
Printing Methods, Modern (Illus.), Sci. Am. (Special Number).
November 14.
Rubber Tree of Central America (Illus.), Sci. Am. Supp., November
28.
Russian Absorption of Asia (Illus.), World's Work.
Savings Banks, The Romance of, Success.
Scientific Research and Chemical Industry, Sci. Am. Supp., Novem-
ber 14 and 21.
Tea-Growing in India, Sci. Am. Supp., November 14.
Textile Industry of Philadelphia, The Manufacturer, November 16.
GEOGRAPHICAL QUERIES
A CLEARING HOUSK FOR GPJOGRAPHICAL WANTS AND DOUHTS
IT Is hoped this department will prove of practical benefit to teachers of geogra-
phy, opening a way for the solving of the many geographical problems which
are constantly met with in the classroom. All questions received will be answered
by specialists in the various methods of geographical work. We invite inquiries,
criticisms, suggestions, and discussions. Address all communications for this depart-
ment to: EDWARD M. LEHNERTS, Winona, Minn.
(5) As 1 am an old reader of the Journal of Gkography and
of its two parent magazine-^, I trust you will pardon me for troubling
you with a question. To what extent and in what ways do forests
influence climate? In your Journal for April, 1902, in the excellent
article entitled ** Certain Persistent Errors in Geography," Mr. Henry
Gannett positively affirms that forests have absolutely no influence on
rainfall. I cannot see the reason for his statement; and hence my
question, which I hope you will find worthy of a reply.
A. H. G., South Bend, Ind.
Every one of our readers, old and new, is cordially invited — yes,
even urged — to send us any geographical (luostion that is giving trouble.
Your letter is therefore more than welcome, and we gladly reply as
fully as our space permits.
In the article you refer to, Mr. Gannett exposes and condemns in
a vigorous and effective manner certain widespread geographical mis-
conceptions including the popular belief that the removal of forests
greatly decreases the rainfall. He does not, however, raise the question
whether forests have any appreciable influence on climate. This
^8 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
question has been discussed for yea's, and much time has been given
to its study : but most of the conclusions reached would seem apparent
even without any elaborate investigation.
It is a matter of common observation, particularly on sunny summer
days, that the ground and the air under the trees are cooler than the
soil and the air in the open field ; and this effect is not only noticeable
by day, but by night as well, as every one will testify who is acquainted
with the cool, d mp evenings and nights of our wooded areas. This
lowering of the temperature is caused by the shading of the ground and
by the increased evaporation and radiation from the leaves, which
present an enlarged surface for these processes, transpire large amounts
of water, and possess a radiating power equal to that of soot. Of
course, the effect is increased with the size and the number of the trees,
the density of the foHage, and the extent of the forest. Moreover, the
kind of trees, whether deciduous or evergreen, makes a considerable
difference, especially in our northern latitudes in the spring season.
In the deciduous woods on the shaded northward slopes of the bluffs
about Winona, the snow in spring lasts from one to three weeks longer
than in the open fields; but in the evergreen forests of northern Minne-
sota, especially on northward slopes, snow and ice remain until the
beginning of summer. The Indians even claim that they can find ice
in the dense cedar swamps of that section at any time during the
summer and fall. In general, forests retard the melting of the snow
in spring and thus lower the temperature, favor frosts, and delay
the approach of warmer weather.
The following tables taken from Hann's Handbook of Climatology
give interesting data regarding the influence of forests on temperature:
ME.\N TEMPERATURE OF VIENNA CITY, COUNTRY. AND FOREST,
1851-1880 ALTITUDE ABO\'E SEA LE\T.L THE SAME
IN ALL CASES. CENTIGRADE SCALE.
January
April
July
October
Year
Vienna Citv . . .
-1.2°
10.0°
9.0°
9.0°
20.4°
19.8°
19.2°
10.5°
10.1°
j 9.6°
97°
Vienna Count r>-
Vienna Forest
-1.5°
.. -1.5°
9.2°
8.8°
VIENNA FOREST COMPARED WITH VIENNA COUNTRY, 1875-1884.
THE FIGURES SHOW HOW MUCH COLDER IT WAS
IN THE FOREST. CENTIGRADE SCALE.
7 a. m.
2 p. m.
i 9 p. ni.
Mean
In Winter
0 8°
0.0°
0.2°
1 0.8°
1 .230
0 6°
In Summer
1.1^
1 4°
I904 GEOGRAPHICAL QUERIES 49
On our western prairies nearly every farmhouse has its grove of
trees to serve as a protection against cold winds and drifting snows.
This illustrates another important effect of forests, namely, the break-
ing of the force of winds and the checking of air currents. Partly
because of this diminished air movement and partly because of the
coolness due to the stoppage of the sunshine by the leaves, the forest
keeps the air under its cover relatively moist; and since cool, moist,
and quiet air does not favor evaporation, and since this process is
still further retarded by the protective and water-holding capacity of
the forest floor, it is not surprising to learn that observers find the
annual evaporation within the forest to be about one-half of that in
the open field. This leads to the conservation of the water supply,
one of the most important of forest influences. Rain water is retained;
evaporation is decreased ; surface flow-off and underground circulation
are regulated; stream flow is controlled; excessive erosion and floods
are prevented; and many other beneficial effects are produced.
Wherever a forest has been considerably reduced in area, changes
in the water supply have occurred; in certain cases, wells, springs,
and small streams have become intermittent and even permanently dry.
Extensive reforestation, on the other hand, has been known to again
bring water to the well and to re-establish the spring and the stream
flow. Some observers, believing these effects to be due to changes
in the amount of rainfall, concluded that extensive deforestation always
caused a corresponding decrease in the annual precipitation. It is,
however, perfectly clear that such a conclusion is not safe since the
forest influences mentioned in the preceding paragraph are in them-
selves adequate causes.
The question whether forests increase the annual rainfall has been
answered in the affirmative by many careful observers and students,
including Blanford,^ Muttrich,*^ Hettner,^ Hann,' and many others ;
but their answer is based on data and methods of investigation which
cannot be adequately set forth here because of lack of space.
The earliest and most untrustworthy data are those obtained by
the historical method. Ancient history and literature give illustrations
' H. F. Blanford: "The Influence of the Indian Forests on the Rainfall," Joum.
Asiat. Soc. Bengal, LVI, Part II, 1887, pages 1-15.
' A. MDttrich: "Ueber den Einfluss des Waldes auf die GrOsse der atmosphftri-
schen Niederechltlge," Das Wetter, IX, 1892, pages 46-48, 68-71, 90-96.
^ A. Hettner: Regenvertheilung, Pflanzendecke, und Besiedelung der tropischen
Anden, 1893, Berlin.
^ J. Hann: Handbuch der Klimatologie, English Translation by R. DeC. Ward,
1903, The Ma<?millan Co., New York.
50 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
of forested and well- watered regions which have since become deforested
and arid; but such data are imperfect and unreliable, and, even in
cases where former humidity and present aridity are authenticated
facts, the change can be shown to be due not to a decrease in the rainfall
but to changes in distribution and circulation of the rain after it has
fallen, or to dry winds no longer checked and modified by the former
forest barrier.
A j^econd and more satisfactory source of data is furnished by
meteorological records; and these point to three definite conclusions:
That about 9 per cent more rain falls over a forest than over open fields
in the immediate vicinity; that the precipitation is somewhat greater
in the tree-covered areas as compared with the treeless districts of a
given region, and that in cases of reforestation the precipitation has
increased with the increasing forest growth. Recent writers, however,
especially in America, have shown a disposition to question these con-
clusions; and some have gone so far as to deny that forests have any
appreciable influence on rainfall. Professor Cleveland Abbe''* of the
United States Weather Bureau has clearly shown that the great mass
of meteorological data is not reliable, so far as this problem is concerned,
since rain gauges in open places catch less rain than they should, owing
to the influence of the stronger wind. Wherever the gauges have been
properly corrected in accordance with l^rofessor Abbe's suggestion,
there has been found no appreciable (liff*erence in tlie amount of rainfall
over the forest and over the open land ; and it is now generally conceded
that the facts at hand do not prove conclusively that forests increase
rainfall.
As regards climate, then, forests tend (1) to lower the mean tem-
perature of the air; (2) to check air movement; (3) to increase its
relative humidity; (4) to equalize day and night temperatures and to
make seasonal extremes less severe; (5) to favor frosts and fogs, and,
some say, clouds and rain; and (6) to increase the healthfulness of the
locality by decreasing the number of disease-producing organisms in
the air, the water, and tlie soil. In short, the influence of the forest
on the local climate is considerable, but its effect on the general or
regional cHmate is not appreciable. E. M. L.
'• C. Abbe: " Deteniiination of the Tnie Amount of Precipitation and Its Bearing
on Theories of Forest Influences," Bulletin No. 7, 1892, forestry Division, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, pages 175-185.
EDITORIAL
EDITORIAL
SIGNS OF THE TIMES
THE beginning of a new year is a favorable time to summarize
the results, the successes of the past, and estimate the direc-
tion thought and action will probably take in the future in our
chosen field of work.
At no period during the last decade has there been a time when
the signs of the times were more encouraging than they are now.
Geography teaching is slowly but surely improving. The subject is
receiving increasing emphasis in normal schools, in secondary schools,
and at teachers' institutes, and teachers arc seeking enlightenment
and help in the subject constantly. In spite of all setbacks and the
persistence of ultra conservatism in some cities and states, in spite of
the unnaturalness of geography as still taught in the larger number of
rural schools, there is good reason to be optimistic and not pessimistic
as to the future of the subject.
Among the evidences of progress in elementary school geography
since the ''renaissance,'' which dates from the appearance of Frye's
first book in 1894, may be noted more logical, more usable text-books,
and a greater emphasis of the causal idea and the phenomena of the •
home environment. Writers of texts for elementary schools now
adopt a plan of procedure whereby the subject is modified to fit the
pupil, instead of the pupil being wholly molded to fit the text. The
better text-books now contain fewer unessential points, fewer imag-
inary', untruthful illustrations, better maps (though in this regard there
is still great room for improvement), references to collateral reading for
teachers and pupils, and are in general more geographical than their
predecessors.
In the secondary field there are several excellent texts, and labora-
tory and field work have come to stay. The fact that geography has
been accepted as an entrance requirement by several colleges has
stirred many secondary schools to better work in the subject. Broadly
considered, perhaps the most satisfactory progress in geography within
the decade has been in this fiekl.
In normal and training schools, on the other hand, the subject is
in a verj' unsatisfactory position. There are many normal schools in
which geographers have been employed as leaders in the work, and it
52 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
is needless to say that this group of schools has led the way in reform
in the training of teachers'of/geography. In a large number of the nor-
mal schools, however, geography is still stagnant, and in this field there
is the greatest need for improvement.
The progress in the higher institutions has not been as great in
proportion as in the lower institutions. In many colleges and universi-
ties geography does now have a place, but in many others it is unknown
or given a mere foothold. Even where geography is taught it is not
commonly related to the work of other departments, such as history
and sociology, as it should be, and hence the success is not as great as
it might readily be. The teachers for the secondar^^ and normal
schools must come from the colleges and universities largely, and the
demand for such trained teachers is far in excess of the supply.
One of the most favorable evidences of progress is the fact that the
public and educational officers are alive to the worth of geography as
a subject of culture and training. This is well illustrated by the
increasing number of teachers of all grades of work who seek opportu-
nities to secure better training in geography through teachers' classes
or summer schools. The success of the Cornell Summer School of
Geography in 1903 is the best test of the increasing demand by teachers
for better training in geog aphy we have had, and it is most encour-
aging.
Progress has been made, and is going to be made rapidly in the next
few years. Faddism in methods of teaching is passing away; rural
school geography is being strengthened through the introduction of
agriculture and geographical nature study; better courses of study
are being adopted in elementar}^ schools; laboratory work is being
introduced into secondary^ and normal schools; and the text-book is
not always followed slavishly now. In our zeal for better things,
however, we are in danger of forgetting that pupils must be taught to
study and think, to apply their knowledge in daily life, and that the
easiest way to the goal is not always the best. If, ten years hence,
those who have been pupils in this decade do not know the facts and
principles of geography necessary for an understanding of current affairs,
it will be a good indication that the pendulum has swung too far and
that in our endeavor to make things interesting we have failed to give
the best discipHne and training.
REVIEWS o3
REVIEWS
Field and Laboratory Exercises in Ph3rsical Geography. By James F. Cham-
berlain. Size 10x8. Pp. 127. New York: Amencan Book Company, 1903.
While the teaching of Phj-sical Geography through the laboratory is no longer
in the experimental stage, the use of this method is necessarily restricted to those
few whose training has been of a nature to enable them to organize this line of work
for themselves.
For the great majority, the need of a liiboratory manual is an imperative one
and each new contribution to the field is eagerly welcomed, not only by the teacher
of many subjects, whose training is inadequate to meet the situation unaided, but
also by the specialist who is desirous of seeing Physical Geography taught according
to the best method.
The book noted above seems well adapted to meet the needs of the situation.
The exercises, sixty-nine in number, touch up>on the various departments of the
subject: "The Earth as a Globe,'* "The Atmosphere," "The Ocean," "The Lands,"
and "Life," and are fairly well proportioned. More space, however, should have
been devoted to the lands through the study of topographic sheets illustrating
typical land forms.
The exercises generally are elementary in character, easily within the compre-
hension of pupils of the upper grammar grades or of the first year of a high-school
course.
The sequence of the topics treated usually is logical though in some cases a
rearrangement should be made as, for nstance, in the case of exercises thirty-one
and thirty-three where the study of "isobars'* follows that of "cyclonic areas."
Many of the problems presented do not fall properly either in field or in labora-
tory work, for their solution lies in the library alone. While this work is valuable,
it should not be confounded with laboratory work.
The manual serves a double purpose, outline maps and blank pages for record-
ing observations accompanying the problems.
The book will, without doubt, be found helpful in offering suggestions, and
should be used from this standpoint rather than as an infallible guide.
C. B. K.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS
special Method in Geography. From the Third through the Eighth grade. By
Charles A. McMurry. New edition. Pp. xi and 217. New York: The Mac-
millan Company, 1903.
A new and much-enlarged edition of Dr. C. A. McMurry's well-known book
on geography teaching. Very detailed in its suggestions, and especially adapted
to the Tarr & McMurry geographies. Would have been more readily usable if
accompanied by an index. To be reviewed later.
Waterways of Westward Expansion, being Volume IX of Historic Highways of
America. By Archer Butler Hulbert. Pp. 220. Cleveland, Ohio: The
Arthur H. Clark Company, 1903.
This book deals particularly with the Ohio River and its tributaries, and is
fuller and more complete than most of its predecessors in the series. Contains three
54 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY January
reproductions of old maps. Valuable especially to the student of American history
as related to its geography.
Indians of the Painted Desert Region. By George Wharton James. Pp. xxi
and 267. Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1903.
An attractive and readable book on the Indians of Arizona and New Mexico,
by a well-known writer on Indians. Well illustrated. To be reviewed later.
Descriptive Geography from Original Sources: Australia and Oceanica. By
F. D. and A. J. Herbertson. Pp. xxvi and 221. London: Adam and Charles
Black, 1903.
The last of the several volumes devoted to the dififerent continents and prepared
by Dr. and Mrs. A. J. Herbertson. Like the preceding volumes, this volume con-
tains an excellent introductory chapter, bibliography, and index. The material
is well selected, well illustrated, and very usable. The volume is excellent for
supplementary use in the higher grannnar grades of American schools.
Around the Caribbean and Across Panama. Bv Francis C. Nicholas. Boston
and New York: H. M. Caldwell Company, 1903.
An interesting account of an explorer's adventures in the region indicated by
the title. Written by an authority and well illustrated.
Elementary Geography. By Charles F. King. Pp. vi and 220. Boston: Lothrop
Publishing Company, 1903.
An elementary geography by an experienced and well-known teacher. De-
scriptions of excursions and imaginary journeys are made the means of imparting
both general and regional facts. Excellent illustrations, some being colored. Illus-
trations of animals especially fine. Maps are somewhat crude and proper names
are not always spelled correctly. To be reviewed later.
NEWS NOTES
The New Republic of Panama.— Early in November the State of
Panama, hitherto a part of Colombia, seceded and established a new
republic known as Panama, and on November 6th this republic was
recognized as a new nation by the Ciovernment of the United States.
The action taken by the inhal)itants of Panama was primarily due to
the fact that Colombia had stood in the way of allowing the United
States to build the Panama Canal. The inliabitants of Panama, having
been paying large amounts in taxes to Colombia, felt that they had
not been duly considered by Colombia and that their business interests
had been sacrificed; hence their action.
Meeting of National Educational Association in 1904. — It has
been decided to hold the 1904 meeting of the National Educational
Association at St. Louis during the latter part of June or the early part
of July. The various features of the exposition will be made the
chief topics of the papers and discussions, and thus the meeting wdll
be centered about the exposition. Details as to time of meeting and
the attention to be given to geography will be announced in the
Journal as the plans mature.
Newest and Best Text-Books
IN
GEOGRAPHY
Morton's Geographies
By Eliza H. Morton. Mem\x»r of the Xational Geographic Society.
Elementary Geography $0.55
Advanced Geography i.20
Natural Geographies
By Jacqif.s \V. Redway and Russell Hinman.
Elementary Geography ... .... fo.6o
Advanced Geography 1.25
Brief Geography 80
Tarbeirs Geographies
By H«.RACE S. Tarbell, A.M., I-L.I).. formerly Siiperintendent of
Schools. Providence. R. I., and Martha Tarhell, Ph.D.
Introductory Geography fo.50
Complete Geography i.oo
The same. With Special State Editions .1.10
Carpenter's Geographical Readers
By Frank d. Carpenter.
North America $0.60 Europe .... fo.70
South America .60 Asia 60
Australia and the Islands of the Sea (/>/ prcparatioti).
Write for descriptive circulars and infor-
mation about Text- Books in Geoj^raphy
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
cWMi*** 521-531 Wabash Avenue, Chicago
New York
Have Yeu a Daughter
te Educate 7
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This fielect Boarding School for the higher
education of jrounR Ituilvi. with a pnparatoiy
department n)r Ifttic Rlrlu, Is directed by the
Sinters of St. Joseph.
The course of Studies Is sfstematlc and
thorough, emhracing every branrii of a
refined, solid, business, and Industrial educa-
tion.
The Academy offers exceptional advantagefl
In lYIosic, Art, and LanvaaveM. Classical
Prospective patrons are invited to call at
the Academy or they may refer by permis-
sion to the Most Keverend James Edward
gulffley. D. I>.
Board per Scholastic vear. «250. Extras
moderate. Beautifully Illustrated caUlogue
furnished on application to
tHE .MOIHEIS SrPERIOR.
Telephone, La Grange 61.
TEACHERS COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
NEW YORK CITY
Teachers College is the professional
school of Columbia University for the
study of education and the theoretical
and practical training of teachers of
both sexes for elementary, secondary,
and normal schools, of specialists m
various branches of school work, and
of school principals, supervisors, and
superintendents.
Its Courses of Study are
(i) A two-year Collegiate Course
which, followed by a two-year Profes-
sional Course, leads to the degree of
B. S. (a) Two-year Professional Courses
leading to the Bachelor's Diploma in
{a) Secondary Teaching, id) Elementary
Teaching, io Kindergarten, (d) Domes-
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and to the University degrees of A. fi.
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For circulars and further information
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JAMES E. RUSSELL. LL. D., Dean.
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A real gem. Teachem fall In love with It
and pupflH want to read it ihroiiKh as souii as
they begin It. Appropriate for School and
Home.
It 1» the «tor>- of the experience of Delma
and Harold who wimii to tneir grandfstber'a
to Hpend the HUiiiiner studying sod obser^'Ing
the birds.
CONTENTS are:
BiRDiRs AT Thkik Trai>K8: Ma*on —
Swallow. Babketmaker -Crimson line h.
Weaver -Oriole, Fuller — Goldfinch, Carpen-
ter - Woodpecker, Tailor - Tallorblrd.
Birdies a.vdTheirSongs: IntheOsrden
- Hohln, In the Wood - Thrush. In the Field '
— Bluebird. In the Sky — Lark, In the Home —
Canary, In the ti rove — Mockingbird.
Birdies on hie Wino; Huminlngblrd.
Tn« Birdikh' Farewell: Jack Sparrow
and Jenny Wren. (Jood-Bye.
The ))Ook Is very prettily Illustrated by
Bertha L. Corbett, the artist of Sunbonnet
Babies. The author Is Ida S. Elson, of Phils-
delphia, formerly a prominent RIndergartner
of Bethlehem, Pa.
William G. Smith & Company
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Journal of Pedagogy
"PROM the first issue the Journal of Pedagogy has been edited solely in the interest
■•■ of sound education and correct teaching. Some of the most important contribu-
tions to pedagogical literature in this country have appeared in its paees during the
past decade. It is the aim of the magazine to oflfer from issue to issue a full and impar-
tial account of the progress that is being made toward better things in educational
thought and practice.
It has become a necessity to every library, and teachers who wish the best must
include it in their list of periodicals.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XVI SEPTEMBER 1903
EDITORIAL — The BaUvia System— What the Batavia System Is — A Quickened Intellec-
tual Life — The Right View of a Superintendent's Duties - A Needed Amendment —
Music in the High School — A Difficult Undertaking Well Done The Boston Meeting
— Medical Inspection of Schools - College Entrance Examination Board.
TEXT-BOOK LIBRARIES, Robert MacDouc.ai..
COMMERCIALISM AGAINST CULTURE, J. H. Atkinson.
THE TEACHER'S PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE RESULTS OF CHILD STUDY,
F. E. Spauldinc.
THE AIM OF EDUCATION. M. A. CAKHrsciER.
THE PEDAGOGICAL VALUE OF MEDIATE INTEREST, L. W. Hoffman.
MUSIC STUDY VS. PERFORMANCE, H. H. Lanoton.
AMBIDEXTERITY AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. Samuel S. Maxwell.
A SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL SOCIOLOGY, D. C. Parr.
NEW BOOKS.
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1
An Announcement to Teachers of
Geography
RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY will publish
this fall and winter a new series of Geographies
By Richard Elwood Doihie
Professor of Geography^ Teachers College ^ Columbia Universi/y^ Xew York City :
co-editor of The Journal of Geography; and author of '*''A Reader
in Physical Geography for Beginners.''*
Book On. ELEMENTAR Y GEOGRAPHY »ead,
Cloih, Square 8vo, 8xio, 228 pages; 75 cents.
THIS is a gcojrraphy for bejjrinners. The book has, therefore, been divided into two
parts, entitled, respectively, " Home Geoj^raphy " and " World Relations and the
Continents."
In Part 1. the purpose has been to show the relation of the individual pupil to all
parts of his own country, and thereby to emphasize the interdependence of people com-
mercially and industriiilly. Any treatnieni of Home Cicoj^raphy must be general in
order to make it true f«)r all children in all localities. In the '* SujifK^cstions for Review '*
the pupil is asked to stu ly his own environment auvl 10 explain its xeojfraphy by
the universal facts presented in the text.
Part II. opens with a treatment of those factors that must be understood by the
pupil in order that he mav appreciate his relation t«» the world as a whole. The mter-
dependence of nations is here brouj^ht out. The la.st part is dev»»ted to ti:e several con-
tinents, and shows the reasons, so far as is possible within the limits t»f an elementary
book, for the supremacy of certain industries in certain places.
Boolt TWO ..ADVA NCED GEOGRA PH Y.. m preparation
Cloth, Square Bvo, 8x10, ... pajjes; $1.20.
'"T^HIS book has been written with the idea of emphasizing: particularly the "causal
l^ noti(m'* in jc'^oj^raphy teach injc- Part I., called "The Principles of Geographv,"
treats of those phase's of j^^eneral Keojrranhy which are necessary as a founciation
for an intellijrent and disciplinary studv of the several continents. The topics in this
part of the book are considered as far as possible in the order of their mutual depen-
dence, and the pupils are thus led to see the dependence of the hiy^her and more compli-
cated phases of geography on the simpler hut fundamental conditions.
In Part 11. "The Continents" arv treated in such a way as to emphasize the impor-
tance of their phy.sical characteristics. Kspecial attention is given to their economic
conditions, because it is believed that the greatest value from a stuily of the continents
comes: First, from the training in clear thinking involved; and' second, from the
knowledge it gives of principles and facts that can be used in later life.
... •• p/lA¥Ky •• ••
THE attention of geographers and geography teachers is especially invited to the
large number Jind excellence of the map.s. all'of which have been ma'deexpres.slv for
the.se geographies. Each c«)ntirent antl the United States is represented by three
maps, a relief map to giv(,' a bird's-eye view of the contour, i\, physical map showing, in
accordance with the international color scheme, the land heights and water depths, and a
political map giving the latest information in regard to boundaries and other varying
points. In Book Two appear commercial map<. showing the railroads and principal
industries of each region. For the Hist time in a school geograi)hy water depths are
.show^n on all maps.
The drawings for the maps have passed under the critical eye of Dr. J Paul Goode,
Assistant Profes.sor of (ieography in the University of Chicago, an expert in cartography.
Write us for fur/ her information regarding these books
Chicago pieW York London
RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY
Educational Publishers
jt y^iS^ ^ ^ ^ ^ozv many of your Nigh School
pupils can correctly make out a
bill, draic a check, ivrite a business letter or intelli-
gently ansiver the sim- ^ ^^ ^ a a a
plesi business question .^ A. RCfnCdl^ T TT
A First Book in Business Methods
Bv William R Teller. CrtJit .1/jh. Tkr /^ri/jm MjMmf'jif»trtmir c\»«i/^i»y» A j/«i>
muisvo, MnJki^uM, and Henkv K. ItROWN. //^jJ \>r tkf C**mmtr\ta7
Illustrated with 154 business forms, >■> in ct^lors.
Cloth, lamo, 171 pages; 75 cents.
THE need of the hour is practical eilucation for the business of life, Th»s )xH>k
promises to meet the need, t\^r it is m^t a work v>n lvH»k-keepin^or acc^nmtinir, but
what its name implies. It tells a bi>y or jfirl how to write busmess letters, how to
send money orders and telejrr.ims, how tv> ship frei>rhi and express, how to depi^sit and
draw money in various forms from banks, how to make contracts leases and ivirtner-
ships. how to deal in stvK'ks and bvmds, how to jfive deeds and mort>ra>{:es, and how to
settle estates. The b«x>k is profusely illustrated with /jisitmi/t's of business iwpers
printed in seven colors. The style is "simple and the lxM>k can Ih* easily usetl in the
eiehth g^radeand the rtrst years ot Hiifh SchtM»ls. As this isprv>lx»bly iheonly l>ook avail-
able for these grades it will be welcomed by those interestetl in cv^mmercial educaliv»n.
Rand, McNally ft Company : Educational Publishers : Chicago New York London
Bv K'A THAKIXE F.LI/ABETH HO PP. Ph. />. jHsfrHitor in the Extension Division of
the Unitersity of Chicaji^o^ author of '/he Place of Industries in Elementary Education. '
Book/. THE TREE-DWELLERS. Thk A.;e of Fi- ar.
Illustrated with a maps /> full pat^e and (k^ text drarctn^trs in half-tone by Howard I'.
Broxvn. Cloth, square unto, / ;X/./<vjr .- ^j; cents. Eor the primary {grades, (fust issued.)
THIS volume makes clear to the child how people lived before they hail fire, how and
why thev conquered it, and the chanjjes wrouj^hl in society by its use. The simnle
activities of gathering food, of weaving, building, taming fire, making use of the bmly for
tools and weapons, wearing trophies, and securing cooperative action by means of
rhythmic dances, are here shown to be the simple t\>rms of processes which still minister
to our daily needs.
Bool' II. THE EARLY CAVE-MEN. Thk Ar.K <.!• Cmhat.
Illustrated with 7.> drawinf's in ha f- tone f>y Howard \'. Brown. Clothe square rjmo^
n4 pages : 4^ cents. Eor the primary grades, (/n press.)
IN this volume the child is helped to realire that it is not only necessary to know h»>w to
use fire, but to know how to make it. Protection from the cold winters, which char-
acterize the age described, is sought first in caves ; but fire is a necessary means of defend-
ing the caves. The serious condition to which the cave-men are reduceil by the loss <»f fire
during the time of a flood is shown to be the moiive which pn>mpts theiu to hold a council ;
to send men to the fire country ; to make improvements in clothing, in devices for carrying,
and in tools and weapons ; and, finally, to the discovery of a way of making fire.
TO FOLLO\V
Book III. THE LATER CAVE-MEM. The Ace ok the Chase.
Illustrated. For the primary grades.
Book IV. THE TENT-DWELLERS. The Early Fishino Men.
Illustrated. For the primary grades.
Later volumes will deal with the early steps in the development of pastoral and agri-
cultural life, the changes wrought by the discovery and u.se of metals, and the first steps in
the evolution of travel, trade, and transportation. ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Write us a letter of iiupiiry
and receive in reply our new circulars and a letter of information regarding these l>o(»ks.
RAND, McNAELY &» COMPA.V \\ EDUCATtOXAL PU BLtSH EPS
THE VALUE OF MAPS
[HE day is already here when ac-
curate and convenient maps are
considered an essential part of
the equipment of every school.
Few teachers would undertake to
teach the subject of geography or history
without a set of down-to-date maps, A few
years ago it was enough to have a wall ?nap
of the United States, hid at the close of the
Spaftish war we found ourselves interested
in the geography of both Europe and Asia.
The recent conflict in South Africa has
revised the map of that continent and created
a new interest in its geogi'uphy. The Pan-
American Exposition, the Pan-American Con-
gress, and the plans for the Panama Canal
have turned our eyes a?iezv toward South
America, whose geography is practically un-
known to the American people. Our interests
are now world-wide, and we are of necessity
becoming a geography -studying people. J^ J^
^ Eor nearly fifty years Messrs. Rand,
McNally & Company have been the largest
map makers in America. Their imprint
corresponds to the ''Sterling'* mark on
silverware, a7id stands for accuracy, com-
pleteness, and convenience. Their informa-
tion is secured from official sources and each
map is caref^llly revised with each printi7ig.
RaKK, McNaIXT k COMPAKfT, rHIi'AOO AMD NbW YoRK.
PHYSICAL
MAPS
The necessity of Physical Maps as aids to the
teachin}^ of Kcojjjraphy and allied subjects is Ken-
erally recojrnized. For many years the Physical
Maps issued by Hand, McNally & Co. have* been
accepted by teachers of geography as the standard.
THE CHARACTER OF THE MAPS
Pnlnrincr These maps follow the ttitertiatiottal color scheme and show
l^OlOnng; /and elevations in four shades of brown, the darkest bent if
the highest, and the water depths in three shades of blue, the dat kest shade
being the c\^^^^ rnrrAnfc Ocean currents 7vhich are one of the great
deepest. '-'Cean V^urrentb j-.j^f^rs in determining the climate of
countries are clearly indicated, the warm currents being shaken in broken
or pink and the cold i^^^o-, ri^krifVic i^'^ter depths of less than
currents in dark blue. '-'Cean L/epins ^-^ feet are shoivn in light
blue, depths from 6jo to 6,j;oo in darker blue, and depths greater than
dy^oo in a still darker shade of blue. This is an important addition
to the information usually shown on Physical Maps, and enables the
student to study intellii^ently the interesting geography of the ocean
bottoms aswell'as the p)iysi- pi^-f nicfriKufiftn Phese are the only
ographyof the land surface, r'lant UlStHDUtlOn physical Maps
which sho7V correctly and clearly the plant distribution of North America,
Euf ope, and Asia. And this feature alone t<<^4.v.**..«*o1 T :«-»><< ta .
empLsiz,slhecon,plele,u-sSiJf preparation. ISOthcrmal LinCS. The
isothermal lines for fuly and January are shown in red, and degrees of
heat and cold are marked on the margins of the maps, Arriirarv
showing the curious effect of topography upon climate. ■'^CCUracy ^/^^.
making of these maps the latest official information and the results of
the most recent explorations have been utilized. They tell the truth.
THE LIST
United States North America South America Europe Asia Africa
World on Mercator's Projection Pacific Ocean and Australia
FRANCIS W. PARKER SAID:
"Equal to the Best Work in Germany"
Chicago, III.
'"'Allow my hearty thanks that an American publisher has, at last, met the pressiuj^
needs of j^eniiine j^eo^raphnal leachinf^ by publishing such excellent wall maps.
" > our Physical Maps are njnal to the best 7vork done in Germany. Tiny are well
printed and very cheap, compared with the best ivall maps. published at Got ha.
^^It is seldom that J have an opportunity to endorse so emphatically a means of
teaching true geography. I trust these maps will make their appearance in every
school-room in America. 1 should prefer them in grammar and high schools to atiy
text -book in geography ei>er yet print id.
'^FRASCIS W. PARKER:'
Late Director of the School of Education, The University of Chicago.
A hand-book giving a full de.scription of these maps,
with special suggestions for their use. has been
prepared by Dr. J. Paul (ioode of the University
of Pennsylvania. There is an introduction by Dr.
T. C. Chambcrlin of the University of Chicago.
Rand, McNally 6r* Company, Chicago and JVetv York
PHYSICAI
MAPS
Ghe New International
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
ITs A Glorious Thing to hnow\ dlTO^
to Knaw Thc^i Vou Khqh
Hotii> to Knotty 'hL^ here
io go ^ar in^omxcx-
tian— Ihaf^ the ^
if u c .f t I c^n
Here's a Rich <
4
Mine Ihdi's
Open to -*
U/?e
]htm \mmmuiimm?tim
In oilier W9r(lt, Tli£ ficv tnltniAlMkaAt Bn^
cjctiipac«l« msvers laUi fUty per c«fl|. raoit
It eonUloi i(K» itilt pafc coloned pUi^i—
^irtr 7/^^n tjll&cr cxctUeot lUikSirattos. Coin*-
pTbet t r tirf < f ommc»-^f er 1 6,(HI0 fSfef-
tj tlic ootmtrir't jiHat tpccUlKts ind editors.
It tti& life eniofseiiieiar of America'! I^adtflr
fkrnktn, tr^cbo^ anJ icb<»Urt. AfliS tiuCf
Wbti 10 iLDftW iDfrn: afimtv IfK fCcw Intrr*
c^r ar^ -Jty-
DODD. MEAD d; CO.
Send aie«
lUfistnital
Is new, thorough, com
prehervsive - s viper lor ti
ail other works of j^tmtlai
nature. That's a. vcrr
positive stiitement, hu^
the facts iusiify it '• ^
Under (he searcKhtih
opposite. iacontrovertibl»
I evidence is ihnwn V r
itrt f Ar m&WA
Stmm
Jciof.ofiJ^c:^ '
-uL.
^ i^- 1^
, . r ' .^ \.
NEWTON C. DOUGHERTY
^upcHfiten«l«£nt of ScHi^oUk Peoria* IINnoH, sa> *
«ni safe It b «iirti^ ^f » rtace ao< o«li io iHe coaflcr^Mt t)>
REDWAY'S
COIMMERCIAL
GEOGRAPHY
WATCH IT!
A book for High Schooib, Com-
mercial Courses and Business
Colleges, full of the laiest and
freshest material available on
Commercial Subjects.
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
Ne\%
i «« ^k_r ■ • <^^ Ml4^ W
• Vi • '.^
I
77rJOLIRNAL"/
GEOGRAPHY
» t ^ I . » • i • _
J ].UKl AK'» - TC,ot
^;.<iiiviivhi| ill i?lp-
Ah nux'ttial 4»ci(oaiiy
(T oiitFnt*> leU VH i? t-^i
tiElH SMITH
•I .50
•
f i J J^ L t I
HAVE YOU
SEEN IT?
The Only Geo-
graphical Journal
for Geography
Teachers
J^
Recommends it
to Teachers
We find The Journal of
Geography very helpful in
our school work, and recom-
mend it to the teaching pro-
fession. Each issue contains
a great many things helpful
in the class room, and the
service of the Journal in
broadening and deepening
geographical knowledge
among teachers is very great.
—William C. Ruediger,
Ph. M., Dt//on, A/on/.
How to become a
better teacher
of Geography?
This question
can be answered by
^ ''signing yi>ur name to this slip,^ _
cutting it off, and mailing it with
25 cents (stamps accepted) to the
address given. This will entitle you to
the next three issues of
^The Journal of Geography^
and enable you to see whether or
not this magazine is what you want
to increase the usefulness of your^
geographical work. If yonr J^^ The
^name is notalready on our^^^r Journal
lists, take advantage X^f Geography
of this
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^OFFER.
Call tht
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State.
World's Fair
and National Educational
Association Number
The JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY
The June number of T'/f/' Journal o/"Geograph y will be a World's Fair and
a National Educational Association Number. It will be devoted entirely to
^he Geography
of the Louisiana
Purchase
Amonj^ the numerous articles that may be expected are the following :
THE GEOGRAPHICAL VALUE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
By Professor A. P. Brigham, of Coij^a/e University
THE SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
By N. V. Darton, of the United States Geographical Surtey
THE HISTORY AND EXPLORATION OF THE LOUISIANA
PURCHASE
By Dr. A. C. Rowland, of the Teachers College ^ Columbia University^
Netv York City
THE INDUSTRIES OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
By Professor Spencer Trotter, of S-varthmore College^ Svjarthmore,
Fa.: author of '^l Commercial Geography '
THE IMPORTANCE AND PRESENT CONDITIONS OF IRRIGATION
By Geo. B. Hollister, Associate Editor of 7 he Journal of Geography;
Ilydrographer for the United States Geological Survey
ST. LOUIS
By Ellen C. Semple, of Louisville, At..- author of *' American History
and Geographic Conditions''
DENVER
By Charles E. Cmadsev, Superintendent of the Denver, Colorado, Schools
The articles will be illustrated extensively by photographs and maps:
there will be a larji^e foldins: map of the Louisiana Purchase inserted, and
the number will be invaluable to all teachers who intend to visit St. Louis in
1004, or who wish to have well selected geojjfraphical material on the Great
West and especially of the Louisiana Purchase, available for class use. The
number will also include a brief selected bibliography on the geography of
the Louisiana Purcha.se, and statistical notes showing its population, com-
merce, industries, and relative economic importance.
The price is 20c, postpaid
This remarkable Special Issue should be in the hands of every teacher
before attending the Convention. Its publication is of decided importance
in the geographical world. Order now and be sure of a copy.
Subscriptions and advertisements should be sent to
The JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY
Room 560, 160 Adams St., CHICAGO,
ILL.
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
RULES OF PUBLICATION
The Journal of Geography is an Illustrated Monthly Magazine devoted to the interests
of teachers of geography in elementary, in secondary, and in normal schools. It is
published the fifth of every month, excepting July and August.
Price — The subscription price is one and one-half dollars a year, payable in advance.
Twenty cents a copy.
Poatage ia Prepaid by the publishers for all subscriptions in the United States, Hawai-
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Do not ask the publisher to discontinue your subscription without paying all
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Lettera should be addressed :
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Room 560, 160 Adams St., Chicago, Illinois
A Civil Goyernment
ottlie United States
Arw and Enlarf^ed Edition^ i()(\j
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mal School
118 pages . . . Cloth
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If you are going to start a class
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rates given. Whatever book you
may be using you need the
method and questions of this
book to raise the interest to
white heat
H. R. PATTINGILL
LANSING * * * MICHIGAN
The
School
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HENRY TURNER BAILEY
Editor
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BOOKS ON NATIONAL
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The American Advance
By E, J. CARPENTER. 8vo. S^.jo n^t.
Th€ New York Times Saturday Review : " Mr. Carpenter tells well and
with some details not usually given, the oft-told story of our territorial
growth."
The Spanish Conquest in America
By SIR ARTHUR HELPS. i2mo, in 4 vols. $1.50 each.
The Boston Transcript : *' Further evidence of the present interest
taken in matters pertaining to early American discovery and colonizing is
presented in the publication of a new edition of Sir Arthur Helps' ' Historj^
of the Spanish Conquest in America.' "
America: The Land of Contrasts
By JAMES FULLARTON MUIRHEAD. i2?no. $1.20 net.
The Springfield Republican : "Mr. Muirhead is one of the most intelli-
gent and best informed of the Englishmen who have written down their
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The Expansion of Western Ideals
By CHARLES WALDSTELW. i6mo. Si.oo.
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earnest argument in favor of the retention by the Republic of all the island
domain of which it has recently become possessed."
Persian Children of the Royal Family
By WILFRID SPARROW 8vo. S3. 50 net.
The Dial: "Brimful of interest. The book is supplied with choice
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TWENTIETH CENTURY GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS
An Introduction to Physical Geography
By Grove Karl Gilbert, LL.D., United States Geological Survey; and
Albert Perry Brigham, A. M., Professor of Geology in Colgate University,
author of "A Text-book of Geology." i2nio. Cloth, $1.25.
17 OR sound reasons it may be asserted that in the production of this work a point
■'■ nearer perfection in text-book iiterature has been reached than ever before. The
names and standing of the authors are a guarantee of the scientijic and pedagogical
character of the ivork^ and its artistic and mechanical features speak for themselves.
As a text-oook it is preeminently up-to-date. It is educative, informing^ inspiring.
It goes to the field and to nature for its lessons and for its illustrations. No second-
hand material worked over. The student feels that he is drawing from original
sources and his interest and enthusiasm are aroused and maintained. The fact that
although published less than a year ago., four large editions have been printed., is evi-
dence of Its appreciation by practical teachers throughout the country.
A Text-book of Commercial Geography
By Cyrus C. Adams, F.A.G.S., formerly President of the Department
of Geography, Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. i2mo. Cloth, 505
pages, $1.30.
ILREADY acknowledged the standard text-book of Commercial Geography.
An Elementary Commercial Geography
By Cyrus C. Adams, author of "A Commercial Geography." i2mo.
Cloth, $1.10 net.
\TOT an abridgtnent of the text-book by same author^ but a briefer., simpler treatise
^ * for more elementary grades.
Appletons' World Series
Edited by H. J. Mackinder, M.A., Student of Christ Church, Reader in
Geography in the University of Oxford, Principal of Reading College.
8mo. Cloth, each $2.00 net, postage 18 cents.
yV/^ series will consist of twelve volumes, each being an essay descriptive of a great
-* natural region, its marked physical features, and the life of the people, with
numerous maps and diagrams. Together, the volumes rvu'l give a complete account
0/ the world, more especially as the field of human activity.
1. Britain and the North Atlantic. By the Editor.
2. The Nearer East. By D. G. Hogarth, M. A.. Fellow of Magdalen
College, Oxford, Director of the British School at Athens.
3. Central Europe. By Dr. Joseph Partsch, Professor of Geography in
the University of Breslau. Nearly ready.
4. North America. By Prof. Israel Cook Russell, M. S., C. E., LL. D.,
Professor of Geology in the State University of Michigan. Nearly ready.
The International Geography
A Comprehensive Story of the World. By seventy eminent authors.
Edited by H. R. Mill. Smo. Cloth, 488 illustrations, 1,088 pages, $3.50.
'IT is no exaggeration to say that no one volume reference book on general geography,
* comparable to this book, exists m the English Language.''— four naf of School
Geography.
D. APPLETON & COMPANY
New York Boston Chicago London
SCHOOL SCIENCE
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Briirlii. i^sJ»i^^nlJ^ iimcticsil nrlick^smi X\w ti'jK'liiii^t»f fcienco,
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SCHOOL MATHEMATICS
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FHce of SCHOOL MATHEMATICS is 1 1 00 ft ie»r : 25c a copy.
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THE SCHOOL SCtENCE PRESS, < Ravenswood, Chicago. III.
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CONTENTS are:
Birdies at Their Trai»eh: Mason —
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William G. Smith & Company
Minneapolis, Minnesota
THE
New Elementary Agriculture
By Dr. Chas. E. Besses^ Prof. Lawrence
Brunery and Prof. G. D. Sivezey
of the
University of Nebr.\sk.\
4n elementary text-book for the eeventh and eighth
gradee or the High School.
A STR0N6 ENDORSEMENT
Some time a^o I received a copy- of
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urging the necessity of this for some
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in the common school, or, probably, it
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preparing of teachers, so that when
they take up the common school work
thev can introduce this delightful and
beneficial study. Every child would be
benefited by a course of study in this
book and instruction regarding it in the
classroom. Hon. James Wii^on,
6'. S. Secretary of Agriculture.
Published in October, 1903, but already
m use in 114 different schools.
THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHIN6 COMPANY,
LINCOLN, NEBRASKA.
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and make you ivortli more as a teacher. The first will be read
and thrown aside ; the second will be preserved and bound up
for permanent reference.
We publish "EDUCATION," the oldest of the high-class
monthly educational magazines, now in its twenty-fourth year.
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oo
The Eternal Question for Teachers
TTOHXr Al^i^ll I conduct my school work
^'•^^ ▼▼ so as to get the best rooulto ?
OO
WHERE
can I find a book that will show me
common-senso school methods?
OO
The Question Solved
Send for Henry Sabin's COMMON SENSE DIDACTICS.
for common school teachers. It is an aid. an encouragement,
a counselor. Cloth, i2mo, 343 pages. Price. $1.
Rand, McXally & Co., Chicago and New York,
00
Current Events
and the
Course of Study
Important Announcement
THE characteristic of THE LITTLE CHRONICLE which has brought it into
such favor with practical teachers is the fuudanieutul distinction, kept con-
stantly in view in its editorial policy, between teaching^ Current £ventfl and iuln|f
Current Kvents as a means ot teaching.
In further development of this idea it is our pur-
pose, takinf< Geography as our basis, and beg^nningf
with the first issue in September, to be largely
governed in the selection and treatment of
news and related matter by the order of treat-
ineikt of Nubjects in Geography as represented
bv the best modern text-books and most carefully
arranged Courses of Study in City'Schools.
For classes beginning iJeography, whether elementary or advanced, special atten-
tion will be paid to news and supplementary reading in prose and poetry illustrating
nhvsiographic facts and laws; then to similar matter relating to North America as a
whole, then to the United States as a Whole, then to groups of States in the usual
order. New England. Middle Atlantic, Southern, etc., then to the other countries of
North America, then to South America ; while in the same issues, for the classes doing
the latter half of their work in Geography, similar attention will be paid in the begin-
ning of the year to Europe, and then, m the order named, to Asia, Africa, Australia,
and Oceania.
This plan, however, will not cause less attention to be paid to important current
history, no matter in what part of the world the events may occur.
Write us about free trial order for alt your pupils,
and our 2'CentS'a'bJeek plan.
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?-
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35,000 etitncf, baM:d nn thm hitcsi census. New Biographical Dictionary
pivinR brief facts ft1^i<>ut io,£>!io pnicd pcr*oTis, Edited hy \V. T, Harrii, Phi» D^^
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INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY
KING'S
Geographies
UyQ. P. KiSG, Master iyfihe DearbsrH PuMfc ScAtfi^/, Ea^ion, and Presideni
ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY . .
ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY.
, . Price^ 6S Cents.
In Preparation.
THE ELEMENTARY (iEOdRAPH V flSj>i«tiRi to the subject of home geugraphy
its proper and impurtunl placu in 4 be Ursl ytar rpf the f^cography t^uurse. The
W€*rk of the Brsi i\ytt \'enrH, a^ Kengraphiesi go, hrtfl always been the driest of
the course. Thisi bunk cknihe** the work of the first yeitr (fourth grade) with life
mnd interest by muking it thi>fnughly concrtie, and by selecting a. few geogriiphlcal
typen (a mountain, a river, a hot coMntry, ctej for study in fall detail
"Journey Geography" is a Mrong feature of the btH-k, and contributes to the
Interest of the second year n fifth ^radei work. The study nf geographical types is
continued, and adds to the inleresi.
LOTHROP PUBLISHING COMPANY
530 AtlantJc Avenue
Boston
HOME
GEOGRAPHY
Primary Gratfi^s
By Harouj* W. Faihbanks
Beautiftill}'
Illustrated
Cioth, 60 ftnis
Educational Publishing
Company
22a WabaBh Ave., CHICAGO, ILL
^he Study of Maps
IN GEOGRAPHY we arc con^
stantly using maps; and upon
them must be based a neces-
sarily large part of our work in
geography. So proper education in
geography must include a careful train-
ing in the making and interpretation
of maps. More a^td more a map is
coming to be a method of shorthajtd
representation of a mass of geograph-
ical information, and more than ez^er a
good geographer is able to read a chap-
ter from a map. A pupil needs to
learn the language of maps, then to
memorize some of the essays and
sketches set forth in that map's lan-
guage. To do this is an exercise of
attention and retention, and, studied
in this way, the continents become as
easy as so many letters in an alpha-
bet— learned once, learned forever.
J. Paul Goode
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. FEBRUARY, 1904 No.
THE GEOGRAPHY COURSE IN THE CHICAGO
NORMAL SCHOOL
PART I
BY FRANK W. DARLING AND ELIZA RKTH SMITH
0/ the Chicago Normal School, Chicago, Illinois
THE organization of all courses in the Chicago Normal School
is adapted to the well-defined conditions peculiar to the school.
The fact that the Chicago Normal School stands at the head of
the Chicago school system to prepare graduates of the Chicago schools
to be teachers in the same system, gives the school the advantage of
limitations which normal schools do not often enjoy. All entering
students have had equal and practically the same chances for prepara-
tion in the Chicago schools All graduates must l)e especially trained
to meet the conditions i)eculiar to the Chicago schools. Hence the
course in geography, here presented deals oidy with these known con-
ditions of entrance and attempts to meet these known conditions of
demand, but at the same time it aims to give such a preparation for
general teaching that the students may be well prepared to teach in
other environments than those prevailing in the Chicago Public Schools.
It is assumed that a student entering the Chicago Normal School
has had all of the strictly academic study of geography that is necessarj^
to allow of his treating the subject-matter as the accpiired building
material with which he works. The course in geography is entirely a pro-
fessional study of the subject and it is found that the students do get
a better review of the subject-matter of geography by approaching it
from the standpoint of the teacher than those, with equal preparation,
did under the previous course, by a simple academic study. The pro-
fessional study is divided into two distinct divisions:
1. The study of the subject from the point of view of the subject-
matter alone, with the conscious aim of discovering the organization
Copyright^ igo^^ by E. M. Lehnerts
D
6 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
inherent in the subject-matter. This procedure must include a
close scnitiny of the different parts of the subject-matter to discover
the relations existing between the parts as applied in the study of
certain wholes. Such is the intent of the first year's work as outlined.
2. The study of the subject from the point of view of the child with
the conscious aim of adapting the subject-matter to the growing con-
sciousness of the child. This must include a psychological study of
the child to determine his ability for mastering and his mental processes
of comprehending certain parts of the subject-matter at certain ages.
Incidentally it also includes the discover>^ of the discipHnary value
of the subject. Such is the intent of the second year's work as outlined.
After this preparation, as outlined, each student is given a chance
to practice teaching the subject in one of the grades for six weeks.
This teaching work is done under the direct supervision of the regular
grade critic teacher and the geography department.
FIRST VKAR OF C.FOGRAPHY
(Fourteen nreks, fire fijtu-minute periods weekly.)
I. INTRODUCTION
-1. .1 Consideration of \Vh(tt Geoijraphy Is; riz., '*A study of the earth
in its relation to life."
1. Earth factors determining life conditions.
a. Climate.
h. Structure.
e. p]xaniples showing tlie innnence of these factors.
]i. Educational Value oj such a Study of Nehttiotfs.
1. Discipline.
'>
Cultur
II. THi: KAUTH AS A WIIOLK
.1 . Shape.
1. Proofs.
a. A person moving north or south sees stars rise and set at an
e(|Ually progressive rate.
I). The sun rises westward at the same rat(\
r. Ships sailing with ecpial speed disappear in all directions at
the same rate.
d. The shadow of the earth cast upon the moon during a lunai
eclipse is always circular.
2. Results.
a. The pull of gravity is nearly the same all over the earth, hence:
A GEOGRAPHY COURSE
v">/
(1) The moving of weights is easy.
(2) The atmosphere at sea level is of the same density.
Most men are adjusted to hving under such a density.
(3) The earth has a comparatively level surface, hence:
(a) There is a wide distribution of organic species.
(6) Communication is easy.
h. We have the terms ''up" and ''down."
c. The curvature of the earth has to be taken into account in
digging canals.
B. Size in its Relation to Man^s Life.
1. Effect upon the intercourse of savage peoples.
2. Effect of railroads, telegraph lines, etc., in overcoming size.
a. Free exchange of products and irleas between all parts of the
world.
C. Spheres of the Earth.
1. Atmosphere.
2. Hydrosphere.
3. Lithosphere.
4. Centrosphere.
5. Relation of spheres in space and comparative mass of atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
6. Interpenetration of atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere
and its effect in furnishing conditions for life.
D. The Lan^s.
1. Arrangement about the North Pole.
a. Effect of massing of lands in the northern hemisphere uj)()n
the distribution of heat.
2. North and south projecting arms.
a. Effect upon ocean currents and distribution of heat.
3. Division into continents and islands.
a. Effect upon life in the development of species.
h. General triangular shape of continents.
c. Size of continents and effect upon the develoj)ment of life.
d. Formation of the continents.
(1) Diastrophism.
Effect upon the surface,
(2) Vulcanism.
Formation of igneous rocks and surface forms.
(3) Gradation.
Formation of mantle rock, sedimentary rock, and surface
forms.
58 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
E. The Oceans,
1. General arrangement and comparative size.
2. Relation to life.
a. Sources of food, moisture, and means of cheap communication.
P\ Movements of the Earth.
1. Rotation.
a. Proof of rotation.
(1) Deflection of falling bodies.
(2) Foucault's pendulum.
(3) Flattening at the poles.
6. Results of rotation.
(1) Gives a unit of time — the day.
(2) Directions — points of compass.
(3) Latitude and longitude.
(4) Standard time.
(5) International Date Line.
2. Revolution.
a. Sun's apparent movement among the stars.
h. The year.
G. Distribution of Heat on the Earth's Surface.
1. Nature of heat.
2. Modes of transference.
3. Measuring of heat — thermometer.
4. Sources of heat.
a. Solar.
h. Terrestrial
5. Distribution of heat due to slant of sun's rays.
a. Distribution as observed in Chicago.
(1) Daily distribution as shown by weather records kept by
pupils.
(2) Cause of daily distribution.
(a) Comparison of angle of sun's rays received in the morn-
ing and at noon (by use of skiameter); at night.
(6) Comparison of amount of surface covered by noon and
morning rays. (By use of ski meter.)
(c) Effect of rotation.
(3) Yearly distribution as shown by change of seasons.
(4) Cause of yearly distribution.
(a) North and south apparent movement of the sun and its
distance from our zenith at different seasons. Effect
upon angle of sun's rays.
A GEOGRAPHY COURSE 59
(6) Varjang length of clay. Place of sunrise and sunset
and length of sun\s path at the
Winter solstice.
Summer solstice.
Equinoxes.
b. Distribution on the earth as a whole.
(1) Region of vertical rays and greatest heat.
(2) Region of oblique rays.
(8) Cause of vertical and oblique rays.
(a) Comparative size of earth and sun and distance between
them.
(6) Practical parallelism of all rays received from the sun.
(c) Effect of curved surface of the earth upon the angle
which rays make with the surface.
(4) Shifting of vertical rays.
(a) Earth's orbit, shape, distance from the sun,
(6) Plane of the orbit.
(c) Attitude of the earth as regards this plane.
(d) Conditions of heat and light if axis were vertical to this
plane.
(e) Amount of inclination of axis necessary to carr>' rays
23i° north and south of the equator.
(/) Fixed direction of North Pole.
(g) Combined effect of revolution, and inclination and
parallelism of axis.
(5) Location of vertical rays and twilight circle at
(1) Winter solstice.
(2) Summer solstice.
(3) Equinoxes.
(a) Consequent length of day and distribution of heat.
c. Location and definition of zones of insolation, tropics, polar
circles.
d. Visualization of sun\s position at noon at different places on
the earth's surface at
(1) Summer solstice
(2) Winter solstice.
(3) Equinoxes.
6. Winds.
a. Composition and pressure of the atmosphere.
b. Measuring pressure — barometer.
c. Changes in density and pressure.
5o THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY February
d Movement as a result of difference of pressure.
e. Direction of movement from high to low pressure areas.
/. General circulation of the atmosphere.
(1) Region of greatest heat on earth *s surface,
(a) Effect upon density and pressure of air.
(2) Formation of
(a) Trades.
(b) Belt of equatorial calms — doldrums.
(c) Antitrades
(3) Effect of rotation of the earth,
(a) Deflection of air currents.
(6) Circumpolar whirl.
(f) Low pressure areas at the poles.
(d) High pressure at about 30° north and south latitudes. —
Horse latitudes.
(e) Westerlies.
(4) Effect of migration of vertical rays.
(a) Shifting of wind belts.
(6) Deflection of trade winds as they cross the geographical
equator. Terrestrial monsoons.
[/. Effect of land and water surface on general circulation due to
(1) Unequal heating of land and water,
(a) Continental monsoons.
(2) Obstruction of land.
h. Effect of winds upon the formation of ocean currents.
i. Effect of winds upon the distribution of heat
/. Summary as to the distribution of heat on earth^s surface by
a study of isothermal charts.
//. RainfalL
1. Presence of moisture in the air.
a. Relaticm to heat.
b. Relation to bodies of water.
c. Humidity.
(1) Measuring amount of, — hygrometer,
2. Conditions causing rainfall.
a. Chilling of the air due to
(1) Ascending currents at region where the sun's rays are
vertical — zenithal rains
(2) Storms.
(3) Mountain deflection
(4) Latitude.
A GEOGRAPHY COURSE 6 I
3. Measuring amount of rainfall.
a. Rain gauge.
b. Average annual rainfall of Chicago.
c. Average annual rainfall necessary for agriculture.
4. Distribution through the year.
a. Relation to vegetation.
b. Relation to agriculture.
5. Rainfall of different wind belts.
a. Effect of highlands upon distribution.
6. Effect of cyclonic storms.
6. Study of rainfall map and summary as to distribution of rainfall.
Vegetation Zonea.
1. Factors essential to plant growth.
2. Distribution of plants in Chicago environment.
a. Typical areas.
(1) Sand dunes.
(2) Swamps.
(3) Prairies.
(4) River valleys
3. Geographical distribution of plants; control by temperature.
a Heat belts
(1) Polar cold caps bounded by isotherm of 50° for the hottest
month which marks the northern limit of trees and most
hardy cereals.
(2) Hot belt bounded by the annual isotherm of 68° which
marks the limits of palms.
(3) Temperate belt.
b. Tundras and barren lands of polar cold caps. Characteristic
plants — mosses, ichens, dwarf birches, stunted berry-bear-
ing bushes, l)right colored flowers, gentians, anemones, etc.
Animal life and people studied in relation to the environ-
ment.
c. Distribution of vegetation in the temperate belt in relation to
moistures.
(1) Temperate forests, coniferous and tleciduous.
(2) Steppe lands.
(3) Deserts.
Influence of the different areas upon the animal life and upon
man's mode of life.
d. Distribution of vegetation in the hot belt in relation to mois-
ture.
62 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
(1) Tropical forests.
(2) Savannahs.
(3) Deserts.
Influence of the different areas upon the animal life and upon
man's mode of life.
III. NORTH AMERICA
A. Position on the Globe.
1. Position in the northern hemisphere.
2. Position in relation to oceans and other continents
3. Advantages of position between densely peopled regions of
Europe and Asia.
B, General SLape and Size.
1. Advantage of wide extent in temperate belt.
2 Advantages of extent in latitude.
('. Physical Features.
1. Arrangement of highlands.
2. Comparison of highlands as to extent, height, and general appear-
ance.
3. Drainage areas as formed by slopes of highlands.
a. Atlantic.
b. Great Lakes.
c. Gulf of Mexico.
cl. Pacific.
e. (ir^at Basin.
/. Hudson Bay.
g. Arctic.
4. Lowlands in j)art formed from debris washed down from high-
lands.
D. Glaciation.
I. Valley glaciers
a. Location,
b. Origin.
c. Movement.
d. Work.
2 Continental glaciers.
a. Present — Greenland Antarctic.
b. Ancient — North American ice sheet.
(1) Centers of ice accunudation.
(2) Extent.
(3) Work done in Canada and New England.
I904 A GEOGRAPHY COURSE 63
(4) Work done in Northern Mississippi Basin r^on.
(5) Origin of Chicago plain, topographic features and iis
influence upon the grrowth of a great city.
E. Climate.
1. Winds. -1
a. Part of continent in each beh.
h. Effect of seasonal shifting of belts
2. Temperature.
a. Part of continent in different heat l)elts
6. Effect of winds and ocean currents on east and west coasts.
c. Comparison of interior with coasts.
3. Rainfall.
a. Distribution in relation to highlands.
b. Effect of cyclonic storms.
c. Influence of the Gulf of Mexico.
V, Life.
1. Part of continent in different vegetation zones.
2. Influence of the above distribution upon the industrial life of
the continent.
IV. PHYSIOCIRAPHK^ RKGIONS OF THK IXITKD STATES
Lake and Prairie Plains.
New England Upland.
Atlantic Coastal Plain.
Piedmont Belt.
Appalachian Ranges.
Allegheny Plateaus.
Gulf Coastal Plain.
Alluvial Plain of the lower Mississippi.
Ozark Mountains.
Great Plains.
Rocky Mountains.
Columbia Plateau.
Colorado Plateau.
Basin Ranges.
Pacific Mountains and Valleys.
Note: — The lake and prairie plains are first studied because the
students are within this environment Next, the New P]ngland plateaus
are studied as a contrasted glaciated area. Each region is studied
according to the general plan outlined below^ for the lake and prairie
plains.
64 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
A. . Lake Plains and Prairie Plains; the Northern Glaciated Part.
1. Location and extent.
* Characteristic features.
a Level or undulating surface. Low hills of glacial origin.
b. Drained and terraced lake beds.
c. Young valleys, falls akes
(/. Glacial soils.
3. Climate
a. Great range of temperature.
h. Length of growing season from four to six months.
c. Rainfall from twenty to forty inches.
4. Industrial regions.
Forest areas.
Wheat region.
Corn belt.
Iron region.
Coal regions.
a. Location and extent of each.
b General characteristics of the industry.
c. Amount and value of the products.
d. xMarkets.
/' Allied industries.
/. Amount and value of indiistries as to states.
5. Imj)ortant centers.
6. Trade routes.
Great Lakes.
Mississi])pi River.
Railroads.
V. POLITICAL DIVISION^
Organization of the wliole as seen throuirh study of the political
divisions.
XoTi:: — Each jaipil is recjuired to make a sand model and a chalk
modeled relief map of tlu^ whole contin(»nt and of the different physio-
graphic regions
No one text-book is us(m1 for students are referrcul to different texts
found in the libraiy and in the geogra])hy room.
During the study of the earth as a wliole weather records are kej)!
and regular observations of the sun's position made
( 7" /'/' rtnt-hnhd.)
1904 MAP MAKING AND MAP READING 65
MAP MAKING AND MAP READING
BY ROBERT MARSHALL BROWN
Of the Stale Normal ScfuxU, Worcester, Massachusetts
INTRODUCTION
IT was the privilege of the writer, during the past summer, to conduct
a number of field excursions in geography with North Carolina
teachers. At the outset, many of the teachers expressed the desire
to undertake map making out of doors. Every one of the teachers had
followed, to the best of her ability, the directions which her own school
text-book and the supplementary books had yielded for mapping the
schoolroom or school yard. They were not sure, however, that the
result of their conscientious endeavors was the desirable one, nor
were they sure why the books were insistent upon this exercise. Fur-
thermore they were not certain when this work was done that any more
in this line was demanded of them. They were not on familiar ground.
A similar uncertainty exists among teachers generally, for nearly all are in
doubt as to the advisability of even trying map drawing in school work.
The present condition is, in part, the result of lack of clearness and
completeness in the statement of what is desired, and is a good illus-
tration of the unfortunate period which often follows the promulgation
of new ideas, between the time of a teacher's schooHng and her assum-
ing a teacher's responsibilities, when the medium for the transmission
of the ideal of reform does not adequately enlighten. The best thing
concerning map drawing has not been said. Along many lines of map
work there are differences of opinion, and hence it is not strange that
the teacher hesitates. The present article is not written to cover the
whole field of map exercises, but to present certain helpful points in
reference to a few fundamentals. The writer assumes the responsibil-
ity of no new ideal, but insists on a more careful plan and longer training
in order to reahze as far as possible the old. Its specific aim is to aid
a number of teachers who have in times past sought aid, and it has
been submitted for pubHcation only in the belief that there is a general
desire for help in this direction. No attempt will be made to divide
the work according to the demands of the grades, but all of the sugges-
tions are applicable to the work of the elementary schools.
FIRST STEPS
The first duty of a teacher is to lead the pupils to reahze that the
map is a reproduction, to scale, of a portion of the earth. This is
56 I'HE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Pebruarj
not altogether a simple ta-^k. The present -clay judgment concerning
the best niethocl by which this idea may be inculcatetl finds its expression
in the rlirections for map drawing in most elementan- books on geog-
raphy. The stei)s are throe — repro<luction. reproduction to scale, and
an orienterl reproduction to scale. The first introduces the child to
symbols and may easily represent a lesson in drawing. A verj' crude
rectangle, as a sign for the schoolroom, is the temporary goal. The
second has for its object the sense of proportion. The third combines
the sense of direction and location. Finishetl work cannot be expected
during this stage, but- the essentials should be strongly emphasized.
Here may l>e ingrained neatness and care without which no success
in map work may l>e attained. A ver>' poor drawing in the elementary
stage may be made with neatness and care.
sr.vLK
Passing over the elementary drill on the scale which is well discussed
in many books, let us turn to another phase of the subject. Ever}'
map made by the pupils should have a scale appended. As a map of
a locality, it is imperfect without one. Some maps used in the schools,
such as the .Mercator projections, because of an increase in the scale
with an increase in latitud(\ do not lend themselves readily to an
expression of distance or siz(». The scale may be stated in two ways,
either by the numbcT of f(M*t or miles represented by one inch of the
reproduction, ttr by stating the fractional part the reproduction is to
the area itself. The former is th(» common method in school atlases
tonlay. and the scale is often expn'ssed by a line segmented to the proper
lengths. The latter is the method used by government surveys. The
topographic maps of tin* I'nited States Geological Survey, for instance,
have their scale expressed as ,;oJrMi» t2:.Vmhm ^'^c. The interpretation is
simple. One inch, foot, or metre on the map is e(|uivalent to 62,500
inches, feet, or metn^s on the surface of the earth. It expresses at once
a ratio between the reproduction and the actual. It has a value beyond
its simplicity. It is expressed in a universal language. The unit of
iiK^asurenient may i)e difTerent as it is in the various nations, the lan-
guage may Ik* a strange* on(\, but the fraction stating the scale of a
map allows but on<* interpretation.
In mapping a school yard, using the pace as a unit of measurement,
the scales of the maps of twenty j)upils would tend to confuse
rather than enlighten, and the teacher who has to correct the repro-
ductions has no basis for comparison. In pacing, the pupil should
be taught to walk naturally. To try to lengthen the step to a yard
-^ MAP MAKING AND MAP READING 6'^
is wearisome, often impossible for children, and certainly ungainly;
and in much such pacing the steps are unconsciously shortened. Each
pupil may ascertain the length of his natural step by walking over a
measured distance a number of times and dividing the number of steps
taken into the entire distance. This will serve as a unit of measure-
ment for all out-of-door mapping. The transformation to the fractional
scale is not difficult and may serve as a lesson during the mathematics
period. It seems best to urge the use of this scale on all maps con-
structed by the pupils.
COMPASS
The reproduced school yard is not complete without a symbol for
orientation. The ordinary one in use is an arrow pointing towards the
geographical pole. It is possible that the meridian line has been found
by the sun. and a mark on the ground, or a chalk line on the bricks,
exists as the class's determination of the north and south line. The
introduction of the compass, in its proper time, on this line, will show
the deviation l)etween the geographical and magnetic meridians, and
a second line across the first, parallel with the compass needle, will
mark the direction of the magnetic pole. In the corner of the map
may then be added, pointing in the proper directioas, these two lines.
When the pupils are fairly sure of the meaning of orientation, a
useful exercise may be given by j)assing out papers with the compass
indicated and allow them to draw the map of the yard. On the ordi-
nary' atlas maps, meridians serve the office of the needle. The trans-
formation from reading a map with a compass to reading a map with
projected meridians has been slighted. The idea that up on the map
is north, and right is east, introduces an error from which even the
teachers of geography are not free. Pupils are not corrected for ignor-
ing the meridian lines of a map. Many pupils are not taught to see
them. Without the meridians, what is below is south. A distorted
idea is thus gained. Take the map of North America, and, without
consultation, let the teacher state for herself, or allow the pupils to tell,
what city in the United States lies almost north of Havana. Few
pupils are loath to name a city west of Albany, and in a gathering of
half a dozen teachers, one with hesitation answered Buffalo. A few
problems of this nature will show how es.sential is an emphasis on the
meridian lines of a map, esj)ecially far to the east and west of the cen-
trally-projected meridian. This difference l)etween a map with a
compass symbol and some meridian-marked maps should be fixed upon
the attention as early as possible.
68 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Febrnary
SYMBOLS
Map reading is an interpretation of symbols. From the very
beginning of geography, the introduction of symbols is proper. "Con-
ventionalization and symbolization seem to be an inborn trait of the
human family/' *
The first maps should be the means of introducing a few symbols.
No generally accepted list of symbols for use is published. Text-books
vary somewhat in the points, emphasized slightly up to this time.
The topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey may
be taken for a standard. At some time in the grade a familiarity
with these maps is advisable, for the legend is simple and easy. There
seems to be no argument against the use of a few of their conventional
signs. In a district map, where roads, bridges, brooks, and buildings
are used and plotted, some legend is demanded; the one that is to be
used later, if within the comprehension of the pupil, is the proper one.
Writing on the maps sliould not be encouraged when the symbol is
definite. The writing of ''street'' on the symbol for the same, "river"
on its symbol, defeats the use of the sign language. If the sign is there,
the word is superfluous. As long as a universal sign language for maps
has not been accepted, a legend must be appended to every exercise.
Some (elementary books use as a sj-mbol for 'Hree'* a printed outline
of a tree. Two objections may be raised to such kinds of symbols.
In the first place the printed outline takes more room than the space
marked out for the tree according to the scale of the map, and again
it will not b(» easy to persuade the child that it is a symbol, not a picture;
that the house cannot be pictured by its outline, a bridge by the same
method; that a stone wall or a fence cannot be introduced in a similar
way; that a pictorial j)lan is not a map.
Water and culture lines should be started early in the work. As
soon as possible the relief lines should be begun. Reading relief from
contour lines is a liahit to be cultivated.
CROSS-SKCTION
The t()[)ographic maps are superior to most maps in ordinary use.
The maps are contoured for every 20, 50. or 100 feet of vertical height.
The idea of contour lines is best obtained from a field exercise. If
a locality is selected in which a liill rises sharj)ly from a level base, the
problem may be easily exj)ounded. The base will be the zero line.
For every foot of height, if the hill be low, a pebble may be placed on
the slope. A line of pe])bles around the hill will mark, then, the foot
* Kedway, Xcw Basis of Geogrnphi/f page 139.
MAP MAKING AND MAP READING
69
contour line. In mapping, plot the pebble lines as one would were
they roads. While still in the field, a cross-section may be started.
Standing to one side where a view of the hill, sharply outlined, may
be had, sketch the outline. Then, by pacing, make the outline to scale.
The steps to the drawing of a cross-section of one or two portions of a
topographic map are then simple. A little of such work should be
done; a great deal is a waste of time.
Cross-sections should always be drawn with the vertical scale and
horizontal scales alike. The transposition of a 1500-foot contour
to the scale of ^^iirir should be practiced until it is made easily. One
or two well-selected cross-sections will fix the insignificance of the
irregularities of the earth. A section of the ocean depths from the
mouth of the Amazon to Libreville in the French Congo, along the
equator, is an excellent choice. The distance is approximately 60®
of arc. With a 12-foot radius the irregularities of the ocean floor do
not appear. The width of the thinnest line is then too wide to show
the ocean depth.
A FEW ILLUSTRATIONS
For a first exercise in mapping — the preliminary consideration of
scale being understood — the remnant of a hill was used. The locality
was selected because the slope was prominent. The emphasis of the
exercise was placed on compass readings and contour lines. Four
points. A, By Cy and D (Figure 1), were selected as the corners of
the area.
Fio. I. Map and cross-section of a hill. Scale, ^^oo-
• Contour lines; interval three feet.
70
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Februmry
The data, obtained by the pupils, were as follows:
From .4 C is N S0° W. 53 paces.
B is N 20° W. 53 paces.
SK base of hill is X GO'' W. 34 paces.
\K base of hill is N 45° W. 36 paces.
From D ^ is N 70° E. 36 paces.
(' is due S. 28 paces.
NW base of hill is S 70° E. 17 paces.
SW base of hill is S 15° E. 20 paces.
• I ^,8 I
Vu:.
Miif> kJuJ cross sections oj brook. Scnlc oi map. V'ioti. Scale of section. I'lo-
R riKk' P B park hruit^c.
Slalions li and (' are used to check the above readings. The
contour linos may then hv plotted from the stations at the base of the
hill. The height is an average estimation, and the horizontal distances
between the contours are determined in the same way. A cross-section
is then added.
Another exercise, I'igure 2, was undertaken along a neighboring
l)r()()k. All distances along the brook were paced. All measurements
of the width and depth of the brook were measured accurately.
1904 MAP MAKING AND MAP READING 7'
Data:
From Bridge (P. B.) brook runs 8 12° W. 19 paces to Bend A.
From Bend A brook runs S 15° E. 45 paces to Bend B.
From Bend B brook runs S 20° W. 12 paces to Bend C.
From Bend C brook runs S 20° E, and on.
1. Cross-section in straight reach between A and By depth expressed
in cm., readings ever>^ 10 cm. from west to east.
0 1.4 3.6 3.5 3 2 2.8 2.5 1 0
Current swift.
2. Same at Bend C
5 (rock) 9 8.7 5.3 4.4' 3.6 2.9 1.2 0
3. Same in straight reach between B and C.
0 5.8 7.8 10.4 11.5 12.4 12.2 10.5 9.5 7 4.9 0
Current sk)w.
4. Same at Bend B.
2. 2.5 8.6 11.5 14.3 16 12.8 (rock) 26 25 19.9 {undercutting)
A third exercise, Figure 3, was conducted ak)ng a strip of coast.
Data:
From .4 (rock) beach runs X 12° Iv
Beach runs S 20° K to S 70 paces.
From S to B (rock) line runs S 45° W. 107 paces.
From B to T E. 57 paces.
From T to C (rock) S. 30 paces.
From (' rock extends west 13 paces.
From C shore runs K to /) (rock) and on.
In this exercise, as in the others, the data were supplemented by
rough sketches and some attempt was made to incorporate into the
maps the ideas expressed in the free-hand outline. Thus the slight
irregularities in the curved coast line between A and B were observed
and mapped.
IXFKRKNC'KS FROM KXKRCISKS
The journey to the brook opened a number of interesting problems.
These may be considered in papers presented by the pupils. It is
very evident that in the bends of the stream one kind of cross-section
obtains, while in the straight reaches the section was of a different
type. Notes were made concerning the swiftest part of the current
in each .section; that this swiftest line of flow crossed the channel was
among the conclusions. That is hardly a safe principle that would
apply all the results of an investigation of 150 feet of a single stream
to all streams. It is better to leave a few problems unsettled until
72
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
February
further investigation and observation allow a definite answer. Thus,
from the stream measurement, it seems to be a natural deduction that
the swifter parts of brooks have a shallower flow of water than the
h A n B c n
Fig. 3 Map of coast-lhw. ScaUr, Vizsn. R rock.
slower portions. Some problems will be presented that can not be
solved, either because of lack of time or because of insufficient data.
It may be convenient to some members of the class to investigate the
brook further and to present a more comprehensive report on one or
more problems. At least it is well to leave the exercise in such a way
that, either as an investigator of the physics of rivers, or as a casual
observer, the pupil may approach a stream, not in the beUef that all its
ways are known, but with the inspiration from knowing something
of its history, and the enthusiasm which the hope of discovery begets.
The conclusion from the shore map should be treated in a similar
manner. A reserve of judgment is advised. In regard to the location
studied, let the statements be definite. At the Fort (Figure 3), the
salients are rocks, and between them the beaches are cur\'ed. That
all salients are rocks might be a next step. Between A and B bunches
of shore grass catch the sand and cause slight irregularities in the
curve of this beach. The case is so evident in the field that it is
remarked upon by a pupil. Perhaps, then, some other things besides
rocks mark the sahents of a coast. An island in the harbor, showing
1904
MAP MAKING AND MAP READING
73
the white line of a sand spit, reenforces the statement. At a later
period these may enter the discussion and be investigated. For the
present we know that rocks form salients, and are one cause at least
for the irregularities of coast lines.
MAP DRAWING
Before map reading is perfected, a conception of the error of the
maps in constant use is necessary. It has been the general printed
opinion that exercises in map projections, although ideally a desirable
part of a child^s knowledge, are best not considered in the grades.
There are many things in projections that mature minds only can
grasp; at the same time there are some elementary considerations
in the subject which should be properly delegated to the geography
teaching in the schools below the vSecondary. The study of a globe
follows naturally the construction of the maps of limited areas. The
child may believe, as the human race did in its infancy, that the earth
is flat. The introduction to a spherical earth at this time repeats the
race history. At some later time in the grades the spherical maps and
the flat maps must be considered in comparison. There is no better
way than to have the child construct two or three types.
A Mercator map is not beyond the child's comprehension. With
little difficulty, a figure, like Figure 4, may be made. The pupils should
<o Vo 0 'io 'Ho
. /
1
-Hi
30
'5
0
45
0
"A
^0 'fo 0 Ho 1%
Fig.
Construction of Mercator Projection.
have the small hand globes. If the diameter, AB, is made equivalent
to the diameter of the globe, the later comparisons are more obvious.
The equator of the map should equal in length the circumference of
the globe. When the diagram is made the map may be begun. It
74 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
is not neccssarj' to complete the whole map of the world, but enough
of it must be undertaken to show the distortion. It may be advisable
to plot points only, as Caj)e Farewell and Christiania on the 60th
parallel. Compare the plotted distance with the true. In like manner
take locations nearer the equator. Then the latitudinal distortion
may be proved in a similar manner, or a teacher may consider it wise
to construct a map of North America after having plotted thirty or
forty points around its coast. Here may be emphasized at the same
time the preliminary steps of great circle directions. An investigation
of the shortest distance between Mt. McKinley, Alaska, and St. Peters-
burg, on the globe, and on the Mercator projection, will easily show
that the latitudinal direction is not the desirable one in point of distance.
Constructions of other projections woidd consume too nuich time.
If, however, blank outhnes of one or two projections in common use
be furnished the pupil, a similar use may ])e made of them. It is advis-
able to have the circumference of the globe and the circumference of
the projection alike at first, as direct comparisons may then be made
without the confusion of a change of scale.
The plotting of points from a globe is beneficial, furthermore, because
the pupil must say to himself the latitude and longitude of the localities
plotted, a thing that map copying does not make necessar\'.
MAP R HADING
''Teaching words before ideas has the same effect as teaching a
map without associating it with that which it re])resents. The problem
of how to lead children to use maps properly, that is, to make a map a
means of developing thought power, is an exceedingly serious and
important one. All directions and suggestions, therefore, should tend
toward this one ])urpose." So said Francis W. Parker.*
Stress has been laid, uj) to this time, on the constniction of maps;
not, however, as an end in itself, but as a means of acquiring some of
the habits of map reading. If, in its proper time, there should be added
to this foundat'on the knowledge of the wind belts and the ocean
currents of the earth, a great deal of the text of a geography may be
discov(»rod ])y the pupil. In order that this work may be carried on
safely, the l)est ma])s should be employed. A more intelligent under-
standing of geograj)hic relationships may be attained from an increasing
use of (juestions demanding judgment and reason. Further expansion of
this would only repeat what has already been printed in this JouRNAL.f
* How to Study Geography, page 92.
t Journal of Geography, Vol. I, "The Use of Maps in the Teaching of Geography,"
page 97, 1903.
TEACHING CHANGE OF SEASONS
75
INDUCTIVE METHOD OF TEACHING
CHANGE OF SEASONS
BY R. S. HOLWAY
Of the Vniveraity of California
CAN grammar school pupils determine the causes of the chano:e
of seasons by their own observations and by experimental study
of possible solar systems? Several years' trial with students
in secondary- schools has entirely convinced me that for them this method
of studying change of seasons is thoroughly practicable and satisfac-
tory. Recently I have had a senior in the University of California tr>'
the plan mi her practice teaching in an eighth grade class under the
usual public school conditions Apparently these children master
the main ideas as readily as do adult students. While the work was
not carried so far as it would be with older students, the account below
Fig. I
uill show% I think, that this eighth grade learned more and reasoned
more than the average grammar school student does by studying the
text.
I will present the work substantially in the order that it was given,
and the headings of the paragraphs will constitute an outline of the
lessons.
Observation of a shadow cast by the sun at noon. Heginning the first
part of September a peg was fastened in the sill of one of the south
windows and the point of the shadow of this peg at noon was marked
on the floor below. (See Fig. 1.) The window was raised to get clearer
sunshine. Various predictions were made by the children in answer
to a question as to w^hether the point of the shadow woukl come to the
same point on the floor the next day at noon. As they watched the
76 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
marked lengthening of the shadow during the week following, many of
the class expressed great surprise.
In response to questions they answered readily that the sun must be
getting lower in the sky each noon to produce a longer shadow. They
also assigned this as a probable cause of the winter's cold.
Space covered on different parts of a sphere by the same beam of sun-
shine. Through a hole in a piece of cardboard sunshine was allowed
to fall on the surface of a g obe and the var^'ing area covered was noted.
The deduction is easily made that the heating effect of sunshine is greater
the nearer the rays come to being perpendicular to the surface.
What the gyroscope teaches about rotatimj bodies. The gyroscope
shown in the figure was made by mounting a six-inch sewing machine
wheel on ball bearings in the fork of an old bicycle. (See Fig. 2.) With a
stout string one can spin it so fast that it will nui for nearly five minutes.
The great advantage that this gyroscope has over the one commonly
FiQ. 2. Home-made gyroscope
sold to high schools are its simplicity, the ball bearings, and the greater
weight. Taking it in the hand when the wheel is rotating rapidly one
feels a wonderfully strong resistance when an attempt is made to
change the direction of the axis of the ichirling wheel. It may be carried
around the room without feeling this resistance, if the axis is kept
parallel to its first |)osition. This experience enables the children really
to appreciate the ])rimary fact luiderlying the change of seasons, namely
that the earth l)ecause it is a whirling body keeps its axis constantly in
the same direction. The gyroscope can also be suspended by a cord
and carried around in a circular orbit. If proj)erly balanced, it will
twist its supporting cord and keep its axis constant in direction. The
children easily ])erceive the i)oint of the experiment and a little ques-
tioning will lead them so to phrase their ideas that they will be avail-
able in future work.
Description of a planet irith its axis perpendicular 0 the plan^* of its
orbii. All the children were familiar with the idea of an earth going
around a sun and so tliev were asked to carr\' an earth with a vertical
I904 TEACHING CHANGE OF SEASONS 77
axis around a sun — a circular orbit being used. They at once located
vertical sunshine at the equator of such an earth and saw that it would
be constantly on that line. Day and night were correctly explained
but with little interest — the problem having evidently been long solved
The elevation of the sun at noon for a man at different latitudes requires
some drill, especially as to the meaning of horizon. A card held on
the globe at the equator and slid toward the pole is a great help. They
finally saw (Fig. 3) that a man going north 30° from the equator would
tip his horizon 30° and that hence the sun that 's 90° high at the equator
is only 60° high in lat. 30°. The teacher must remember here in draw-
ing any diagram that the sun is not close at hand, as in the concrete
illustration, but at such a great distance that its rays are sensibly parallel.
The children must be led to see that this man has no change in noon
elevation of the sun and hence no change of seasons during the year.
Does our earth have its axis perpendicular to the plane of its orhitf
The children were next told that they were to answer a question about
our own earth entirely from their own observations. The statement of
the question above brought a look of surprise that they could be ex-
pected to know anything about our big earth without the help of books.
But in a few seconds one could see the flash of intelligence come first in
one face and then in another, until soon the majority of the class were
wildly eager to answer. They referred to the varying length of the
noon shadow and said they knew our earth could not have its axis
perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. In the class this fall this part
of the work was particularly enjoyable, for one boy had but recent V
remarked that ^'only the wise men" could study out such things as the
text-book tells about the change of seasons.
Description of an earth with its axis tipped. A globe rotating on an
axis inclined 10° from the perpendicular was next assigned to be carried
around a central sun. It is well to have the sun in the center of the
room and to use a large orbit. Here, of course, some of them had to be
reminded of the gyroscope before they would keep the axis of the rotating
earth constant in direction. As soon as that was done they saw that
vertical sunshine varied from 10° north to 10° south of the equator,
making a torrid zone. It is a more difficult problem to work out the
noon elevation of the sun for a man living at (say) 30° north latitude.
But with care they saw that the noon elevation would vary from 70°
to 50° during the year.
Is our earth an earth xvith its axis iltedf This question is readily
answered by a reference to the changing noon shadow. It is really
3
78 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY February
answered too readily for of course, as original work upon the part of
the children their proper answer is merely that it may be. In due time
the children should l>e led to see that while they have worked out a
scheme that may be true for our solar system, yet they have not fully
proved that it is the scheme.
Does a planet with its axis inclined hare summer and icinier? This is
a variation of the work already done, but if their attention has been
centered upon the chanpng noon elevation of the sun. the children may
not reahze that they have been studying change of seasons. The ques-
tion about summer and winter serves to correlate their recent ol>ser-
vations with their past experiences of summer's heat and winter's cold.
// the axis of a planet is tipped 15°, irha* zones of sunshine result aiid
what are their boundaries? The torrid zone and its limits are seen at
once. Usually it recjuires some more time to establish the changing
conditions of sunshine in passing from the frigid into the temperate
zone.
Care must be taken that the children really gra.sp the relation of
the amount of tij) of the axis to the width of the torrid zone and to the
varjdng noon elevation of the sun. Work well done here will prevent
confusion in the future.
Can you measure for yourselres the inelination of the axis of our earth?
if the preceding work has been well done l)y presenting each problem in
various forms and with several inclinations for the axis of the earth,
the children will see that the shadow of the peg in the window-sill gives
them an answ(»r to this ([uestion. If the |)upils have not measured
angles they must be given simple protractoi*s and made to measure
various angles for practice. The elevation of the sun can l>e mea.sured
by putting the protractor on the floor with its center at the point of
the shadow, and seeing where the line of sunshine cuts the protractor.
Another way is to draw the triangk* of the height of the peg, the floor,
and the line of the sunshine at the board and to measure the proper
angle at the board. (See Kig. 1.) The children will at first say that it
will take a year to measure for our earth — that they nuist get the lowest
noon elevation of the sun in December and the highest in June. This
is of course the best way but if the height can be had in December or
June and at one of the ecpiinoxes. the problem can be solved. It is well
to consult the almanac and to note that the fall e(iuinox was September
24 in 1003 and that the winter solstice was December 22. As the
Berk(»ley class has not carried the work through a season. I will give
figures obta ned in another school. Highest elevation of sun in June.
1904 MEDIEVAL TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES 79
77°, lowest noon elevation in December, 29° — difference, 48°. This
gives of course 24° for the incHnation of the axis of our earth. Ordi-
narily, perhaps, the result will not be so accurate as this Thinking out
the problem is the valuable part of the work, although care should be
taken to get the very best result possible.
It may be granted at once that this method wdl take more time than
to commit the ordinary text to memory or to explain directly the change
of seasons. Our real object, it must always be remembered, is to de-
velop thinking, self-reliant boys and girls, and to accomplish this we
can afford to take time. Necessarily, little details have been omitted
in this brief description of the plan of work. Any teacher interested
can easily add them. It may possibly be well to remind teachers who
begin this work at the December solstice that the increase in elevation
of the sun is very slow for the first two weeks. The lack of a gyroscope
should not deter any one from attempting to teach the subject by this
method. Any top stands upright when it is spinning rapidly and can
not be upset by any moderate blow. When it is not spinning it is
almost 'mpossible to l)alance the same top s(^ that it will stand upright
even for a second. Again, if one holds the wheel of a bicycle (taken
from the frame) by the ends of its short axle he will find it hard to change
the direction of the axis if the wheel is whirling. Either the top or the
wheel illustrates the same point as the gyroscope.
In the observation work that is carried along with these lessons
the children will have noticed the change in the time of sunrise and of
sunset and will have correctly given the short day as one cause of winter.
They should also be recjuired to show with the globes that an earth with
a vertical axis has always and everywhere equal days and nights, and
that an earth with its axis inclined has days and nights of var^'ing length.
MEDIiEVAL TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES*
BY C. RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M. A.,
Lecturer in the History of Geography in the University of Oxford.
IN the development of the world's commerce and trade routes, history
meets geography very closely, and the geographical teacher can
find in this subject many excellent lessons afforded him by historical
research, just as the historical teacher cannot here neglect the sugges-
tions, the conditions, and the limitations of geography. Trade routes
♦ Abstract of Lectures given at the Oxford Summer Meeting, August, 1903,
and reprinted by pormission from the Geographical Tea/'her, October, 1903.
8o THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Febrttary
can only run where the Earth-surface is favorable; but a sufficient
amount of favor is shown by wide tracts of that surface; there is an
extensive possibility of choice and change; and historical events have
constantly modified, and sometimes revolutionized, the course of the
great trade channels. At the same time, history has constantly neg-
lected to consider adequately the mercantile, economic, and geograph-
ical elements in man's advance and the evolution of modem society.
If we look for the central principle in the history of the World's
exploration, we shall find tliat commerce, the search for material gain,
has been the most permanent, vital, and effective spring of progress.
Religion, science, and politics — the missionary spirit, the pilgrim spirit,
the spirit of adventure, the colonizing spirit, the scientific spirit, the
political spirit — these have all played their part, they have all done
much. But none of these has the importance of trade in the opening
up of our world, in the development of geographical knowledge. Trade
ambitions are the most powerful factor in bringing about a continuous,
progressive enlargement of the horizon in making discovery a lasting
gain to the race. Trade decadence marks the Dark Ages in Western
Europe, more, perhaps, than anything else. Trade revival coincides
with, and is a main cause of, that mediaeval and modern Renaissance
which begins in the eleventh century, on the eve of the Crusades, and
has continued ever since.*
The ancient trade routes continue far into the Middle Ages — with
changes, it is true, but only changes of masters, of products, of compara-
tive importance. And these trade routes are mostly, both in pre-
Christian and in early Christian times, from west to east, or from east
to west, moving, like the great mountain ranges, along the length, or
longitude, of the old world. The amber trade of the Baltic coast, the
fur trade of the northern forests, and the gold, ivory, and slave trades of
* Contrast tlic permanent, effective discovery of China for Europe, by the mer-
cantile spirit of the Polos, in the thirteenth century, with the comparatively ineffec-
tive religious discovery of the Celestial Empire by Xestorian missionaries from
A. D. 635 or with the still less effective and permanent diplomatic discovery by
Roman envoys in a. d. IGG, 284, etc.
Contrast the permanent Columbian discovery of America, so laigely inspired
by mercantile ambitions, with the transitory discovery by the Northmen in the
tenth and eleventh centuries, a discovery mainly adventurous (which essays coloni-
zation, but in vain).
Contrast the permanent attempts to circumnavigate Africa, before a settled
commercial purpose inspired the enterprise, with the success of the same considered
as the opening up of a new trade route of primary value in the thirteenth to the
fifteenth centuries.
X904 MEDIEVAL TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES 8 I
the East African shore are the chief flank divisions of the great stream
of international commerce flowing from Britain and Spain to India and
China.
Looking, first, at these trade routes from a Mediterranean or
European standpoint, we may instance among the more important the
Black Sea way from the Bosporus to Trebizond, and sometimes to
other ports of Armenia and Caucasia. This route crossed the isthmus
of the Caucasus, traversed the Caspian, and ascended the Amu or Oxus
to the rich lands of Western Central Asia (Bukhara, Samarkand, etc.).
Another branch of the same route passed over North Armenia and
through North Persia, just to the south of the Caspian. In
"Sogdiana" it met with other trade routes in profusion; for the Soghd
was the true heart of Central Asia, at least from the ninth — probably
from the eighth — century, and even in Ptolemy^s time (c. a.d. 130)
it had great mercantile importance. Upon it converged the three great
Chinese western tracks, one of the most important routes from India,
and various much-frequented roads from Southwest Asia. The Trebi-
zond path of commerce is perennially active ; but it is most important
in the Mongol era, and for a century after the destruction of Bagdad
and the consequent rise of Tabriz (c. a.d. 1258-1360).
The Euphrates route, uniting (at Rakka or Calhnicum, in North-
east Syria, on the upper course of the great river) with many shorter
mercantile ways from the Mediterranean coasts, brought the traveler
down to the Persian Gulf, and thence either by sea or land along that
dreary south coast of Persia and Baluchistan to the Indus and Sind.
By the former. Alexander's fleet returned to Mesopotamia ; by the latter,
his army.
The north and central Persian routes, skirting the southern edge
of the Caspian, or running through Mosul and Northern Mesopotamia,
passed through Merv to the Amu and Sogdiana. Till its sack by the
Mongols, in the thirteenth century, Merv, ^'Antiochia Margiana,'^ was
one of the chief centers of the trade of upper Asia — from the age of
Alexander the Great to that of Genghis Khan.
The Red Sea route, connecting Egypt and the Mediterranean world
with India (and at times even with China), by way of Aden and the
South Arabian ports, was also important as bringing the products of
tropical Africa to the *^ Roman Sea.'' By means of this route the horizon
of the Ancient World was extended (in the time of Pliny and Ptolemy,
c. A.D. 50-170) to the Zanzibar Islands and the equator; while the
early Moslem traders pushed on still farther along this path to Mada-
gascar, the Mozambique Channel, and Sofala. Here the Europeans,
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
coming from the west, round the Cape of Good Hope, met the Moham-
medan traders of the Indian Ocean, whose southward terminus had
been Cape Corrientes.
The northern fur and amber trades followed, for the most part, the
courses of the rivers which formed the natural highways between Baltic,
Kuxine, and Mediterranean lands — the Dilna or Western Dvina, the
Dnieper, the Mstula, the Memel or Niemen, the Dniester, or the Prut.
Easy portages, as in the backwoods of North America, connected the
upper courses of these streams or their tributaries. This route was
also followed by Xorse, Danish, and Swedish traders, and travelers
to Constantinople, the Mediterranean, and the Holy Land, in the age
of greatest Scandinavian activity.
A route of minor importance, but of great historic interest, con-
nected with the main Hlack Sea avenue of commerce, ran from the
lower Danube round the north of the Euxine. thence moving eastward
either to the north or south of the Caspian: this was occasionally
employed by the Byzantines in their sixth-century intercourse with the
Turks, and became of great importance in the Mongol age (thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries).
The Tigris route from north to south was not very important
before the rise of Bagdad (c. a.d. 750). The Freshwater Canal route
from the Nile to the Red Sea, connecting the Mediterranean with the
Indian Ocean, was, on the other hand, prominent at certain periods of
the earlier Middle Ages. The canal, however, was often choked and
disused; it was finally abandoned a.d. 767.
Looking at these trade routes from an eastern standpoint, w'e may
distinguish three chief highways between China and the Western World
— one running to the north of the Tian Shan, the second to the south
of that range, while the third skirted the northern face of the Tibetan
Plateau, masked l)y the Kuenlim Range. All these met at the western
extremity of the (Ireat Wall on one side, and in the Sogdiana oasis
(Samarkand, etc.) on the other. In Ptolemy's age (second century a.d.),
the (Ineco-Honuin merchants who traded with the vSilk Land seem to
have preferred the second and third of these routes, and especially the
Kuenlun way; most Chinese travelers to the west, on the other hand,
a])pear to choose the first, or northern Tian Shan road. From Fergana
and I^asteni Turkistan the Kuenlun path (the third Chinese road to
th(» west just noticed) threw off an important sidetrack over the
Indian .Mountains southward into the Indus Valley, where men, passing
down the river, reacluHl a .seaboard in direct communication with the
Persian (lulf, the He(l Sea, and thelMediterranean.
MEDIAEVAL TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES
83
The limitations of the Ancient World are always perplexing us;
the successes gained by the pre-Christian civilization are constantly
suggesting yet greater things unattempted or unachieved. In a sense,
perhaps, the light that was in the world proved to be darkness. The
Helleno-Roman World, as organized under the Caesars, was so rich,
so self-sufficient, so full of proud contentment, so weary of struggle after
many centuries of conflict, that it made little serious effort to explore
beyond its own limits. For instance, there was felt no want of a
commercial route by water around Africa; the Phcenicians, six hundred
years before Christ, claimed the discovery of that waterway; but, in
the heyday of old civilization, no adequate attempt was made,
under far easier conditions, to repeat the experiment. It could have
been successfully carried through, without doubt, under the Julian or
Flavian or Antonine emperors; but it had ceased to appeal to practical
men, though it still attracted the learned and the imaginative. Again,
while the ancient coast and overland routes — by caravan or river boat or
coasting vessel — were in good order, even the most adventurous did not
seriously think of the great voyage from west to east, ''from Spain to
India/' which was believed in as a theoretical possibility {e. g., by
Aristotle), fully eighteen hundred years before it was realized by Colum-
bus and Magellan The discoveries of the Great Forty Years (1480-
1520) were not anticipated in the times of Strabo or of Ptolemy, chiefly
because the same suggestions of vital gain did not occur to the sublime
self-satisfaction of imperial Rome. The compass and quadrant
were then unknown, it may be said, and nautical science was in its
childhood. But, if (ireek thought and Roman perseverance had given
attention to the problems of ocean travel, the progress of later centuries
would certainly, in great measure, have been anticipated. But the
intellect of the later classical time was interested in the theory of the
world — its shape and size — far more than in the practical exploration
of the same.
The ancient trade routes, as already noticed, continue far into the
Middle Ages almost unaltered; but, as regards the west, their activity
decreases, their scale of supply and demand is lowered, their good order
and safety are seriously impaired.
In the sixth century a.d., the Byzantines try to divert the overland
commerce (from China, India, and Central Asia) away from the Persian
routes, which most of that commerce then followed. Two attempts are
made with this object: (1) by the Indian Ocean routes, and in alliance
with Abyssinia ; (2) by the Black Sea and steppe routes, in alliance with
84 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
the Turks of Sogdiana. Both these attempts had special relation to
the silk trade, important both under the Old Empire and in the Middle
Ages; this trade had long been in the hands of the Persians as carriers.
The first attempt involved an alliance with Abyssinia, and with
the Ncstorians of Persia, South India, Sokotra, etc.; it brought about
the visit of Nonnosus to the Negus' Court, and the visits of Sopater
and Cosnias to Ceylon (before 545) ; and it produced the valuable writ-
ings of Cosmas on the regions of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, etc.
In these writings there is a great advance on previous Christian knowl-
edge of South Asia and East Africa.
The second attempt involved alliance with the Turks, then ruling in
Samarkand and over vast regions north of the Amu (the camps of
their khans are always in motion; sometimes they are in the Soghd, or
near Kokand, at other times near Lake Balkhash, or in the Lower Altai
regions, etc.). This alliance produced many valuable travels between
the Bosj)orus and West Central Asia, and good records of the same.
Tho»5e travels really proved the Caspian to be an inland sea, and not a
mere gulf of the Arctic Ocoan; but this lesson was not properly drawn
except, perhaps, at Constantinople — c. g,, St. Isidore of Seville at this
very time repeats the old misconceptions. Excellent descriptions of
the Turco-Tartar nomades were now given in Greek, recalling Herod-
otus, Hippocrates, and Strabo. Hence also comes one of the earliest
notices of Lake Aral, and of the Rivers Ural and Emba; the better
known \ olga, Syr-daria or Jaxartes, Don, Dnieper, etc., are clearly
described i^r inferred to by the Byzantine historians of the sixth cen-
tury. This intercoui*se lasts from 568 to 590 or 595; its central object
is to "transfer the sale of silk from the Persians to the Romans" — i. e..
it is a commerrial object that inspires the whole. Also, under Justinian
i^ln^fon* A,n. 5i>5), the secret of silk manufacture is transferred from
China to the Byzantine Knipin^ by Xestorian monks, who bring silk-
worms* ejip? in a hollow cane to Syria. This remains the most per-
manent rt^sult of the new By.:antine enterprises. In Western Europe,
durii\g all the |vri<.Hi oi the earlier Middle Ages, commerce is extremely
deprt^ssinl : yet theri^ is occasional surprisinn evidence of its vitality — e. g.,
Cin\jrory of Tours tells oi men*hants going from France to Syria, and
of a meri*hani pilgrim coming fn^m South India to France (about
.\.D. ooi^^ : also 01 Indian shi|>s coming regularly at the same time to
Suoj "lor the sake of merchandise.*' Note also the colonies of Syrian
traders in Marseilles. NarlnMine, Honieaux. Orleans, Tours, etc., under
:he Mer\>vingiau Kinir^ ^sixth-eighth ceuTurie?"^. as well as the com-
moTVMal }^T\^slx>rity of \ enioe Ivginning in the sixth century.
I9CH MEDIEVAL TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES 85
The rise of Islam produces incalculable effects in commerce as in
politics. Moslems now control the most important sections of the great
international trade routes, and are practically masters of the world's
carrying trade. A wonderful development of Indian Ocean trade and
trade routes occurs under the early Caliphate, and before a.d. 1000
Moslem traders visit North China, Korea, and Japan. Already in
A.D. 700 they are found trading in Canton; in 758 they head serious
riots here; in 795 they transfer their main Chinese market from Canton
to Khanfu or Hangcheufu, near the mouth of the Yangtse, the greatest
Chinese port throughout the Middle Ages. Kala, in the Malay Penin-
sula, is their chief market in the East Indies. Ceylon is also important,
and Arab merchants appear here long before Mohammed; even about
A.D. 400. Arab trade colonies, also, on the Malabar coast and in North-
west India, are pictured in glowing colors by early Moslem travelers
and geographers before a.d. 1000. Within the Caliphate, the courses of
the Tigris and Euphrates and the Persian Gulf routes acquire new and
special value, and are indeed primary after the foundation of Bagdad
(a.d. 750). Busra, at head of Persian Gulf, Maskat, Siraf, and Kishm.
predecessor of Ormuz, close to the mouth of the gulf; Aden, the key
of the Red Sea; Jedda, the port of Mecca; Suez, *^ where Egypt met
India;" Mozdishu, on the Somali coast; and the far eastern harbors
of Kala and Khanfu, or Han^cheufu, are the chief centers of the ocean
trade of Islam down to the Crusading Age. On the other hand, the
overland routes are somewhat depressed during the early centuries of
Islam; but along the northern frontier of the Caliphate, from the Pamir
and the Syr-daria to the Caucasus and the Volga, there is a surprising
amount of commerce and a surprising variety of commerce avenues.
Those already noticed — the Amu-Caspian-Caucasian-Euxine route, the
steppe routes north of the Euxine and the Caspian, the South Caspian
or North Persian road — are now of considerable importance, though
quite secondary to the great maritime coast tracks of the south. The
fur-trade route, running up the course of the Volga into the far north, is
also valuable, owing to the passion of rich Moslems for furs; its chief
terminus is at Bolgharar (answering to the modern Kazan).
All Moslem trade routes are summarized by Ibn Khordadbeh, about
A.D. 880. Great importance is assigned by him not only to the routes
noticed above, but also to the North African caravan route, skirting the
north edge of the desert, from Morocco to Egypt. He also emphasizes
the commercial position of the ports of France and Italy, even then, and
of the market town of Rh6 or Rai, near Teheran, where Slav, Khazar,
and Levantine traders met. He also gives an elaborate account of a
86 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Febroaiy
Central European trade route from Southern German}'^ eastward, run-
ning through the Slav lands to the lower X'olga, and thence on to Cen-
tral Asia, India, and China.
The early triumphs of Islam, following on the barbarian invasions,
for a time almost stifle the commercial life of western Christendom, and
Moslem piracy for a moment apparently completes the destructive work
of Moslem conquest. While the East and West Caliphates develop
commerce of their own, of immense reach, depth, and volume, the
Christian lands outside the Byzantine Empire seem commercially
dependent on their more prosperous rivals. But gradually matters
alter, the outlook changes, and the central period of the Middle Ages is
marked by a mercantile development of decisive character; a new era
in trade, as in politics and society, is created; and whatever the other
fluctuations of European histor\', in commerce the Mediaeval Renais-
sance, beginning on the eve of the Crusades, is an abiding and vital
force. This steadilv grows till Europe arrives at the discovery and
trade exploitation of the entire world.
The new European mercantile life really begins as a continuously
progressive force in Italy and the south of France during the ninth
century — especially at X'enice and Amalfi, and to a less degree at
Marseilles. This mediteval mercantile life is superior to the ancient
commercial activity in claiming greater privileges for the trader, in
giving more attention to freedom of trade intercourse, in undertaking
more daring and speculative operation.-', in devoting greater energy to
the discovery of new markets. At the conclusion of the Crusading
struggle it is evident that the solid results of the religious wars are
mainly commercial — a new culture and material prosperity, a vastly
extended knowledge, a well-informed and far-reaching ambition, whose
results are seen in the great scientific and geographical discoveries of
the latest Middle Age.
The Crusading States of the Levant, advanced bases for Christian
trade, help the Christian travel-pioneers, especially merchants, to pene-
trate the inner regions of Asia. Thus Italian and Provengal merchants
push up to Aleppo. Damascus, and the Euj)hrates before a.d. 1200.
Some time before 1264 we find a X'enetian trader in Tabriz, the North-
Persian successor and supplanter of Bagdad. The conquests of the
Mongols are first announced to Christendom by pAiropean traders in
g'^ms and spices who had gone up, a])out .\.d. 1200, from the Syrian
coast towards the Euphrates.
New routes and new markets are opened by the Latin capture of
Constantinople (a. d. 1204), and the rise of the Mongols (from a. d. 1190).
MEDIAEVAL TRADE AND TRADE ROUTES
87
Venetians are now established as commercial sovereigns on the
Bosporus and the Black Sea: their traders penetrate to Kiev, into the
heart of Asia Minor, into Persia, into Central Asia, finally, with the
Polos, info China, Indo-China, and India.
The Mongols open continental (overland) routes, as they have never
been opened before, to Christian trade and travel. The opportunities
given by Mongol rulers to European merchants result in that new
knowledge of India and China which, above all else, inspires the great
geographical discoveries. For Henry the Navigator, Dias, DaGama,
Columbus, Magellan, and the rest are all primarily in search of
better and easier ways to Cathay and the Indies. The difficulties of
the land routes are well known by the fourteenth century; the value
of the objects and regions sought are also thoroughly apparent to the
searchers; the first hopes of profitable overland intercourse (raised by
the Mongols) have now been completely disappointed; therefore, men
seek for maritime, oceanic ways. Hence the circumnavigation of Africa,
the western route by voyages of Columbus, the reaching of East Asia
by a western course from Europe (by Magellan), the incidental discovery
of the unsuspected land-mass of America (by Columbus).
The importance (in the Mongol period) of the Trebizond — Tabriz
and Lajazzo — Tabriz routes (from the Black Sea and the Cilician coast
to North Persia, and so to China by the way running south of the
Caspian) is very notable.
Only second to these come the steppe routes — c. g., from Kiev
or the Crimea to the lower Volga, and so to the Mongol capitals and
China by tracks running north of tlie Caspian — while, again, the river
routes are not to be forgotten — e. g., the I)on-\'olga way into the Caspian
(crossing over by the Kalach portage from one river to another) ; also
the Amu route. But before the close of the Middle Ages both Mongol
and Moslem alliances for commercial purposes are clearly seen to be
futile experiments, ending in utter disappointment. Good examples of
the latter exist in the attempts of European traders in the twelfth,
thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries to reach the Indies through an
understanding with the Moslem rulers of Egypt. Some of these are
temporarily successful — e. g., the Pisans in a.d. 1175, the Germans about
1240, the Venetians about 1330 — but none are permanent.
The routes of the Polos in their two great journeys (1260-1295)
give an excellent view of the chief trade avenues in the Mongol period.
I. On the first journey the outward route was: Crimea, X'olga,
Bukhara, over the dividing mountains by the southern Tian Shan way,
over the Gobi to the Great Wall, Kublai's Court at Shangtu. II. On
88 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY February
the second journey: Lajazzo, Erzinghian, Mosul, Ormuz, Badakhshan,
over the dividing mountains by the Northern Kuenlun way, Great
Wall, Pekin, various routes in China (a) to Southwest, (6) to Southeast,
especially to Hangcheufu, the ''City of Heaven;" home from Zayton,
in Fokien, by the coasts of Indo-China, through the East Indies, along
the Coromandel and Malabar coasts to Ormuz, Tabriz, Trebizond, Con-
stantinople. The Red Sea routes are elaborately described in the Polo
narrative, but not apparently from first-hand observation. We must
notice the importance of the Nile and of Alexandria in international
trade even at the close of the thirteenth century.
The persistence, daring, and success of Christian traders, even from
the beginning of the Crusading Age, correspond to an ever-increasing
weakness and decay in Moslem commerce, which from the seventh to
the eleventh century had controlled the world's purse-strings. Com-
mercially, as in some other respects, Islam never recovered from the
Mongol convulsion; c/. Polo's evidence on the vast superiority of
the Chinese ports over Alexandria at the close of the thirteenth century.
So the break-up of the Mongol Empire and the conversion of the
Western Tartars to Islam destroy Christian hopes of effective overland
trade through Asia. A thorough knowledge, we have seen, now pre-
vails in the west of the riches of South and East Asia. These riches are
accordingly sought by the longer but safer maritime routes. The chief
stages in this search are the following: In 1270, European discovery in
the African islands and off the African coasts begins again with the
voyage of Lancelot Malocello to the Canaries; in 1291, we have the first
overt attempt to reach India by an ocean voyage round Africa, planned
for strictly commercial purposes; in 1341, 1346, 1402, etc., European
voyages are repeated among the African islands, and renewed attempts
are made to coast on beyond the farthest hitherto known. Valuable
discoveries are made among the Canaries, the Azores, and the Madeira
group, even before 1351 ; but permanent, continuous, effective Atlantic
exploration only begins under the leadership of Henry the Navigator,
1415-1460; the route around Africa is practically opened up by 1486
(Bartholomeu Dias), absolutely by 1498 (Vasco da Gama). The great-
est commercial revolution ever known is produced by this, by the dis-
covery of America in 1492, and by the Ottoman conquest of the
Levant, which last dealt a deathblow to Moslem commercial spirit,
just as the Ottoman conquest of the Crimea and other coasts of the
Black Sea dealt a deathblow to the old Christian trade by this route
with Central Asia, China, etc.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 89
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
The Production of Sugar in the Hawaiian Islands. — A state-
ment recently received from a high authority in Hawaii by the Bureau
of Statistics indicates that about one hundred million dollars of capital
from the United States have been invested in Hawaii since the
reciprocity treaty of 1876, a large part of this having been so invested
since annexation, in 1898. This development, since annexation, in
the increased investments in capital from the United States, and its
application to irrigation in its highest forms, has resulted in an increase
of more than 50 per cent in the sugar production of the islands, the
production of 1897 being 562,000,000 pounds; that of 1903, 840,000,-
OOO pounds.
The Hawaiian Islands now stand third in the list of sections pro-
ducing cane sugar for exportation. Curiously, all of the great cane-
sugar exporting spots of the world are islands. Cuba stands at the head
of the Ust, with an annual exportation, under normal conditions, of
over two biUion pounds; Java next, with an average annual production
of one and one-half billion pounds, while the Hawaiian Islands have
now nearly reached the one billion mark. China and India are also
large producers of cane sugar, but consume practically all of their
production, their exportation being small.
Sugar production in the Hawaiian Islands has developed much
more rapidly during the last thirty years than in any other cancr
producing section of the world. The production in Java grew from
432,320,000 pounds, in 1875, to 1,887,899,000 pounds, in 1903, or less
than five times as much in 1903 as in 1875. Cuba has increased its
production from 1,736,000,000 pounds, in 1873, to 2,183,000,000, in
1903, while that of Hawaii, as already indicated, has grown from
23,000,000 pounds, in 1873, to 840,000,000, in 1903. Thus, Java's pro-
duction is now less than five times that of 1873; that of Cuba has
increased less than 50 per cent, while that of Hawaii is about tliirty-
five times as great as in 1873. Meantime, the cane-sugar production
of the world has grown from 1,793,000 tons, in 1873, to 4,118,000 tons,
in 1903, having about trebled during that period. The beet-sugar
production of the world has grown from 1,210,000 tons, in 1873, to
5,520,000 tons, in 1903, being about four and one-half times as much
in 1903 as in 1873.
Hawaii's share in supplying the sugar consumption of the United
90
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
February
States has increased very rapidly since the reciprocity treaty of 1876.
Prior to that date, sugar imported from Hawaii formed about 1^ per
cent of the total importation, while in the fiscal year 1903 Hawaii
supplied about 15 per cent of the total brought into continental United
States. — Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor.
The World's Maritime Statistics.— ** Lloyil's Register'' for im3-4
puts the world's mercantile marine, on July 10, 1903, at 29,943 steam-
ships, of 27,183,365 tons, and 12,IS2 sailing vessels, of 6,459,766 tons.
The principal natio.is are represented in the following table:
Country Tonvaoe
England 16,006,374
United States 3.61 1,956
Germany 3,283.247
Norway 1.653.740
France 1.622,016
Italy 1.180.335
Russia S09,648
Spain 764,447
Japan 726.S1S
Sweden 721,116
Con n try Ton nage
Holland 658,845
Denmark 581,247
Austria-Hungary 578,697
(Greece ". 378J99
Helgium 157,047
Hrazil 155,086
Turkey 154,494
Chile 103,758
Portugal 101,304
Argentine Re])ublic 95,780
Area, Population, and Density of Population of the South
American Republics.
Courttru
Argentine Republic .
Holiyia
Brazil
Colombia
Chile
Ecuador
Paraguay
Peru
L'ruguay
N'enezuela
Area {Kilnrneler«)
894
,822
.361
203
658
299
253
137
178
043
•Jo/
350
,350
,103
,542
600
100
OOO
700
900
Poimlntioii
4,094,911
3,920,207
14,668,268
3,001,151
1,816,271
1,204,200
502,000
2,629,663
S27,485
2,444,316
Density of
Population
Kilometer
1.41
.99
1.75
3.26
4.56
4.02
1.91
2.31
4.63
2.35
Total 17,S51.902
35,108,472
2.72
Manufacture of Ice in Palestine. — Then* is a snuill ice plant in
Jerusalem, which lias been in operation for three years. An oil
engine of three horse-power furnishes the power; the freezer is of
French manufacture. The sale of ice amounts to about 700 pounds
a day, and the capacity of the works is about 1.400 pounds daily.
The selling price is 5 cents a kilogram (2.2 poimds). Neyer before in
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 9 I
this countn^ have the inhabitants used ice. or seen it, in fact. The
demand at present is limited, but is steadily increasing.
At Jaffa, the seaport of Jerusalem, the ice business was established
about 1890 on a small scale and for several years the business was
not successful; but. in 1S99, as the demand for ice was on the increase,
the works were enlarged, and since then have been operated quite
successfully. The engine used is of German manufacture: oil is used
for fuel. The present daily demand is for about 1,500 pounds, and
the capacity of the works is about 4,500 pounds. The priee is the
same as charged in Jerusalem — 5 cents per kilogram. When the works
were first established the price was 10 cents per kilogram. The water
in Jaffa comes from wells, and. owing to their proximity to the sea,
is brackish. The ice is never clear, and when melted leaves considerable
sediment. The water u.sed in Jerusalem is rain water, from cisterns,
and the ice is Uke crystal. No natural ice is brought to this country.
The demand for ice was first made by the hospitals; the hotels soon
after began its use, and now nearly all the foreign residents and many
of the wealthy native families are consumers.
Raising Crops in the Far North. — Mr. X. L. Skalosubof. address-
ing the recent agricultural convention at St. Petersburg, said that
many facts may be given to disprove the popular idea that grain will
not ripen north of 60° X. Lat. A clergyman at Vugansk, Siberia, 61°
X. Lat and 73° 40' E. Long., is building a mill propelled by wind-power
to turn his winter rye and spring wheat into flour. At Masau. on the
Pelym River, in 61° X. Lat., a farmer has extended his area under
tillage, so that he now raises all tlie griin recpiired by his large family,
and has a surplus to sell. The efforts to raise rye at Herezov in 63° 54'
have been very successful. Still farther north, in 64° 13', barley, rye,
and oats have been grown for a series of years, and yield fifteenfold.
Vegetables are raised at the most northern line of Russian settlements —
for example, at Obdorsk in 66° 31', where the successful experiment
was first made in 1894. — Bulletin American Geor/raphical Society, Octo-
ber, 1903.
Standard Time in South Africa. — The Ciovernments of Cape of Clood
Hope, Natal, Transvaal, Orange River Colony, Rhodesia, and Portu-
guese East Africa^* having decided to adopt a standard time for railroads.
telegraphs, and other public purposes, have agreed that the time shall
be that of the meridian 30° E. Long. — that is to say, two hours in
advance of Greenwich time. The arrangement took effect from
March 1, last. — Bulletin American Geographical Society, Octol)er. 1003.
92 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
Manufacture of Perfumes in Grasse. — The city of Grasse, the
most important industrial place of the Riviera, is widely known on
account of its perfume manufacture. At present thirty-five concerns
making essences of flowers are in operation there. The average con-
sumption of roses for that purpose is about 2,650,000 pounds, and that
of orange flowers about 660,000 pounds per year. The annual sale of
these essences amounts to $1 ,000,000. Vallauris has nine such factories.
The most important product of this industry is oil of neroli, made
from the flowers of the bitter orange. A kilogram (2.2 pounds) of
this oil is worth $60. From the peel of the bitter orange oil of orange
is made. The peel of the sweet orange is seldom used for making oil.
The manufacture of essence of roses is also very extensive. The
so-called oil of roses is manufactured from the grass Andropogon
sch-oenanthus.
The flowers of the large flowered jasmine yield the oil of jasmine.
A hectare (2.471 acres) })lanted with jasmine is said to yield a yearly
product worth $3,000, but requires a groat deal of work. Filled violets
formerly brought from $1 to $2 per kilogram (2.2 pounds); at present,
however, they bring only 50 cents. A kilogram of essence of violets
is worth from $4.50 to $5.
Oil of geranium is produced from the flowers of Pelargonium cafita-
turn. The flowers of the tuberose, of the jonquil, and of a species of
narcissus are manufactured into essences; also the leaves of the citron-
ella plant, the root of the Iris florentinn (violet root) the patchouli
flowers, sandalwood, etc.
Fortunately for many places in the Riviera, the consumption of
these essences has not decreased in late years.
Although many of these perfumes are bad for the nervous system,
others are recognized as antiseptics.
Destruction of Cork Forests in Italy. — While Spain still fur-
nishes 32,800 tons of cork annually, the production of Italy has decreased
to 4,000 tons. Th(» value of the Spanish exports of cork amounts to
$6,000,000 per year, against less than $250,000 for Italy. Only Sicily
and Sardinia are still producing cork to any considerable extent in
Italy, while the former great oak forests of Calabria are almost totally
destroyed. It seems incomprehensible that this destruction has been
permitted. The trees easily reach an age of two hundred years. They
yield cork in their thirtieth year and continue to do so every seven years.
Seventy-five years ago the English demand for cork was supplied
exclusively from Italy. The destruction of the remaining forests goes
on uninterruptedly, and nobody seems to try to prevent it or to plant
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 93
new forests, in spite of the fact that Italy possesses the most favorable
climate and soil for the cork oak, the most favorable conditions for its
growth being found in the volcanic soil of the peninsula. — Monthly
Consular Reports, December ^ 1903.
Current Articles on Commerce and Industry :
DECEMBER
Agaves: A Group of Useful Plants (Illus.), Sci. Am. Supp., Decem-
ber 12.
British Columbia Water Powers (Illus.), Emjineerinij Mag.
California in Winter (Illus.), World To-day.
Canada, American Invasion of (Illus.), World To-day.
Ceylon: Impressions of the Far East (Illus.), World To-day.
China, Railway Making in (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Coal-Mining in the United Kingdom, Engineering Mag.
Com Belt, Life in, World^s Work.
Diseases of Farm Animals in Am., Sci. Am. Supp., December 5.
East River Bridge (Illus.), Sci. Am. Supp., December 19.
Farming: The New Farmer and a New Earth (Illus.), World^s
Work.
Hemp Industry, Sci. Am. Supp., December 5.
Insect Pests in Am. Agriculture, Sci. Am. Supp., December 12.
Iron and Steel (Illus.), Sci. Am. {Special Edition), December 12.
Irrigation in Ancient Chaldea, Sci. Am. Supp., December 12.
Korea and International Politics (Illus.), World To-day.
Louisiana Sugar Plantation (Illus.), Country Life.
Orange Crop of the U. S., Crop Reporter.
Paris, Metropolitan Railway of (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Philippines: Commercial Fibers of, Mo. Summary of Commerce
of the Philippine Is., July.
Philippines: Progress Among the Moros (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
Potato Cultivation in Germany, Consular Rep.
Primitive Inventions (Illus.), The Craftsman. November.
Rubber Tree of Central America (Illus.) , Sci. Am. Supp., December 5.
Sarsaparilla, Paint, Oil and Drug Rev., December 2.
Scotch Oil Industry, Paint. Oil and Drug Rev., December 16.
Sicilian Hills (Illus.), World To-day.
Speculation and Business (Illus.), System.
Standard Oil Co., Part II, Ch. I (Illus.), McClure's Mag.
Warehousing Industr}^ Mo. Summary of Commerce and Finance.
Who Owns the United States? World's Work
94 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
GEOGRAPHICAL QUERIES
A (LEAKING IIorSK FOR (iEOGKAPHICAL WANTS AND DOUBTS.
IT is hoped this department will prove of practical benefit to teachers of geogra-
phy, opening a way for the solving of the many geographical problems which
are constantly met with in the classroom. All questions received will be answered
by specialist* in the various methods of geographical work. We invite inquiries,
criticisms, suggestions, and discussions. Address all communications for this
department to: ki3\vAIU) M. LEHXERTS, Winorm, Minn.
(6) Having noticed a tendency in the schools to combine language
lessons with the teaching of geograpliy, I would appreciate a statement
from Thk Journal of CIkogkaphy as to where, in its opinion, lies
the value of this correlation of one pedagogical subject with another.
M. Faulds, Aylnier (West), Ontario, Canada.
The function of language is to express thought. Language fulfills
its function wlien it enables the individual to convey to others his
states of consciousness. That form which expresses thought most
clearly and most concisely is the b(\st form.
Any one who has watclied the development of children before they
enter school, knows liow rapidly they acipiire the ability to use lan-
guage. Early childliood is a j)erio(l of intense activity. It is a stage
of inquiry, of desire to know. Tlie world is rapidly unfolding before
the eyes of tlie child, and he camiot remain passive in the ])resence of
sucli wonders, l^xpression becomes a neces.sity, and lience the power
to use language deve]o|)s rapidly.
To the teacher this fact should he very significant. It is at once
associated with the immediate lu^eds and desires of the child, and with
his present eiiviromnent. Why not follow this method in the school?
Create a desire to ])()ssess, and you have implanted in the mind that
which is fundamental in leading to possession. It is evident that this
desire will grow out of that in which the child is most deeply interested
— his environment — for in this his experiences are bound up.
In the study of geograpliy we are constantly dealing with objects of
interest, l)eauty. use. We aw studying processes which influence the
daily life of every living thing. Types of the objects are ever before
the pupils. The processes by which the world has been and is being
shaped are at work upon every hillside and highway, along every
stream course, and in the very atmosphere about us.
Geograj)hy thus opens an uidimited field for training in the use of
language, ])oth oral and written. Let the pupil be taught to express his
EDITORIAL 95
growing personal experiences in the best form. Mistakes must be dis-
covered, with or without the aid of the teacher, and must be corrected
by the pupil. Demand the child's best in all work.
How shall we test the value of the present method of teaching lan-
guage? I believe that I am c^uite correct in saying that it is cus-
tomary to judge the pupil's progress by his record in the language
class. It is in connection with geography, history, arithmetic, and
other subjects that the test should be made.
Manual training involves the use of the saw, hammer, plane, and
other tools. What teacher of mamial training would attempt to teach
the use of these tools by having his ]nipils saw, hanuner, and plane
worthless scraps of lumber month after month and year after year?
Children learn how to use these tools by making something. In other
words, the tools are used just as they arc used in the actual affairs of
life — as a means of expression. Does manual training suffer by being
taught in a rational manner? Should language be taught by a methc I
any les{^ rational?
Language should be taught in connection witli geography and all
other subjects for the following reasons: (1) Its function is to express
our thoughts in terms of these sui)jects. (2) This method is along
the line of the pupil's interest. (3) It makes possible the greatest
progress. (4) It furnishes a rational test of the pupil's ability. (5) It
makes language a means rather than an end.
J. y. Chamberlaix,
Sfatc Xortrial School, Los A vticlca, Calijornia,
EDITORIAL
GEOGRAPHY TEACHING IN NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS
DURING the agitation for better geography teaching in elementary
and secondary schools which lias been going on now fr)r more
than a decade, but little attention has been given to the prob-
lem of geography teaching in normal and training schools. Inasmuch
as these schools are the source of special training of a large proportion
of the teachers employed in (lementar}^ schools, especially in cities, this
neglect of attention has l^een most unfortunate. Teachers have been
spurred on by new and revolutionary texts, by new and perhaps over
detailed courses of study, by constant discussion in the pedagogical
journals, and have l)een urged to make striking changes in their methods
of teaching and in the choice of materials to be presented in classroom
work, while httle attention in a connected way has been given to the
g6 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY February
improvement of geography training in the professional schools for teachers.
In several of the normal schools, particularly in the western states,
the task of training pupil teachers in geography has been entrusted to
teachers who have had opportunities of specializing in geography during
their academic training. Even these trained leaders have not, however,
compared notes and discussed plans of work, as have the teachers in
secondary schools. As a result, the normal school teaching of geog-
raphy in the countr}^ at large is at present uneven in method, in point
of view, and in results.
Students who have gone through a two years^ normal or training
course, following a high-school course, ought to have gained that knowl-
edge of geography, and of methods of teaching, which will give them
confidence in their work and a feeling of reserve strength beyond the
needs of everyday school life. A teacher who must give to her pupils
all she knows herself is to be pitied, for she is always liable to be upset
by the sagacious question of some active-minded pupil who sees beyond
the text and lesson of the day.
A teacher who has had the benefit of a professional training ought
to know what is essential and what nonessential in geography for school
work; she ought to understand the cross-relations between the several
divisions of geography onUnarily separated in a school text; she should
be familiar with the best sources of reference and know how to seek new
and additional information in atlases, cyclopedias and compendia;
and above all she shoul<l be able to sift the small amount of accurate
and valuable material from the vast abundance of geographical chaff
poured forth from the press, and especially from the daily press.
There is no field of school work in which a knowledge of geography
is of more inune<liate value than in the current events class. Any
teacher who has not gained from her professional course in geography
a knowledge of facts and principles that will be of ever\'da3' service
and consolation, has been negligent in her work or has been trained
in a bad way.
It is for the purj)ose of showing how these ideals can be obtained
that The Joxtrnal begins this month the j)ublication of a new series of
articles ^ dealing with the geography courses in several of the progressive
normal schools of the co\mtr\\ The editors will welcome further con-
tributions to the subject, either in the way of (questions or discussions,
and it is hoped that the series may be of help and inspiration to all
teachers of geography in normal and training schools.
' Sec also, The Journal of Geography, Vol. II., pp. 393, 469, 507.
REVIEWS 97
REVIEWS
The Geography of Commerce. By Spencer Trotter. Size 5 by 7J inches. Pp.
xxiv and 410. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1903.
A crop of books is now appearing on the subject of commercial geography.
The Elementary Commercial Geography of C. C. Adams was reviewed in these pages
recently. The book of Dr. Trotter is similar in scope and purp)ose.
This is the first volume of Macmillan's Commercial Series. The editor's intro-
duction indicates that the series is to contain two books on geography in relation to
industry; namely, one devoted to the physical laws and facts influencing industry,
and one developing the "standpoint of men and organizations of men." The author
appears to dissent, for on the first page of Chapter I we find the statement that
"Geography is used in the following pages in its broad meaning, and includes an
account of man and nature, and the interactions which are an outcome of their
relationship to each other.'* We venture to protest that commercial geography is so
new a study in American schools, and its aims and methods, its disciplinary value,
and its place in the curriculum are all so uncertain, that to split the various \iew-
points of the subject apart into separate books will be to introduce the greatest
confusion. Furthermore, it must be urged that to divide the subject along the lines
proposed will be to prevent the effective juxtaposition of facts within a volume,
in the eflfort to reveal the essential conditions of industry as they arise, partly from
the physical environment, partly from the culture, laws, customs and institutions
of human society, and become intimately associated in the process of wealth pro-
duction.
Wliile there is much that is excellent in the book before us, and while the sug-
gested questions and topics and the bibliographies following each chapter give evi-
dence of much careful work, it nmst be admitted that the text proper is disappoint-
ing, both because of an unsatisfactory general plan for the arrangement and balanc-
ing of the various topics treated, and because the substance of the individual para-
graphs is composed of the more obvious and superficial facts of industry, and these
are not sufficiently digested in relation to any body of general principles which the
student may seize upon and retain after the specific facts have been forgotten or
have become out-of-date.
The photographs with which the book is embellished are excellent; the charts
also are correct in principle though by no means striking. The maps are quite
ordinary in character; some of them, like the thumb-nail maps on pages 90, 92,
99, and 102, are too small to show much of im|X)rtance; others are overloaded with
data, as illustrated by the map of South America on page 208; while some are de-
cidedly inaccurate, like the map on page 53 comparing the area of European
countries with that of the United States.
E. D. J.
Elementary Geography. A Text-book for Children. By Charles F. King. Size
10} X 8}. Pp. VI, 220. 26 maps and numerous illustrations. Boston: Lothrop
P^ublishing Company, 1903.
The author of King's Elementary Geography aims to cover the first two years
of geography work. The first section deals with obsenational home geography —
by means of trips to the park, the fields, the hills, and the seashore; elementary
<*oncepts of surface, land, and water forms, work of air and water, the weather and
98 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY February
the seiusons are brought out. Then type forms are taken up. The child's early
interests in the particular rather than the general are appealed to by the study
of a mountain (Mt. Washington), a river (the Hudson), a prairie, a coast, a cold,
a hot, and a temperate country. The earth as a whole is dealt with, and then the
continents by means of journeys. The author has used the journey method to
add interest and sequence to the work, but he has not fallen into the conniion error
of allowing this method to breed superficiality. Vital and fundamental facts have
been emphasized.
Less ground hiis bt^n covered than in man\' geographies because it has seemed
more important to appeal to the child's interest in the real, the concrete, than to
attempt to cover more ground in a general manner. Cities and industries are clearly
and concisely described with sufficient detail to keep interest in the reality. Some
of us will question the lulvisability of using the personal element and story form to
such an extent, and even the extensive use of the journey method in a text-book,
but the book will be interesting to every teacher of geography. The general appear-
ance of the book is noteworthy. The innnerous illustrations are clear, attractive,
and illuminate the text. The maps are sini{)le and clear. L. W. H.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS
Manual of Geography and Language. Hy C. E. Mann, Chicago. Pp. 151.
Chicago: M. A. Donohue & Company, 1903.
This latest manual of geography contains an outline of a course of geography
that has been tested by use, and practical suggestions as to ways of approaching
the different subjects accepted as pertinent to the course. The outlines are largely
devoted to economic and industrial topics. The book contains some very helpful
and suggestive questions for review purposes, but is not particularly new or indi-
vidual.
Pioneer Spaniards in North America. Hv ^^'illiam Henrv Johnson. Pp. xvi and
381. Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1903.
An interesting account of explorers like Vespucius, Balboa, Ponce de Leon,
Cort^^s, De Vaca, Coronado. and De Soto, illustrate<l by many reproductions of old
plates and a few of old maps. A good book of reference for teachers dealing with
the period of exploration in America.
Handbook of Commercial Geography. By George G. Chisholm. Fourth corrected
edition. Pp. xlvi and 639. London and New York: Longmans, Green and
Company, 1903.
A revised and much-(»nlarged edition of a well-known and .standard book. A
book of reference which may be used as a text in the higher grades of teaching.
To be reviewed later.
Precis de Geographie Economique. By Dubois and Kergomard. Second edition.
Pp. viii and 837. Paris: Ma.sson et Cie., 1903.
An up-to-date conunercial geograj)hy arranged by countries. Lacks illustra-
tions and has a meager index. In the treatment of each country the causal idea
is well emphasized, and comparisons with similar conditions in other countries are
clearly brought out.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS 99
Descriptive Chemistry. Bv Lvinan C. Xewell. Pp. vi, 590. Boston: 1).C. Heath,
1903.
A descriptive cheniistr>', primarily for teacliers and students of chemist rv. A
valuable book of reference for teachers of geography who wish to know more about
the chemical side work of the atmosphere, and water, or about other topics of
similar nature.
The Land of Little Rain. Bv Marv Austin. Pp. xi, 281. Boston: Houghton,
Mifflin & Co., 19a3.
A book on the desert ^^Titten by an enthusiastic desert lover who speaks from
intimate knowledge. Most highly commended to all who want an adequate pre-
sentation of the truth about deserts. To be reviewed later.
The Yellowstone National Park. Bv Hiram M. Chittenden. Fourth edition. Pp.
X, 355. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke Co., 1903.
A revised and enlarge<l edition of a well-knowii guide-book to the Yellowstone.
To be reviewed later.
The Cause of the Glacial Period. Bv H. L. True. Pp. xii, 102. (Cincinnati: Hobert
Clarke Co., 1903.
A review of the .several theories which have l)een suggested to account for the
glacial period, and followed by a presentation of the author's views. To be reviewe<l
ater.
The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. Kdited and amiotated by Knnna H. Blair
and James H. Robertson. Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Co., 1903.
Vol. 11—1521-1569. Pp. 335.
Vol. Ill— 1569-1576. Pp. 317.
Vol. IV— 1576-1582. Pp. 320.
Vol. V— 1582-1583. Pp. 321.
Vol. VI— 1583-1588. Pp. 325.
Vol. VII— 1588-1591. Pp. 320.
The beginning volumes in an inclusive series to cover the history and geography
of the Philippine Islands from 1493 to 1898, when Spanish rule ceased. The volumes
are translations from original documents, are well arranged and edite<l, and appear
in a pleasing typography and fonn. Of special value to students of historical
geography and should be found in the leading libraries.
The Philippines, a Geographical Reader. By Samuel MacClintock. Pp. 105,
with four maps. New York: American Book Company, 1903.
A simple book, dealing briefly with certain of the best-known areas of the Phil-
ippines. Well illustrated and timely, but not especially interesting.
New Physical Geography. Bv Ralph 8. Tarr. Pp. xiii, 457. New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1904.
A new book in fact as well as in name, by an author whose j^revious texts for
secondary schools have been eminently successful. Especially striking for its many
maps and diagrams. Many of the illustrations and some of the diagrams are too
indistinct to be helpful. It is eminently practical and will immediately be ranked
as one of the less than half-dozen books on physical geography which can be used
to advantage in secondary and normal schools. To be reviewed later.
lOO THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
NEWS NOTES
Geography at the Normal School, Trenton, N. J. — Part II of the
Second Year Book of the National Society for the Scientific Study
of Education is devoted to a consideration of the Relation of Theory
to Practice in Education. In this there is given a suggestive outline
of the course in geography given to students in the Normal School at
Trenton, N. J. Here the plan is for the pupil teacher to go over the
subject matter of geography, much in the same order that is followed
in the practice school. Thus the course for the normal training students
is closely parallel to the course in the practice school, though much
more inclusive. A study of this plan, therefore, will give a good idea
of the school course of study. The plan followed is somewhat at
variance with the usual courses of study for pupil teachers in normal
schools, but is suggestive and helpful.
A New Trial for the North Pole. — Commander Pear>% the well-
known and indefatigable Arctic explorer, has been given three years'
leave of absence by the laiited States Navy and will start in July,
1904, on a new attempt to reach the North Pole from the American
side.
Geographical Exhibit to be Held by the Geographical Association
of Britain. — The Geographical Association of Britain, of which Dr. A.
J. Herbertson is the Honorary Secretary, will hold an exhibition of
books, maps, and geographical apparatus in London in January,
1904. This exhibit will be in association with a Conference on School
Equipment for the Teacliing of Geography, full accounts of which
may be expected in the later numbers of the GeographiccU TeacheTj
of which Dr. Herbertson is editor. I^y mutual agreement between the
editors, contributions to the Gvoifraphical Teacher which are of value
in America are reprinted in this Journal and a similar use is made of
the Journal of Gkographv in the Geocjra'phicid Teacher.
Newest and Best Text-Books
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Brief Geography 80
Tarbeirs Geographies
By HoRA( K S. Tarhkll, A.M., LL.I)., formerly Sunerintcndenl of
Schools, Providence, R. I., and Martha Tarhkll, Ph.D.
Introductory Geography $0.50
Complete Geography i.oo
The same. With Special State Editions .1.10
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Journal of Pedagogy
IPROM the first issue the Journal of Pedagogy has been edited solely in the interest
of sound education and correct teachin>c. Some of tlie most important contribu-
tions to pedaj<o|jical literature in this country have appeared in its paees durinji? the
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XVI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SEPTEMBER
1903
EDITORIAL — The Batavia System— What the Batavia System Is — A Quickened Intellec-
tual Life — The Right View of a Superintendent's Duties — A Needed Amendment —
Music in the High School — A Difficult Undertaking Well Done — The Boston Meeting
— Medical Inspection of Schools — College Entrance Examination Board.
TEXT-BOOK LIBRARIES, Robert MacDoll.m..
COMMERCIALISM AGAINST CULTURE, J. H. ATKtssoN.
THE TEACHER'S PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE RESULTS OF CHILD STUDY,
F. E. SpAiri-Disr..
THE AIM OF EDUCATION. M. A. Carrinp.er.
THE PEDAGOGICAL VALUE OF MEDIATE INTEREST, L. W. Hoffman.
MUSIC STUDY VS. PERFORMANCE, H. H. Lanuton.
AMBIDEXTERITY AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. Samuel S. Maxwell.
A SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL SOCIOLOGY, D. C. Parr.
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1900 CENSUS
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1900 CENSUS
Pocket Atlas of the World
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1900 CENSUS
fe:.DM-':^h'-Af
1900 CENSUS
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Le^aL Government,
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Etc.
1900 CENSUS
PocKet Atlas of the World
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THE
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By Dr. Ckas. E. Bessey^ Prof. Lawrence
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A SmONQ ENDOiSEMENT
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classroom. Hon. James Wilson,
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Published in October, 1903, but already
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THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY,
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B1BDIB8 AT Thbib Tbadbs: Mason —
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Weaver -Ortole, Fuller -Goldfinch, Carpen-
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graphic featurea of Am^rita which have btsen important in guiding the unlulding
of our industrial and nati^muL lift. The arrangement ia mamly geographicar
Ami>ng the tbeme;* recelvinj? special rreatment are: The Eastern LrAtoway of the
United Statt^s, The Appalachian Barrier, the Great I^Fakes and American Commerce**
th« Civil Wat. and MintiS and Mountain Life, Closing chapters deal with the unity
&nd diveraity of American life, and with phyjiiography a^ anecting American defltiny.
An opinion from JAMf:S T. CHAM'BKRLAiN, Twacher 0/
Geography, State formal Sehooh Los Angehs. CaL
J consiihr Brtgham's ** Geographic Influences in American History'*
a very strong book. It wiil be of great value to all teachers of history because
it shows clearly the vital influence which geographic environment exerts upon
the history of a people. It will be very helpful to teachers of geography
because it brings out the very core of the subject.
GINN 6 COMPANY. Publishers
Bottom Hew York Chicago London San Francisco Atlanta Dallas CoLumbUE
HOME
GEOGRAPHY
Prima r J Grades
By Harold W. Fairbanks
Beautifully
Illustrated
Cloth, 60 cents
Educational Publishing
Company
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<^^»*<^t»^>i
I
.>
^
OBSERVATION
IN GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY IS THE A\EDILA\
. THROUGH WHICH THE
PUPIL IS LED INTO SCI-
ENCE WORK. AND THE
"NATURAL SCIENCES" A\AY BE
CALLED DirrERENTlATED GEOG-
RAPHY. IT IS A PACT THAT THE
RESULTS or NATURE STUDY IN
GEOGRAPHICAL WORK HAVE BEEN
DISTINCTLY GOOD. NATURE STUDY
HAS STiy^ULATED THE TACULTY Or
OBSERVATION, AND HAS TAUGHT
THE CHILD TO SEE AND TO DIS-
COVER THINGS. THE CHILD IS CEAS-
ING TO BE A PASSIVE ENTITY. BUT
IS BECO.niNG AN ACTIVE TACTOR.
BOOK STUD^' IS NECESSARY. BE-
CAUSE IT IS TIA\E-SAVING AS
WELL AS LABOR-SAVING: BUT THE
REAL TRAINING IN GEOGRAPHY
ynUST COA\E rROA\ OBSERVA-
TIONAL WORK. BECAUSE IT IS
THE ONLY WORK THAT STIMU-
LATES THE PUPIL'S ACTIVITIES.
JACQUES W. REDW^AY
'.
^^^^mmt^^^^f^^m
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. MARCH, 1904 No. 3
THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA*
BY COL. G. E. CHURCH
ANOTHER turn of the liistoric kaleidoscope, and this time the
iraii d! union between North and South America is an independ-
ent State. What are the physical characteristics, the geograph-
ical advantages, the pxospective means for existence possessed by this
newly fledged commonwealth?
Its southeastern boundary, if the old departmental limits be main-
tained, will follow the Serrania del Darien, which is the divortium
aquarum between the basin of the river Atrato and its estuary and the
valley of the Tuira, which drains into the Gulf of Panama. The line
commences in the little bay of Aguacate or Octavia, in front of point
Mazo or Morroquemado, and thence nms north-northeast, then north
along the summits which separate the rivers that flow to the Pacific from
those which run to the Atlantic. Reaching the headquarters of the
Jurado, it turns west towards the heights of Aspave. It then follows,
generally in a northeast direction, the divide between the Gulf of
San Miguel and the river Atrato, until it reaches the ocean entrance
to the Gulf of Uraba, where it diverges northwest to the headquarters
of the river Tarena, the course of which, until it empties into the Gulf
of Uraba, serves as the most northern section of the boundary in
question, t
The frontier with Costa Rica will, according to the award of Presi-
dent Loubet in 1900, start from Cape Mona, on the Caribbean Sea,
and enclose, on the north, the basin of the river Tarire (the lower course
of which is sometimes called the Sixola), and then, by the watershed
between the Atlantic and the Pacific (which is the narrow-crested
♦ Reprinted from the Geographical Journal^ December, 1903.
t See Perze, Geografia Fisica de los Estados Unidos de Colombia,
Copyright y igo4^ by E. M. Lehnerts
I02 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY March
Cordillera of Talamanca), southeasterly to 9 degrees N. lat.; thence,
it will take a southerly direction and follow the divide between Chiriqui
Viejo and the tributaries of the Gulf of Dulce, and terminate at Point
Burica, on the Pacific Ocean.
A great river, the Atrato, flows in a deep gorge northward into the
Gulf of Uraba or Darien, and separates the "Occidental Cordillera"
of Colombia from the outlying parallel coast range, washed by the
waves of the Pacific Ocean, and known as the Sierra de Baudo. This
is generally low, its highest peak being only 6,000 feet above the sea.
Its average elevation is from 2,600 to 3,300 feet, and its lowest depres-
sions from 1,000 to 1,600. It is a wild chaos of ridges, highlands, and
spurs, terribly ravined by torrential rains, thickly forested, and ren-
dered almost impassable by an infinite number of rivers, brooks, and
tropical swamps and jungles — a jjestiferous region uninviting as a
home for man.
In the latitude of the Gulf of Uraba, the extension of the Sierra de
Baudo pushes into the Isthnms of Panama, on the Pacific side, as far
as the mouth of the river Bayamo or Chepo, where it completely dis-
appears. En route it breaks down to give place to the Bay of San
Miguel and its tributary river system of the Tuira. Southeast of this
bay is a low massif called the Altos de Aspave, and northwest of it
another culminating height, broadly spurred and counterforted, con-
nected by a transverse ridge with the low range which overlooks the
Gulf of Darien.
The Altos de Aspave throws off, to the northeast, the Serrania del
Darien, which crosses from the Pacific Coast to the mouth of the Gulf
of Uraba. Thence it skirts the Caribbean coast as far as Porto Bello,
occasionally, for long distances, rising from the seashore in bold escarp-
ments. Its principal summits are from 500 to 2 JOO feet above the sea.
At the Cliagres River, that b*^te noire of the Canal Company, the
Serrania del Darien completely breaks down, and the summit height
between the two oceans is but 300 feet above sea level. With the
exception of the interoceanic water-divide in Nicaragua, which is 153
feet, it is the lowest break in the Andean and Rocky Mountain chain
between the Straits of Magellan and Northern Alaska.
The orographic system of the western half of the Isthmus of Panama
is bolder and better defined than that of the eastern portion. The
region has a broad l)ackbonc ribbed by numerous counterforts, but
occasionally broadening into complex belts of highlands and isolated
cerros. From tlie Costa Rica frontier, the range takes the name of
1904 THE REPUBLIC OP PANAMA IO3
Sierra de Chiriqui, then Veragua, and afterwards is known as the
Sierra de Panama. In the first is the extinct volcano of Chiriqui,
11,000 feet* elevation above the sea, but the entire sierra has an
average altitude of 6,500 feet. The Sierra de Veragua presents us with
the dome of Santiago, which rises to 9,275 feet, while the Tuta reaches
5,000 and the Santa Maria 4,600. The Sierra de Panama seems to be
thrown broadcast into disorderly fragments without law or regularity,
and its summits nowhere exceed an elevation of 1,600 feet.
C A R I B B E A N SEA
PA C I F ! C O C E A N
Map I. THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA.
Showing ike new boundary lines, ihe route of the Panama railroad, and the proposed route of the
Panama canal.
West of Montijo Bay, on the Pacific side, a broad and massive
mountain outwork forms the peninsula of Las Palmas^ and between
that and the Bay of Panama lies the great peninsula of Azuero, which
shows a capricious, distinctive orographic system of highlands and
sierras. Its bold headlands, which overlook the ocean, rise to an
altitude of 3,000 feet.
About 150 short rivers flow to the sea from the northern side of
the isthmus, and over double that number drain it5 Pacific slope. The
largest and most important is the Tuira, which rises in the Pirn Moun-
tains just north of the Bay of San Miguel, and empties into this. The
Tuira is navigable for river schooners as far up as the first Spanish
settlement, Santa Maria del Real; but, owing to the bars, they can not
ascend to Pinogava, which is the highest point reached by the tides.
♦F. J. Vergara y Velasca, Nueva Oeografia de Colombia.
104 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY ManA
During the dry season, the river-bed above tidewater is a succession
of rapids, beyond which the river dwindles into a small stream. The
marks on the trees indicate a rise of sixteen feet during the wet season,
when the volume of water carried by the Tuira and it« eleven main tribu*
taries is immense. Its principal affluent is the Chucunaque from the
north. It is nearly as large as the Tuira itself.
The Bayanio, or Chepo, rises in the same knot as the Chucunaque,
but flows northwest and then west and south until it discharges into
the Gulf of Panama. It is about 150 miles long, and it is claimed that
130 miles of its course can be navigated by rafts and small craft. It has
a wide estuary, the entrance to which has a bar \\dth but two feet of
water at low tide. The remaining streams on the Pacific side are
short and torrential, and of little value, even for canoe navigation,
except in the immediate vicinity of their mouths.
On the Caribbean slope of Panama there are but two of its many
rivers which merit attention, as offering some advantages as commercial
outlets for the districts they drain. These streams are the Chagres
and the Teliri, known now as the Tarire in the decision of the boundary-
Une dispute between Colombia and Costa Rica. The Chagres, a historic
waterway ever since the discovery of the Isthmus of Panama by Colombo,
flows into the Caribbean Sea a little to the west of Porto Bello. It has
a bar on which there are 11 feet of water, just outside the Laja reef,
through which there is a passage 70 feet wide with 14 feet of water.
The Chagres is navigable for boats to within fourteen miles of the
Pacific, and is tame or fierce according to the season. In the dry season
it is a deep ditch with a few feet of muddy water at the bottom, but
when the saturated clouds burst over its drainage area of 1,000 square
miles, and pour into it, at times, a uniform depth of seven inches of
water in a day, the river rises over forty feet in twelve hours, and
carries with it, in its torrential race to the sea, a vast mass of tropical,
arboreal rubbish, clay, mud, and detritus which it receives from its
swollen tributaries, it will l>e extremely interesting for the engineering
and financial world to watch the coming contest between the Chagres
River anil tlie United States Treasury. In comparison to the Chagres,
the San Juan River of Nicaragua is a plaything.
The Tarire, the mouth of which is in lat. 9° 34' 14" N., runs along
the southern base of the great east^^rn counterfort of the Talamanca-
Chiricjui range, through a spacious, undulating wooded valley of 100
to 150 square miles area, having low grounds which are sometimes dry
and at others swampy. Its Ur^n branch rises on the northeast slope
1904
THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA IO5
of the Pico Blanco, the view from the summit of which is said to be
"incomparably more extensive'' than that from the crest of the Costa
Rica volcano of Irazu. The Tarire is navigable for Hght-draft steamers
for fifteen miles up, but, from the Ur^n to Gule, there are twentynsix
rapids and numerous snags. Boats carrying half a ton of goods ascend
to Sapurio, one and one-half miles up the Ur^n. Between the Tarire
and the small river Tilorio farther south is the crooked, narrow, and
deep estuary called the Laguna de Sansdn, an ancient affluent of the
Tilorio, full of sharks, alligators, and fish. It receives a little stream
called the Dalni, which drains an impassable swamp. Southeast of
and near the Tilorio is the Boca del Drago, one of the entrances to
Almirante Bay.*
Panama has many bays and ports on both oceans, but the greater
part of them seem to be the undisturbed home of silence and primeval
solitude. There is no accessible country behind them which offers an
easy field for development. He is a bold pioneer who dares to throw
down the gauntlet to nature in Panama. There she displays her forces
with magnificent abandon; the very ocean-margin is a wall of vegeta-
tion; nearly every swamp, hill, slope, mountain-side, and gorge is
densely packed with growth of trees, shrub, vine, parasite, and grasses,
forming a tangled jungle, sweating with the effort to maintain existence
under the vertical rays of a tropical sun. The view is beautiful from
the deck of a vessel, and no wonder that Luiz Colombo selected a part
of "Castilla del Oro" as his fairyland, where his imagination might
revel to the full, but which, unhappily, could yield him no other satis-
faction. Four centuries have passed since he received his grant of
ducal Veragua, and although it is within easy touch by sea with North
America, it remains as the great Colombo discovered it, and as it was
when for centuries it was the buffer region between Aztec and Ingarial
civilization, so called. With the exception of bananas, no crop could
be planted which would pay for clearing the lands of such a region,
and keeping them cleared; and even bananas would not flourish suffi-
ciently well if cultivated at an altitude exceeding 1,500 feet above the
sea. However numerous the ports and bays of Panama on the Atlantic
side, it is probable that many more centuries must pass before they
become of any marked importance as commercial centers.
Starting from the Costa Rica boundary, the first great well-protected
sheet of water is Almirante Bay, which in reality is the northwestern
prolongation of the Laguna of Chiriqui. Together they form a vast
♦See G. E. Church, Costa Rica Geographical Journal, 1897.
2
I06 THB JOURNAL OP GBOGRAPHY SUnA
sheet of water. The former is thirteen miles long from east to west,
and varies in breadth from two to thirteen miles. Its many harbors
offer secure anchorage to ocean-going ships of the largest class, which
may often moor alongside the shore. A low ridge of hills borders its
southern side, in some places rising boldly to several himdred feet
elevation, and two miles inland, reaching an altitude of 1,700 to 2,000
feet. The bay contains many large and small islands. Its main
entrances from the sea are the Boca del Drago and the Boca del Tore,
the former very tortuous, but having a depth of nine fathoms of water;
the latter offers five fathoms, but the channel is only a quarter of a
mile wide, and bordered by coral reefs. The latter entrance gives its
name to a small Colombian settlement supported principally by
banana cultivation, the product being shipped to the United States.
The Laguna de Chiriqui is thirty-two miles long and twelve wide,
narrowing to five miles at its southeastern extremity, and ten at its
northwestern. Vessels of any craft may enter it from the ocean by the
Boca del Tigre by an 8-fathom channel, and find ample security in
fifteen to twenty fathoms of water. The eastern and southern shores are
low and swampy for a long distance inland, but at one point a spur of
the Veragua range penetrates to wdthin two miles of the southeastern
side of the laguna, where it has an elevation of 2,672 feet. The dense
forest growth, which occupies the mountain-and-hill slope which sur-
rounds nearly the whole of the Chiriqui laguna, extends upwards nearly
to the water-divide between the northern and southern oceans, and,
secure in its solitude, nature revels there in all the fantastic display
of an exuberant vegetation. But, crossing the serraniaf there is a
marked change; the forests give way to grass lands along the mountain
flanks towards the Pacific Coast, and cultivated fields, pastures, and
habitations of man indicate that here nature is in a less riotous mood.
The distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific, across the district
described, is fifty miles. The mountain slopes, owing to the ceaseless
erosion of the rain-laden trade winds, are sharper on the Caribbean side
than on the Pacific incline, whicli is also much drier than the former.
This is true of the whole isthmus — at least, that part west of the Gulf
of San Miguel.
From the Laguna de Chiriqui eastward to the river Chagres, the
forbidding coast-line (of coral reef, sandy beach, mangrove swamp,
and a few precipitous bluffs) has no sheltered anchorage. A heavy
surf breaks continually along nearly the entire shore. To the west-
ward of the Chagres River twenty-five miles, and to the eastward of
i9tH THE REPUBLIC OP PANAMA IO7
it as far as Porto Bello, the shore is low and flat, and deadly exhalations
from the swamps veil the interior of the country from view.
The so-called Bay of Colon, named in honor of Colombo, who dis-
covered it in 1502, lies just to the east of the mouth of the Chagr^
Biver. It is poorly sheltered, and, being open to the north, is exposed
to "northers," which frequently blow with such violence that the
shipping is forced to run out to sea or seek shelter at Porto Bello. This
place, historic in the colonial period of South America, and then the
seat of the galeon trade between Spain and the West Coast, is a pesti-
lential port without ventilation, owing to the high hills which enclose
it on the north and south and prevent the winds from sweeping away
the malignant miasma which continually arises from the swamps on
the east. A coral reef skirts the southern shore, and the city and the
ruins of the castle of San Jer6nimo are situated on the beach in the
southeast comer. The width of the entrance to the port is one and
one-fourth miles, but it soon narrows to half a mile. The depth of
the water gradually increases to seven fathoms. Porto Bello, as a
harbor, is the best between Almirante Bay and that of San Bias. In
fact, there is no other worth mentioning.
Of San Bias, Commander Self ridge, who surveyed it, says: "It
extends in a northeast and southwest direction some twenty miles,
and is about ten miles in extreme breadth. It is formed by the cape
of San Bias and the outlying islands of the Mulatas archipelago, and is
a most magnificent bay, with deep passages, and perfectly protected
from the north winds in the dry season. In the northwest comer is an
inner harbor formed by a circle of islands, with a passage leading into
it. This harbor is magnificent for all purposes required as the great
terminus of an interoceanic canal." Gen. E. W. Serrell says of the
Bay of Mandinga, which is at the southw^est side of the Gulf of
San Bias: "The water is eighty feet deep within 100 feet of the shore,
and nowhere less than sixty feet deep all the way into the Atlantic
Ocean." The width of the isthmus at San Bias, from ocean to ocean,
is thirty-seven miles. This is the shortest interoceanic distance on
the Western Continent.
From San Bias Bay, for a distance of about eighty miles, is the
remarkable belt of cays, islands, and reefs known as the Mulatas archi-
pelago. The cays are sandy and mostly in clusters, but Uttle out
of water, and thickly wooded. Between them are found many navi-
gable channels. East of the Mulatas, and as far as Port Escoc^s,
many cays also make the coast navigation dangerous and extremely
lOg THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY March
difficult; but farther towards the Gulf of Uraba, these obstructions
cease to exist.
Between Point Sasardi and Point Escoc^s is a broad line of cajrs,
sheltering what is knowTi as Caledonia Bay, in which are two harbors,
the western called Sasardi, and the eastern one knowTi as Caledonia.
The former is about three-quarters of a mile in extent, with four to six
fathoms of water; and the latter, the entrance to which is obstructed
by dangerous shoals, has from eight to nine fathoms at the anchorage.
The bold Atlantic frontage of the Serrania del Darien, from the Gulf of
Uraba to Porto Bello, is thickly forested, and receives the full force of
the northeast trade winds, with a resultant heavy rainfall.
Turning to the Pacific Coast, we find the Gulf of San Miguel, or
"Darien of the south," on the eastern side of the great shallow Bay of
Panama. At its head is the Bay of San Miguel, which was a great resort
for the buccaneers, who reached it from Cale<lonia Bay in ten days by
one of the routes which served for conmiunication between the oceans
by the Indian tribes before the discovery of America. The bay is
over six miles wide at its mouth. It has j)lenty of water on its eastern
side, but is shallow on its western one. As at Panama, it has a tidal
range of twenty feet or more, while Caledonia Bay, on the Caribbean
side, like Colon, is almost tideless. Darien harbor, at the head of the
gulf or estuary of San Miguel, extends in a southeast direction up to
the village of Chupigana, where it receives the Tuira and Savana rivers.
Its deep water affords anchorage to the largest ships. Mangrove
swamps, backed by thickly wooded hills, are almost continuous along
its shores.
The island-filled Hay of Panama, at the head of which is the famous
city of the same name, is well known. It commen«es at Cape Gara-
china, at the southern entrance of San Miguel, makes a majestic sweep
concave to the south, and terminates at Cape Malo, which is the south-
east cape of the great peninsula of Azuero. The great distance between
the two capes is about 100 miles. The northern part of the bay is
shallow, and large ships have their anchorage near the famous island
of Taboga, nine miles south of the city of Panama. On this island
Pizarro, Almagro, and Luque made their famous contract to discover
and conquer the empire of the Incas. The latter was cheated out of
his share of the plunder, and Almagro was garroted in prison at Cuzco
by the brother of Pizarro. Sailing craft find it extremely difficult to
get in or out of the Bay of Panama, but especially out. It is one of the
most tedious and difficult bits of navigation in the world. Pizarro
igoi
THE REPUBLIC OP PANAMA
109
was the first to try it, in November, 1525, but, after seventy da)rs, was
forced to abandon the effort to leave the bay; and it is still the similar
experience of nearly every craft unaided by steam. It is a region of
calms, doldrums, vexatious currents, squalls, rains, and tormenting
heat.
Tt,
NWmn
Billet
CoplTitfli^ IWS, Tif Bud, Me^uiltr * On
Map II. THE PANAMA CANAL STRIP.
The city of Panama is situated on high ground at the foot of Ancon
hill, but west of old Panama, which was destroyed by the buccaneers
imder Morgan in 1673. To the mouth of the river Bayamo, about
twenty-five miles, and for another equal distance to the southeast,
the coast is flooded, and at low water mud flats are exposed for"a dis-
tance of three miles from the shore; but farther on, as far as the Gulf of
San Miguel, the margin is higher, with occasional small hills. From
Panama southwest to the Bay of Parita, on the westem^side of the
Bay of Panama, the coast-line is considerably broken, and alternates
I lO THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY March
between high and hilly ground and low flooded areas, the whole shore-
line being generally of mud. The entire shore of the Bay of Parita is
flooded land, and has a forbidding mud flat extending from two to three
miles out. From this bay to Cape Malo, about forty miles, the coast is
well out of water and backed by the highlands of the peninsula of Azuero.
The southern front of this peninsula varies much in character;
west of Cape Malo for about twenty-five miles the lowlands soon give
place to the escarpments of the cerros, which rise to a considerable
altitude farther inland, and the remainder of the frontage overlooks the
ocean, the mountains, furrowed with gorges, pushing boldly down to
the coast. The west side of the peninsula, which partly shelters the
Gulf of Montijo, is high ground at times, and at others low with occa-
sional beaches. It has many little bays, with a southwestern exposure,
which receive the torrents that descend from the mountains.
The Gulf of Montijo, penetrating north about twenty miles, has an
opening of some fourteen miles. The short river San Pedro flows in
at its head, and is navigable for small craft about seventeen miles up
to the port of Montijo, where there is a little traffic. The gulf has several
large and small islands, the principal one, Sabaco, lying off its mouth
and completely sheltering it from the south winds.
West and northwest from the Gulf of Montijo, as far as the Bay of
David, the coast for the first twenty miles is sharply defined; thence,
as far as Espartal Island, many hill spurs push down to the sea; the
shore then becomes low and cut by numerous small streams. The
whole coast, from Montijo's Gulf to David Bay, has many Uttle bays,
most of which are available for vessels of very Ught draft. The bay
last named is filled with cays, reefs, and hilly islands. At its head it
receives the river David, which, with its tributaries, drains a vast
amphitheater of mountains which abut upon a broad plain surrounding
the little port of David near the river delta. The river has its sources
in the serrania of Chiriqui, and several of its branches drain the south-
eastern slopes of the great volcanoes of Chiriqui and Horqueta, the
latter 6,600 feet elevation. West of the delta of the David, the coast-
line bends in a great curve to the south until it reaches Point Burica
at the termination of a peninsula formed by a rugged spur of the Chiriqui
mountains.
The Pacific coast-line of the Isthmus of Panama is about one-third
greater in extent than that of the Caribbean side. There are many
islands along both coasts, but those on the Pacific are more numerous
and larger than those on the Atlantic.
THE REPUBLIC OP PANAMA
II I
A thick, dark, primitive forest covers at least three-fourths of the
State, and the vegetation in countless forms fights strenuously and
ceaselessly with man for possession of the soil. It is nature's favorite
tropical hothouse.
The extreme length of Panama, from Colombia to Costa Rica, is
about 480 miles, and it varies in width from 37 to 110. Its area is
between 33,000 and 34,000 square miles, being more than one-half as
large again as its last-named neighbor. About five-eighths of it con-
sists of wild, unoccupied lands, and the remainder is but very rudely
utilized by ite inhabitants. The population was oflScially estimated,
in 1898, at 340,000, representing such a heterogeneous amalgamation
of Spanish, negro, and Indian blood, stirred together by the buccaneers
of colonial times, that white may, in Panama, be strictly classified as a
color. Until I saw a Panama "army'' of 150 men at drill, I had no
idea that the human form could take such shapes and colors — Proteus
would have envied them. And yet these men, like all the Colombians,
are first-class fighters, and, well officered, are a foe not to be despised
by the best troops ever likely to come into collision with them.
DATA AS TO COST AND ENGINEERING FEATURES OF THE PANAMA CANAL
AND COMPARISON WITH THE ESTIMATES FOR THE NICARAGUAN ROUTE
[Inserted by the Ediiar.]
Panama Nicaragua
Cost of Canal as estimated by Isthmian Canal Route Route
Commission $144,233,358 $189,864,062
Cost of French Rights 40,000,000
Total estimated cost $184,233,358 $189,864,062
Annual cost of maintenance, estimated $1,300,000 less than for Nicaragua.
Length of route 49 miles 186.5 miles
Length of ''danger zone^' (above tide level) . . 23.5 miles 176 miles
Time required for passage 11.25 hours 33 hours
Elevation of summit level 90 feet 110 feet
Number of levels to be maintained 2 7
Number of locks required 3 8
Number of dams required 1 1
Terminal harbors Ready for use Unbuilt
Construction railway Ready for use Unbuilt
Actual work could begin At once After 2 years
Rivers to be controlled, as to level 1 2
Lakes to be controlled, as to level None 1
Fk)w per second of rivers 75,000 cu. ft. 200,000 cu. ft.
Area of lake 3,000 sq. mi.
I 12
THB JOURNAL OP GBOGRAPHY
March
TRANSPORTATION
PART I
BY JOHN THOM HOLDSWORTH
Profeuor of Commercial Ooography, Drexd In^'htU, Philaddphia
NO single part of the whole broad subject of economic geography
is more important, more essential to an intelligent under-
standing of commerce, than transportation; yet strangely
enough no part has been so scantily treated by the writers of geog-
raphy text-books. This series of papers is intended to help in some
small way to supply this lack. No attempt will be made to offer an
exhaustive study of the theory or philosophy of the science of
transportation; the aim will be rather to gather together and make
available for teacher and student scattered facts and phenomena
directly related to the processes and agencies involved in the move-
ment of the world's great staple products.
After a brief sketch of the historical development of transportation,
especial attention will be paid to the problem in our own country,
first in its relation to internal or domestic commerce, then in its relation
to foreign trade.
The foUowing rough outline will suggest the general plan of treat-
ment:
Transportation : An Outline
Ancient trade rout<?s.
Early canal Vmilding in Europe.
Transportation in America:
The turnpike.
Canal Era 1825-1837.
Contest between canal
and railroad.
Present status of canals.
Coiimiercial canals of
United States.
Erie Canal.
Proposed canals.
Canada's waterways.
Ship canals of world.
The Railroad Era.
Periods of.
Transportation in America — ConUnuei
(Classification.
By geographical groups.
By financial groups.
Leading products.
The freight service.
Railway abuses.
Interstate Commerce Law.
Tlie railway problem.
Railroad control.
Railway clearing-houses.
Traffic associations.
Our Natural Waterways.
The Great Lakes.
Isthmian Canal.
Systems of other countries.
i9tH TRANSPORTATION I 1 3
TraDflportation in America — Continued Transportation in America — Continued
Merchant Marine. Comparison with great marine
History. nations.
Reasons for decline. Great Cable Systems.
Remedies. Telegraph and Telephone.
Shipping trust. Mail service.
Shipping routes. Conduits — water, oil, gas.
Trade of leading ports.
Transportation is the agency by which the products of one zone or
country are brought to another, or by which dissimilar products are
exchanged between localities or regions within the same country. It
is one of the chief devices by which producer and consumer are brought
"together. Transportation makes possible (1) the production of articles
of necessity, the great staples of trade, where they can be most cheaply
produced; (2) the wide distribution of products whose growth is lim-
ited by peculiar conditions to certain regions; and (3) the localization
of manufactures and other industries where they can be carried on most
economically. It is the agency that brings the wheat of Dakota or
JBungary to the great flour mills of Minneapolis or Budapest, dis-
tributing it in turn to every quarter of the globe as flour. By ite
»d the giant furnaces of the Pittsburg mills are fed with iron ore from
IMichigan, Cuba, or Sweden. It makes possible the refining of Luz6n
sugar in Brooklyn or Philadelphia, and the making of pulp used in
CDur morning paper from timber grown in Northern Ontario. In
short, it makes possible that large territorial division of labor which
is fundamental to modern industry and trade.
This brief survey from the economist's point of view may serve
^o suggest how inseparably transportation is linked with the pro-
eduction and distribution of world products. And yet it is quite within
^he truth to say that transportation is in itself one of the most powerful
^md complex industries of modem times.
It has been said with truth that a nation's progress, its standard
CDf civilization even, may be judged by its transportation facilities.
* ' Empires and cities have grown or decayed as they were favorably or
Vinfavorably situated along the great highways of commerce." The
^t^riteness of this statement is attested on the one hand by the black
smoke-banners of a score of American factory towns that have sprung
xap over night through the projection of a new railroad branch, and
on the other hand by the commercial desolation of one-time thriving
oities side-tracked through the shifting of the great routes of trade.
114
THE JOURNAL OP GBOORAPHY
Iferch
Failure to develop avenues of communication and trade has in
all times marked nations and peoples as static or decadent. China,
hemmed in largely by nature, secured almost complete isolation for
centuries by building the Great Wall and seaUng her ports against
which the traders of the world thundered vainly for admittance. In
the throes of a new birth, the Empire, recognizing the imperative need
of better transportation, is granting concession after concession to
railway engineers and companies, while a score of open ports invite
foreign trade. Whatever Russia's purpose in building the Trans-
Siberian Railroad, whether commercial, political, or strategic, this her-
culean task has focused the gaze of the world upon the Muscovite.
i\^fithtml, IIP>*.
Map I. THE TOSCAXELLI MAP. 1474
// CAf^Uuns the idea, f>m\ilcttt at that time, of the size of the world, and how sea nurckants sailed,
first, east around Africa; and afterunrds west, like Columims in discovering America, in the
search for India and tlu: Spice Islands.
The early pages of histor}- reveal that the commerce and civiUzation
of Asia anil Europe advanced conunensurately with the development
of roails and canals. (See Maps I, II, and III.) According to the
testimony of the \edas, the religious books of the ancient Hindus,
highways were built by the State connecting the interior with the
coast and with adjoining countries. The ancient peoples of Mesopo-
tamia, the first to use domestic animals as beasts of burden, built canals
for irrigation purposes anil constructed roads leading to their depend-
encies. The Babylonians not only buih highways, canals, and great
»9<H
TRANSPORTATION
115
Sautktrn Route Controlled by i'tnict — • — 1
CoprrigtiM, 194)4. Pram Mmc'i School Hlatorr of tlw VaiUA
SUtos. UMdl>7p«Mimloaortb«
Map II. OLD TRADE ROUTES TO INDIA.
The ships and caravans traveling over these routes sought the silks and spices from India and beyond,
from the Spice Islands.
irrigation works — they even constructed breakwaters and quajrs along
the Persian Gulf for the encouragement of commerce.
The earUest of the great maritime nations of antiquity/ Phoenicia,
though depending chiefly upon the sea as a highway, built roads con-
necting its two great cities, Tyre and Sidon, and constructed caravan
routes south to Arabia and east to India and China, which countries
sent their products to Tyre to be exchanged for the produce brought by
CSoWtlibMit, ItOI. rVan Ut-f-t 9«b4«l HUiiptt «r Ih i li'allwl 3^i^
Map III. PORTUGUESE VOYAGE TO INDIA.
An all^water route to India was sought by the Portuguese.
I 1 6 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY March
Phoenician vessels from the west. So, too, Egypt and Carthage, each
of which attained commercial eminence in this early time, maintiuned
highways leading in all directions.
The great Roman Empire, which embraced every civilized nation
then known, and which counted some 120,000,000 people, was covered
with a network of roads many of which remain to this day the admiifr-
tion and wonder of the world. It is estimated that 50,000 milcB of
these highways, built mainly for military purposes, connected the
various parts of the Empire. Over many of them the Government
maintained an efficient postal service, using fast couriers.
A survey of the history of the great nations that led in trade and
civilization after the downfall of the Roman Empire shows a widening
use and growth of the improved transportation facilities. Thus, Em-
peror Maximilian of ^Germany established a postal route between Brus-
sels and Vienna, in 1516, and at a later date Frederick the Great,
recognizing the need of better, means of conmiunication, began the
construction of turnpikes and canals on a large scale, ^noe the
organization of the various German States into an Empire, Germany
has made vast improvements in her internal communications. She has
canalized many of her rivers, and has constructed thousands of xnileB of
artificial waterways connecting all the large rivers and affording cheap
transport of raw materials to her great industrial centers. The railway
system of modern (IcTuiany is highly efficient, being controlled for the
most part by the States.
As early as the twelfth centur}-, the Dutch began the construotion
of canals, which, owing to the flatness of The Netherlands, became the
conmion roadways, as they are to-day. The great conmfiercial cities of
Amsterdam and Rotterdam have been made possible by deepening
and canalizing the rivers on which they are situated. Similarly,
Brussels and Antwerp in Belgium have secured access to the sea.
That great advances were made in marine transportation in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries is attested by the colonial empires
built up by the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, French, and English.
In 1006 France projected her first artificial waterway, the Lan-
guedoc Canal, 148 miles long, connecting the Mediterranean with the
Bay of Biscay. To-day France has a splendid system of artificial
waterways connecting the headwaters of the three most important
rivers, and forming a network over the entire country. Russia, that
new candidate for commercial honors, has not only pushed to prac-
tical completion the great Trans-Siberian Railway, nearly 5,000 miles
TRANSPORTATION
117
in length, linking the Pacific with the Atlantic, but also has under con-
struction one of the greatest of modern canals, connecting the Black
Sea with the Baltic. The Unit^ Kingdom commenced canal building
in 1767, since which time waterways have been dug all over Great
Britain to connect the main water courses. Enormous sums have been
voted by cities like Manchester and Glasgow to improve their shipping
facilities. So, too, on the Continent, Hamburg, Bremen, Rotterdam,
Le Havre have made lavish expenditures for dredging, wharfing, and
improving their harbors.
Fn>ini Pn.i^'1 EI^IHQlUj U#v,T*|.lif
Fig. I. ANIMALS USED FOR TRANSPORTATION
Long trains or caravans of camels carrying merchandise over a desert region.
On the Western Hemisphere there still remain traces of the wonder-
^Xil roads built by the Incas of ancient Peru. One of these roads,
V>uilt of stone, at an elevation of over 12,000 feet, Humboldt estimated
'^^ be 2,000 miles long. In its route engineering difficulties that would
¥>uzzle the modern engineer w^ere met and successfully overcome. The
Spaniards allowed the roads to go to ruin, and they now lie as broken
"ttionuments to the skill and enterprise of these wonderful people.
The early settlers of the North American continent depended almost
"Wholly upon the natural water courses for transportation. Heavy
forests and the dangers from unfriendly Indians made interior
ii8
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
Slarch
Fig. 2.
FriM Ma«^ S«hMt HtaMqr of ite 1M«i« ItaMS.
Vmt fcy p— IwliB of tt» piMlit in.
A TRADING AND WAR VESSEL USED
BY THE NORTHMEN.
communication difficult; hence
the settlements at first clung
close to the river courses or to
the seaboard. As settlement
gradually spread to the interior,
roads of inferior sort were made,
but these were for local pur-
poses, and road building was
left largely to individual exer-
tion. Thus in colonial days it
took a week to go from Boston
to New York by stage. Many
of the earliest wagon roads fol-
lowed the trails originally made
by deer and buffalo through the
forest and over the mountain
passes, and naturally the rail-
roads at a later date were projected along the same general routes.
The history of internal transportation in this country can be divided
roughly into three periods:
1. Turnpikes.*
2. Canals.
3. Railroads.
The first American turn-
pike was built in Pennsylvania
in 1790, and ran from Phila-
delphia to Lancaster, a dis-
tance of sixty-six miles. In
the next thirty years that
Stato expended $8,500,000 for
such roads. From Pennsyl-
vania the system spread into
New York and New England.
Those roads were constructed
and operated by private enter-
j)rise and were supported by tolls, which often yielded large profits.
Tliey greatly cheapened transportation, and gave reasonable satis-
FlG.
Frin M»rr> !"<-h.H>l IliilorT i.f tli» Tnlt^! St»tr*
r**<! hr |»enuli>iikiB of thi» iMiMlAlirm.
A TRADING VESSEL OF THE
FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
* " Tliese roads were called tumiNlcMi
collected there wuti placed acrooi tl
pikes, and so hung us to turn upo
at the places irhere toUs were
b« eoniiBtiiig of a pole aimed with
MMI, p. 13.
t9B4
TRAKSPURTATIOK
119
faction. In 1807, Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, proposed that*
the Government shoiihi undertake the construction of roads and canals
on a large and systematic scale. Local jealousies and the opposition
of a powerful faction in Confess who did not believe that the Gov-
ernment should earrv' on internal improvements delayed for many
years the active interest of the Government in road making. Only
one important national road was actually constructed — the "Oid Cum-
berland Road/' This road was begun in 1811 at Cumberland, Md.,
rT«» i^<\
Fio. 4 THE THOMAS W. LAWSON.
.-i snten'maslcd tcfwonrr. The largest stiilinK vcssft carrj,'in^ frHght in the ztHxrid
^-Hd continued almost due west in practically a straight line through
^Xar}dand» Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to St, Louis.
^ t^ is said to be the longest straight road ever built by any Govern*
lent in the world. It was about 700 miles long, and cost nearly
FpOOO^OOO.
Along this great ** National Pike" a stream of emigration flowed
toward the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. Another movement set in
farther north toward tho prairies of the Great Lakes States. '^Pitts-
y>urg and Cincinnati, the two main points of tranashlpmcnt on the
Bouth western route, had become flourishing business centers, while
Bxiffalo and Cleveland were yet the merest frontier settlements.''*
♦Hadley, Railroad Trarispi^rtation, p. 29 <
I 20 THE ;OL'aXAL OP •>EOOR-K?HY
TH?: CANAL ZKA, 1S25-1S37
Toward the ciof?^ of the eighteenth century, as the people of the
new tVleral Union bjef ame c«>nvince»l of its permanence, attention was
directe<i to the neceAr-ity. in the interests of commerce, of binding
t^igether it* varioa"^ r?cattere»i parts by a system of canals. G«i»al
\Vaf>hington had called attention to the possibilities of a canal westward
frr*m the Hudson, and the pe*»ple of New York had from an earhr
pfrnrA realize^! the inip*?nance of connecting the Hu«json with the Great
I^kes.
Tlie Alleghenies. alnK^st unbroken from New York to Alabama.
f}\f\f<f^'^\ a nerious obstacle to the construction of a canal from east to
west, but in New York State the Mohawk Valley opened a passage
through the chain and suggeste^l a level canal route. In 1810 the
Erie Canal Commission was appointed Ti^ith De Witt Clinton at its head,
and a sur\'ey was made of the entire route from the Hudson to Lake
Erie. Aid was expected from the Federal Government, but at first
Madis^jn opfKisei^l Fe^leral aid to "internal improvements," and later
the War of 1812 stopped all progress. In 1S17 New York, through the
restless energ>' of Clinton, decided to go on with the project on her
own resources. The whole canal was completed and opened for traffic
amid national rejoicing in 1n25.
The canal was 'iTs miles long and 4 feet deep; it had a width of
4f) fffet at the surface and carrieil boats of 76 tons burden. The first
CfiSt of the canal was $5,700,000, but subsequent enlargements have
made the total cost over $50,000,000. The utility of, and the returns
from, the canal exceeded the most sanguine expectation. Cities sprang
up wherever the canal met a water course, c. g., at Buffalo. Rochester,
Syracuse. In 1826. the year after the canal o|)ened, the receipts from
tolls were $726,000; in IStVS, they had douViled. Tolls were constantly
reduced until iSo.S, when they were only about one-third the original
figure, but even then the revenues amounted to over $3,000,000 a year.
"Tlie constniction of the Erie Canal reduced transportation charges to a
little over one-tenth their former figures.'' ♦
Tlie oj^ening of the Erie Canal marked the beginning of a mania
for (runal building.f New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illi-
nois all projected extensive canals, while in many other States private
companies commonly aided by the State constructed canals of greater
♦ Hadlev, p. :n .
t JohriHtoii, Jnlaud Waterways, p. .31.
1904 TRANSPORTATION 121
or less importance. "In 1834, Pennsylvania had 589 miles of State
canals, among them the Central Division Canal 172 miles long, and
the Western Division Canal 104 miles long."* In 1832, Ohio opened
two important canals, the Ohio Canal from Cleveland to Portsmouth,
and the Miami & Erie from Toledo to Cincinnati. The traffic on these
canals t reached in 1857 a tonnage of 1,635,774 tons. Indiana com-
pleted the Wabash & Erie Canal from the junction of the Miami
Canal to Evansville on the Ohio in 1855. The Illinois & Michigan
Canal, 102 miles long, from Lake Michigan to LaSalle at the head of
navigation on the Illinois, was opened in 1848. It was intended to
make this canal deep enough to carry vessels through from the Lakes,
a project recently completed by the city of Chicago for sanitary
purposes at a cost of $30,000,000.
Besides these great State waterways many canals were constructed
and are still operated by private companies. Chief among these were:
the Raritan connecting the Delaware River with New York harbor;
the Chesapeake & Ohio from Cumberland, Md., to Washington; the
Morris Canal across New Jersey; the Delaware & Chesapeake connect-
ing Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Bay ; and several canals, mainly in
Pennsylvania, for the transportation c»f coal, e. g., the Delaware &
Hudson, Schuylkill, Lehigh, and others.
The panic of 1837 almost completely stopped canal building, and
when the country had recovered from that shock, it was felt that the
chief means of transportation was to be rail not water. Some local
canals, chiefly coal canals, continued a profitable local traffic, but the
extension of railroads compelled the steady abandonment of the canals.
Only two great systems of water communication — the Great Lakes
and the Erie Canal on the north and the Mississippi to the south —
have been able to continue in competition with the railroad. It is
to be noted, however, that at one time we had 5,000 miles of canal in
operation, built at a cost of $150,000,000, and carrying in 1857 traffic
amounting to 3,344,000 tons.
♦Larrabee, The Railroad Question, p. 41.
t Jeans, Waterway Bj p. 195.
(To be continued in April.)
122
THE JOURXAL OP GEOGRAPHY
THE GEOGRAPHY COURSE IN THE CHICAGO
NORMAL SCHOOL*
PART II
BY FRANK W. DARLIXG AND i:UZ.\BirrH SlfTTH
O! tk* C4toa9» .V«rMa/ 5dl«rf, Ckitmgm, iB$mm0
SEXXJXD YEAR OF GEriGRAPHY
(Fourteen Kceek^, fire fijUj-minute periods, \r€€kly.)
I. THK Jif'BJKrT-MATTER OF CEOGRAPHY
-I. Content of Geography: A stUily of the relations existing between
earth and man.
B. Arramjement of (he Snhject-mntter in it* Satural Causal Order,
1. Earth.
Top<^igraphicaI con<li-
tion>.
Elevation.
Drainage.
Soil.
Climatic conditions.
Temperature.
Wind<.
Rainfall.
2. Man.
Productive condi-
tion<.
X'eeetable.
Animal.
Industrial conditions.
Social "
Commercial "
Locative **
Political
C. Relations of Cause and Effect Existing beturen these Factors.
I. Trar-ing the effect of each factor in determining the ultimate con-
ditions of life in typical regions; as, a tropical forest region; a
savanna region; a desen region; a tundra region; some tem-
perate regions.
II. THK child's ATTITLDK OF MIND TOWARD THE SUBJECT-MATTER
OF GEOGRAPHY
A , Dependent on Stages of Mental Development.
1. Discuf><ion of child's mental growth from obser\'ation and theory.
2. Determination of characteristics of childhood at T^idely differing
ages and then in the different grades.
♦Continued from the Jourxal of Geography, Vol. III.. No. 2, February,
19^)4, page 64.
A GEOGRAPHY COURSE I 23
3. Naming of stages.
a. Stage of gathering conceptions. Characterized by sense per-
ception of simple wholes.
b. Stage of relating conceptions. Characterized by natural tend-
ency to compare and relate the simple conceptions with each
other.
c. Stage of constructing conceptions. Characterized by ability
to put together the conceptions gathered through the senses
and to construct a new whole distant from sense perception.
4. Discussion to determine relation of stages.
a. No distinct demarcation, but gradual growth of one into another.
6. When one stage is attained it continues throughout life of indi-
vidual.
c. Determination of the grades in which teacher should count on
average child maturing to each stage and formulate work
accordingly.
(1) Gathering conceptions in grades I-II.
(2) Relating conceptions in grades III-IV.
(3) Constructing conceptions in grades IV. to the end.
-fi. Dependent on Child's Environment.
1. City child and his conceptions.
a. Mainly concerning subject-matter noted under I, B, 2. **Man,"
and end at products of industry.
b. Necessity of supplementing his knowledge with conceptions of
natural phenomena.
2. Country child and his conceptions.
a. Mainly concerns subject-matter noted under I, B, 1; natural
phenomena, products, and simple industrial processes.
6. Necessity of supplementing his knowledge with conceptions of
social, commercial, and political conditions.
III. THE ARRANGEMENT OF A PSYCHOLOGICAL COURSE FOR
THE GRADES
^ • Determining Factors in Arranging Subject-matter for Different Grades.
1. Child's mental ability as indicated in II, A.
2. Child's environment as indicated in II, B.
3. The causal order of arrangement inherent in the subject-matter
as indicated in I, ^.
4. General aim and motive for teaching geography.
a. As indicated by the content 1,-4.
b. Mental discipline of constructive development.
I 24 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY March
5. Number of years the average child attends school.*
B. Relation One Graders Work should Bear to Another.
1. Unity of purpose in course as a whole.
a. Continuity only broken into grades because of arrangement of
school year.
2. Necessity for each grade having a special aim and accomplishment.
but in harmony with the purpose of the course as a whole.
3. Each grade's work a whole in itself, but also a base for the upper
grade's work and growing out of the previous grade's work,
C. Relaiion of Geography to Other Subjects in the Curriculum.
1. Grouping of subjects.
a. Language group: Reading; writing; composition; grammar.
b. Art group: Manual constniction ; drawing; music; literature.
c. Number group: Number perception; number relation; algebra,
etc.
d. Science group: Nature study ; geography ; history .
2. Disciplinary value of each group.
a. Each contains a part especially adapted to child's ability in
each stage.
6. Some one part of each worthy of special emphasis because of
social demand.
D. Analysis of the Science Group to Ascertain the Importance of and
the Emphasis on Geography.
1. Nature study or gathering of single conceptions through sense
perception especially emphasized in grades I-III.
2. Geography or study of man's earth relation especially emphasized
in grades III-VII.
3. History or study of effects of man's relation to earth seen through
man's relations to each other especially emphasized in grades
Vll-VIII.
E. Analysis of Geography Itself to Ascertain Its Importance and Determine
the Divisions of Its Subject-matter to Correspond to the Different
Stages of Child^s Ability.
1. Divisions of subject-matter inherent in subject-matter with order
determined by child's ability.
a. Must have conceptions of objects and conditions in immediate
environment in order to
* III Chicago this is an important factor. In the schools of the foreign and
overcrowded districts of the city a large per cent of the pupils drop out before the
fifth grade and a majority before the sixth grade is finished.
A GEOGRAPHY COURSE I 25
(1) understand relations of objects and conditions in immediate
environment. This is essential in order to
(2) comprehend simple and complex conditions and relations
in regions distant from immediate environment.
2. Arrangement of these divisions of subject-matter by grades
dependent on stages of child's ability in different grades.
a. Conception of immediate environment with simplest relations
in grades I and II, as:
(1) Physical and climatic conditions.
(a) Directions; time; heat; clouds; rocks; soils, etc.
(2) Products seen in home, market, and field.
(a) Harvest crops; domestic animals ; wool ; fruits ; lumber, etc.
h. Interrelation of these immediate conditions as causal to an
organized geographical whole, in grade III.
(1) Relations observable between abstract parts of the local
center:
(a) Parts of the city : Residence portion; productive portion;
manufacturing portion ; trade portion ; shipping portion.
(6) Transportation means.
(c) Products as relating center to surrounding regions: Shel-
ter; food; clothing.
(d) Organization: Commercial; social; political.
c. Simplest conditions and relations in regions distant from imme-
* diate environment, in grade IV.
(1) Relations of immediate environment to distant regions
leading to a conception of the world as a whole,
(a) Northern North America; Mexican Plateau; Amazon
Basin; La Plata Basin; Congo Basin; Sahara Desert;
Eastern Eurasia, etc.
(h) Summary in Earth's physical and climatic relations.
d. More detailed conditions and relations in regions distant from
immediate environment, in grades V-VII.
(1) Physical, climatic, productive, industrial, social, locative,
and political relations in related regions of continents,
(a) North America; South America; Eurasia; Africa; Aus-
tralia.
e. Relations of great regions to each other, in grade VIII.
(1) Physical relations, climatic relations, productive relations,
commercial relations, and political relations of the earth
as a whole.
J 26 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY March
IV. METHODS OF TEACHING AS APPLIED TO SUBJECT-MATTER
DETERMINED FOR EACH GRADE
A, EmnronmerU Study, Aim, as determined in III, E, to give concep-
tions of objects and conditions in child's immediate environ-
ment, and show the simple relations existing between these and
the child.
1. First grade.
a. Subject-matter: The physical and climatic conditions.
b. Order and choice of the subject-matter.
(1) Determined by child's natural contact.
(2) Determined by season of year for economy of effort.
(3) Determined by necessity for continuity.
c. P^ssentials of presentation:
(1) Awaken child's interest by showing a motive for knowledge
of the topic.
(2) Observation of the object or condition.
(3) Bring out relations, of the object or condition, to the child.
(4) Relations, of the object or condition, to other objects and
conditions.
(5) The next topic for study determined by an intimate relation
with the one being studied, and by so doing strengthen :
(a) Sense of relation in child, and
(b) The continuity of the subject-matter.
Note: — Together with the discussion of each grade's work the class
(1) observes a recitation in each grade, (2) writes a plan for teaching
some topic in the grade, (3) collects materials (drawings, pictures, maps,
specimens, etc.) for teaching the topic.
2. Second grade.
rt. Subject-matter: The products seen in home, market, and field.
b. and c. Same as in first grade.
B. Geographjf of the Local Center. Aim, as determined in III, E, to
bring out tlie relations of objects and conditions studied in the
first and second grades as causal to the organization of a
geographical center. Incidental aim: The construction and
interpretation of maps.
1. Third grade.
a. Order and choice of the subject-matter.
(1) Determined by child's natural contact: Conditions of com-
munitv in which he lives.
A GEOGRAPHY COURSE 127
(2) Determined by continuity inherent in the subject-matter,
(a) Because of relations to locations in the city.
(h) Because of causal order as indicated in I, B,
(3) Statement of order.
(a) Directions in schoolroom and community. Making of
drawings and plats according to horizontal directions.
(6) Study conditions along the most direct thoroughfare to
the business center, making map of same.
(c) Physical features, slope, drainage, etc.
Modeling of surface in sand.
(d) Parts of city and relation of parts: Retail and wholesale,
manufacturing and shipping, residence, farm, or suburb
portion. Making and interpretation of complete map.
(e) Transportation means.
(/) Products: Shelter, food, clothing; use in home; location
of industries in city and reason ; how products come to
city and from where.
(q) Organization: Need of each working to supply another's
need. Need of organizing to supply lights, protection,
etc. Study of organization of fire department, etc.
Need of political organization to select heads over all.
Need for and determination of city Umits.
'b. Essentials of presentation.
(1) Procedure from that easily observed by child to that more
distant.
(2) Observation by excursion work.
(3) Stimulate spirit of inquiry outside of the school.
(4) Make use of each individual's observations throughout year.
(5) Presentation of subject-matter not as isolated facts, but
related, and in relations are found causes for location, etc.
(6) For making and interpretation of maps:
(a) First drawing of a whole seen at once.
(h) By easy gradations build on to map of thoroughfare map
for whole city.
(c) Mark directions on map and hang on north wall for first
comprehension of map directions.
Superficud Study of the World as a Whole. Aim, as determined in
III, Ey to bring out (1) relation of child's community to distant
regions, (2) physical, cUmatic, productive, and life conditions
in the distant region. (3) Incidental aims: The comprehension
I 28 'TH^ JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY UanA
of land forms. To gain a conception of the shape and climatic
conditions of the earth.
1. Fourth grade.
a. Order and choice of the subject-matter.
(1) Determined by intimacy and evidence of relation of the
distant region to the child's enWronment.
(2) Determined by simplicity of relations within the r^on.
(3) Determined by necessity of selecting such r^ons that the
whole may represent typical conditions in earth's climatic
belts.
(4) Statement of order:
(a) The sphere as a whole: Relative size; shape; surface.
(b) Distant land masses; as: Use and appearance of seal
skin; use of fur coats to animals; determination of
kind of climate seals must live in; life and appearance
of seal; appearance of country, physical and climatic
conditions; land form of plain and island; productive
conditions; social conditions; chalk relief of northern
North America on blackboard-globe; direction and
distance from child's home.
(c) Summary and determination of location of hot, cold, and
temperate regions of the earth.
b. Essentials of presentation:
(1) In presenting shape of earth:
(a) Avoid use of symbol until after child strives for it by
attempting to determine shape from the earth itself.
(6) Sizes and distances must be in terms of things experienced
by child.
(2) In presenting distant regions :
(a) Distant region introduced by a product familiar to child,
and one in itself, to some extent, characterizing condi-
tions in the region.
(h) Conditions must be imaged, not memorized. Use of pic-
tures, etc.
(c) Land form should be studied when it forms a part of the
region studied, and there shown as affecting the life of
the region and its form represented by pictures, sand
model, etc.
(d) By representation of relief on slated globe relation of land
masses may be shown.
1904 A GEOGRAPHY COURSE I 29
(3) In presenting earth's climate:
(a) By reviewing conditions of climate and life in each region,
showing relation of tropical, polar, and temperate regions,
climatic conditions of earth will be brought out.
D. Intensive Study of Regional Geography, or Continental Geography,
Aim: To apply in every specific instance the relations existing
between topographic, climatic, productive, industrial, social,
locative, and political conditions that —
(1) The reasoning power of the child may be developed through
his self-activities or original effort.
(2) The facts learned may be seen as something more than
arbitrary facts, as: reasons for location, products, etc.
(3) The child may image conditions in distant regions through
the comparison with conditions he has sensed.
1. Fifth, sixth, and seventh grades,
o. Order of arrangement of the continents.
(1) Determined by child's contact and association.
(2) Determined by simplicity and unity of relations in each.
(3) Determined by importance of each in commerce and current
events.
(4) Statement of order of arrangement:
(a) North America and important islands: Fifth grade;
because of child's natural association.
(6) South America: Sixth grade; because of simplicity and
unity of relations, especially topographic, climatic, and
productive, and because of the growth of intimate asso-
ciations.
(c) Eurasia, Africa, and Australia: Seventh grade; (Eurasia
30 weeks, Africa 7 weeks, Australia 3 weeks), because
of complexity of arrangement in Eurasia and its great
commercial importance, it is left till more mature age
of child.
b. Order of arrangement of subject-matter in continent study.
(1) Determined by causal order as stated in aim and in I, B,
(2) Determined by natural deductive and inductive reasoning
from image of the whole to study of the parts in detail and
synthesis of the parts into a detailed whole.
(3) Statement of order of arrangement of subject-matter,
(a) Continent as a whole.
Physical basis of topography in relief.
130 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Uaitb.
Means: Sand model, chalk model, interpretation of
relief map.
Division into natural topographic regions.
Climate of continent as a whole and climatic belts
dependent on location of continent and its topo-
graphic regions.
Life belts of continent as a whole dependent on topo-
graphic regions and climatic belts.
(b) Topical study of each topographical region to bring out
more in detail the physical, climatic, productive, indus-
trial, social, and locative relations.
(c) Political divisions of continent in which a review of the
essential characteristics of each region is built into con-
tinent as a whole,
c. Discussion of methods of presentation.
E. Extensive Study of Regional Geography; World Relations. Aim: To
show world relations existing between its parts, especially as
influencing conditions in child's home country. Incidental aim:
A review of geography of the United States, especially through
the commercial and political relations.
1. Eighth grade,
a. Order of presentation of the subject-matter.
(1) Determined by the natural causal order.
(2) Determined by the importance of tlie relation of the different
regions upon the home region.
6. Statement of the order of presentation of the subject-matter.
(1) Pliysical relations:
(a) The earth as a whole. Primary highlands. Great slopes
and drainage areas.
(/>) Tlie earth as a planet. Movements, inclination, and
division of time.
(2) Climatic relations: Temperature and seasons; winds, rain-
fall.
(3) Life relations: Tropical forest, Savanna, Desert, Temperate,
Sub-arctic, and Tundra belts.
(4) Commercial relations of other regions with United States.
Of other regions with each other. Routes, etc.
(5) Political relations of great powers, dependencies, and protec-
torates,
c. Discussion of methods of presentation.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES I 3 I
Laboratory work accompanying the second year's work. Done out-
side of the r^nlar class periods.
I. Picture library: Collecting, mounting, and classifying pictures.
II. Reference library: Collecting, classif)nng, and binding of articles
from periodicals.
III. Picture drawing: Chalk modeling of geographical forms. Black-
board drawing of pictures.
IV. Map making.
A study of the development of map making.
Sand modeling.
Chalk modeling.
Making of one papier-mach6 model.
Study of map projections.
Making diagramatic outlines of continents indicating parallels
and meridians to determine relative sizes and distances.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Controlling Sand Dunes in the United States and Europe. — In
many parts of the United States there are areas of drifting sand which
«re of much econon^c importance from the fact that they not only
«,re useless for agricultural purposes, but may seriously encroach upon
valuable property. These areas, known as sand dunes, consist of hills
of sand which, when bare of vegetation, readily shift from place to
place when acted upon by the wind, and are then called wandering or
shifting dunes. Such dunes occur along sandy shores of the ocean,
of the Great Lakes, or even along our large rivers, notably the Columbia
Hiver in Washington and Oregon. These dunes are formed from the
sand which is washed up during the tides, storms, or high water in case
of rivers. The sand soon dries, is blown in the direction of the prevailing
^nds, and forms drifts in the same manner as snow. The drifts may
Attain the size of hills, in some cases as much as 200 feet in height.
Continuous winds blow the sand over the brow, and the whole dune
thus moves slowly but irresistibly forward, covering whatever is in
its track — fields, forests, ponds, rivers, buildings. The direction of
"the prevailing winds determines whether dunes will be formed along a
sandy coast. On Lake Michigan dunes are found at various places
along the south and east shore, but none along the west shore. It is
132 THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Ifwdi
interesting to note that the dunes in this region are probably the largest
and highest to be found on the continent, and are scarcely exceeded
by any in Europe.
In nature sand dunes are not formed where the conditions will
allow a covering of vegetation; consequently they are not found in
warm regions, or only exceptionally, as the long vegetative season allows
opportunity for a covering to become established; but in northern
regions, where vegetation lies dormant for a considerable portion of
the year, the severe winter storms may prevent such covering from
forming.
The chief areas of shifting dunes to be found along the Atlantic
Coast are on Cape Cod, in the vicinity of Provincetown; Southern New
Jersey, near Avalon and Stone Harbor; Cape Henlopen, near Liewes,
Delaware; Cape Henry, Virginia, and less extensive, though quite
troublesome, dunes at Currituck, North Carolina; Isle of Palms, near
Charleston, South Carolina; and Tybee Island, near Savannah, Georgia.
Sand dunes occur at various places along the Pacific Coast, as
Ventura, Monterey, and Mendocino counties, California, and the coast
of Oregon. The latter are minimized by the moist climate. Extensive
and exceedingly troublesome dunes are found along the Columbia River
in Oregon and Washington from The Dalles to Riparia. The sand is
brought down during the floods and blown about during the long dry
summers. Here the conditions as to rainfall are reversed, the rain
coming in the winter and the dunes forming during the dry summer.
More or less successful efforts have been made at various times to
**fix" the dunes and thus prevent the serious injury which they cause
to valuable property.
In order to attack these problems more intelligently, the writer was
sent by the Department of Agriculture to investigate the methods used
in Europe, where work of this character has engaged the attention of
the various Governments for fifty years or more, and where the efforts
in fixation or reclamation have been more successful than anywhere
else in the world.
For this purpose typical dune areas in Holland, Denmark, Prussia,
and France were visited. In all cases the reclamation is carried on by
the general government, sometimes assisted by the local government,
as private individuals are unable to bring to bear upon the problem
sufficient means or continuity of purpose.
The fundamental principle of dune fixation is to cover the sand with
a layer of any material which will prevent the access of the wind to
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 133
the surface, and thus prevent drifting. The kind of covering used
depends upon climatic conditions and the availability and cost of
material. The aim is, when possible, to produce a forest, as this is
I)ermanent, and, moreover, if properly managed, yields an income.
However, a forest can not be produced with certainty upon a surface
of drifting sand, and it is therefore necessary to temporarily fix the sand
in some other manner. Although any covering of inert material, such
as chips, gravel, brush, etc., would answer the purpose, economic factors
have reduced the preliminary methods of fixation to these: (1) trans-
planting beach grass; (2) covering with heather; (3) covering with a
network of sand hedges.
(1) Many plants have been tried, but the most satisfactory is beach
grass (Ammophila arenaria Link). This grass grows naturally upon the
sand dunes of the north Atlantic Coast of Europe as far south as Morocco,
and of America as far south as North Carolina, and also along our Great
Lakes. This is the grass which was used in reclaiming the land which
is now Golden Gate Park in San Francisco. It has also been imported
at various other points along the Pacific Coast. To fix the sand the
grass is transplanted in spring or fall and set two or three feet apart in
the sand. The blowing sand is caught and held by the grass, but it
has the power to grow up through the accumulated sand, and thus,
with care to replant where necessary, it becomes a permanent covering.
As a forest can not be established close to the ocean, a strip a few rods
wide must be permanently fixed in this manner.
(2) In localities where heather is abundant this is cut with brush
scythes and laid upon the surface of the sand. It is held in place by a
little sand thrown over the edge of each layer.
(3) Where neither beach grass nor heather is available, or where
the conditions are especially severe, sand hedges are used. These
consist of rows of cut brush or stakes or of cut reeds, which are inserted
in the sand in rows or quadrangles, allowing the upper end to project
for six inches or more.
After the sand is temporarily fixed by one of these methods, young
trees, usually conifers, are transplanted, and the forest soon removes all
danger of further shifting. In southwestern France the forest was
established by sowing the seed of Pinus mariiima upon the sand and
covering with brush, but this method has not been successful in Northern
Europe. In France, and also the Kurische Nehrung, in Prussia, it has
been found necessary to form artificially a long barrier dune between
the ocean and the forest which protects the latter. This barrier dune
I 34 THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY SUrch
is fixed by means of beach grass, but requires constant oversight to
keep it in order. During severe storms dangerous breaches are formed,
which, if neglected, would soon destroy the dune and seriously injure
the forest in its lee. These breaks are mended by sand fences, such as
already described, but taller, which rapidly accumulate the sand until
the hole is filled. — National Geographic Magazine, January, 1904.
Climate of San Francisco. — On the coast of California there is
a city justly famed for the abnormalities of its climate. Overcoats
and heavy wraps are worn in midsummer, while the lilies bloom in
December. From May until September very little rain falls, yet during
this period with clock-like regularity great banks of fog march in every
afternoon and cover the bare, brown hills. The city of San Francisco,
the gateway to the Orient, as it has been termed, is strangely situated
with respect to ocean, bay, mountain, and valley. It may perhaps be
said of this city that nowhere else can such a strange mixture of marine
and continental climates be found. The topography is such that
marked contrasts can be found within comparatively short distances.
Certainly the climatologist finds in the vicinity of San Francisco so
many climatic anomalies that he feels as if he were in fact present in a
great natural aero-physical laboratory where daily experiments were
being performed on a large scale. In building this meteorological
laboratory at San Francisco nature also provided seats wherefrom we
can obtain excellent views of the experiments while in progress. From
the Weather Bureau station on Mount Tamalpais — elevation of station,
2,373 feet — one looks down on the broad expanse of the Pacific, nearly
20,000,000 square miles of water, to the north, west, and south. From
the open roadstead of Drakes Bay, the eye passes over the Sausalito
hills to the headlands of Points Bonita and Lobos, marking the entrance
to the Golden Gate. This passage plays an important rdle in connection
with the winds, temperatures, and fogs of the San Francisco Bay re^on.
At mean tide the area of San Francisco Bay is about 450 square miles.
Far on the eastern horizon, especially on clear i^inter days, the
snow of the Sierra — 155 miles distant — can be seen glistening. These
mountains vsiTy in height from 8,000 to 14,000 feet.
Extending from the slopes of the Sierra to the Coast Range is a
great basin 500 miles long and about 50 miles wide. The Sacramento
and San Joaquin rivers, flowing through this basin, unite in Suisun
Bay. This great inland basin, surrounded by mountain walls, is con-
nected ^v^th the Pacific Ocean ])y the gate at San Francisco, San Fran-
x^(H GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 1 35
Cisco Bay, San Pablo Bay, Karquines Straits, and Suisun Bay. Here,
tihen, is an aero-physical laboratory par excellence. Now for the results.
When a native of San Francisco is asked which is the coldest month
of the year, he is generally at a loss for an answer; and if asked which
is the warmest he may say November. This confusion arises from the
comparatively small range of temperature. The mean annual tem-
perature, as determined from the records of the Weather Bureau for
thirty-one years, is 56.1° F. May and November have practically the
same temperature. The warmest month is September, 60.8°; the
coldest, January, 50.2°. The other months have mean temperatures
as follows: February, 52°; March, 54°; April, 55°; May, 57°; June,
July, and August, 59°; October, 60°; November, 56°; December, 52°.
The highest temperature ever recorded in San Francisco was 100°,
on June 29, 1891, and the lowest 29°, on January 15, 1888. Abnor-
mally warm and cold periods last, as a rule, about three days. The
mean of the three consecutive warmest days at San Francisco has
never exceeded 76.3°. A period of warm weather during the summer
months is, as a rule, brought to a close about the evening of the third
day with strong west winds, dense fog, and temperatures ranging from
49° to 54°. The mean of the three consecutive coldest days was 40.7°.
The greatest daily range of temperature was 43°, on June 29, 1891.
This was the date when the temperature reached 100°. The range of
temperature was from 100° to 57°. The morning was calm and very
warm, while at 5 p. m. the temperature was 80°, and next morning 74°.
In the past thirty years the number of days on which snow has
fallen can be counted on ten fingers. Thunderstorms likewise are
infrequent, but not altogether unknown. Earthquakes, meaning by
this all slight shocks and tremors, average about seven per annum.
Little damage has been done by earthquakes during the past fifty years.
The people in San Francisco have long realized that winter and
summer are purely relative terms. Thus at any of the ferries on a
midsummer day one can see summer fabrics worn with heavy wraps,
and it is not unusual to see white duck and sealskin in combination.
Visitors to the city should by all means wear heavy wraps or overcoats
during the summer afternoon.
The experiments of the observers of the Weather Bureau during
the past two years with kites have thrown much light upon the causes
of the climatic abnormalities experienced at San Francisco; and, among
other things, it has become evident that in summer as we ascend from
the ground the temperature rises. For each 155 feet of elevation the
I 36 THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY March
temperature is 1° F. warmer, and so on any of the hills or mountains
in the vicinity of San Francisco one can find with very little effort the
climate best suited for him. In other words, the citizen of the San
Francisco Bay section can regulate the temperature to suit himself^
having a choice between 55° at sea level and 85° at 2,000 feet above.
With regard to rainfall during the summer months, San Francisco
is practically rainless. The average rainfall is about 23 inches,
and mast of this falls during the months of November, Decem-
ber, January, Febniary, and March. Looking over the records of the
past fifty years we find that the year 1898 had but 9.31 inches, while
in 1893 there was 38.82 inches. In 1861 there was 38.51 inches.—
BvUetin L, Climatology of California, U. S. Weather Bureau.
Current Articles on Commerce and Industry. —
JAXrARY
Automobiles (Illus.), Sci. Am. (Special Edition), January 30.
Canada's Ability as a Wheat Producer, BradstreeVs, January 9.
Cod-liver Oil of Norsvay, BradstreeVs, January' 23.
Colombia: The Government and People and Country (Illus.),
World's Work.
Com: The World's Corn King (Illus.), Export Implement Age.
Cuba : Commercial Notes, Consular Rep.
Engineering Retrospect of 1903, Sci. Am., Januar>' 2.
p]nglish Walnut in Southern California (Illus.), Rei\ of Revs.
Erie Canal, Electricity on (Illus.), Sci. Am., January 9.
Ciermany, Commerce and Industries of, Consular Rep.
Hudson Bay: Canada's I^ndeveloped Empire (illus.), World To-Day,
India: Impressions of the Far East (Illus.), World To-Day.
Invention, Connecticut the Home of. World's Work.
Japan, Industrial Development in, Consular Rep.
Korea, Commerce and Resources of, BradstreeVs, January 23.
Locomotive Industry (Illus.), System.
Logging in the South, Miss. Valley Lumberman, January 22.
Lumber By-products, Miss. Valley Lumberman, January 29.
Mississippi: The Great River (Illus.), World To-Day.
Oil: New Texan Deposits (Illus.), Sci. Am., January 30.
Oil Industry' of the Southwest (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
Panama Canal and Railway Traffic, BradstreeVs.
Peach Farm in Michigan (Illus.), Country Life.
Philippines: How They A<lvertise Shoes, Hide and Leather, Jan-
uary 30.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS I 39
those days when accessible sessions of the Congress are held. It is
probable that the educational aspects of geography will be made the
special subject of one or more sessions, in which contributions will be
especially appropriate from experienced teachers of geography in col-
leges and normal schools. The Journal will publish the plans as they
mature and will make special note of any details of particular interest
to teachers.
Correspondence regarding membership and general information
should be addressed to International Geographic Congress, Hubbard
Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C. ; regarding the general scientific
program of the sessions, to Professor W. M. Davis, Cambridge, Mass. ;
regarding the educational division of the program, to Professor Richard
JE. Dodge, Teachers College, New York City.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS
-^^ Laboratory Manual of Physical Geography. Part I, Directions for Teachers;
Part II, Laboratory Exercises. By Frank W. Darling and four instructors in
the Chicago High Schools. Chicago and Boston: Atkinson & Mentzer, 1903.
The authors have prepared a helpful and suggestive manual of value to all High
'^•'»^<i Normal School teachers. There is some question as to the advisability of includ-
* *^^ the study of minerals in Physical Geography as is done here. To be reviewed
^^«.t^r.
le Cumberland Road, Being Volume X in the Historic Highways of America
Series. By Archer B. Hulbert. Pp. 208. Cleveland, Ohio: The Arthur H.
Clark Company, 1904.
^ The latest volume in the series of Historic Highways of America is much like
^"^-CR predecessors in scope and form. Of interest to all students of the history of
^Sc^c^graphy and the geography of history in the United States.
ic Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. Edited and annotated bv Emma H. Blair
and James A. Robertson. Vol. VIII, 1591-1593, pp. 320, 1903; and Vol. IX,
1593-1597, pp. 329, 1904. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company.
These voliunes continue the account of the Philippines begun in the other volumes
^^■J^^ady noted in the Journal, and carry the story to the end of the first century.
^^^jiy facts are of interest to the general reader, but the series is of particular value
^o the student of geographical history.
^imxxuoary and Outline of Geography Course for the Grades of Chicago Pub-
lic Schools. Pp. 160. PubRshed by the Board of Education, 1903.
A valuable contribution to educational geography. A well-ordered and sensible
^^ourae of study. Contains excellent references and is of value to all grade teachers.
"^lie Tree-Dwellers. By Katherine E. Dopp. Pp.158. Chicago: Rand, McNally
& Co., 1903. PH F ^^ , y
The first of a series of books on primitive life, for use as a reader in elementary
Si^es. Pleasing in form and illustration. To be reviewed later.
140 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY March
NEWS NOTES
PRELIMINARY ANNOUNCEMENT
Eighth International Geographic Congress, Washington, i904.
Hubbard Memorial Hall,
Washington, D. C, U. S. A., January, 1904.
The Executive Committee of the Seventh International Geographic
Congress held in Berlin in 1899 having voted to convoke its next ses-
sion in Washington, the National Geographic Society, as the organ-
ization responsible for the management of the sessions in the United
States, will welcome the Eighth Congress and its friends to the
National Capital of the United States in September, 1904.
Geographers and promoters of geography throughout the World,
especially members of Gcograpliic Societies and cognate institutions
of scientific character, are cordially invited to assemble in Washington,
D. C, on September 8, 1904, for the first international meeting of
geographers in the Western Hemisphere.
On the invitation of the National Geograpliic Society, the following
Societies join in welcoming the Congress and undertake to codperate
toward its success, especially in so far as sessions to be held in their
respective cities are concerned :
The American Geographical Society.
The Geographic Society of Baltimore.
The Geographic Society of Chicago.
The Geographical Society of California.
The Mazamas.
The Peary Arctic Club.
The Geographical Society of Philadelphia.
The Appalachian Mountain Club.
The Geographical Society of the Pacific.
The Sierra Club.
The American Alpine Club.
The Ilarv^ard Travellers Clul).
Sessions, The Congress will convene in Washington on Thursday,
September 8th, in the new home of the National Geographic Society,
and will hold sessions on the 9th and 10th, the latter under the auspices
of the Geographic Society of Baltimore. Leaving Washington on the
12th, the members, associates, and guests of the Congress will be enter-
tained during that day by the Geographical Society of Philadelphia,
NEWS NOTES I4I
and on the 13th, 14th, and 15th by the American Geographical Society
in New York, where scientific sessions will be held; on the 16th they
will have the opportunity of visiting Niagara Falls (en route westward
by special train), and on the 17th will be entertained by the Geographic
Society of Chicago; and on Monday and Tuesday, September 19th and
20th, they will be invited to participate in the International Congress
of Arts and Science connected with the World's Fair in St. Louis.
Arrangements will be made here for visiting exhibits of geographic
interest.
Excursions, In case any considerable number of members and
associates so desire, a Far-West excursion will be provided from St.
X.«oiiis to the City of Mexico, thence to Santa F^, thence to the Grand
Canyon of the Colorado, and on to San Francisco and the Golden Gate,
"^irhere the western Geographic Societies will extend special hospitality;
^a^terward returning by any preferred route through the Rocky Moun-
^t^^dns and the interior plains to the eastern ports.
If the membership and finances warrant, the foreign delegates will
!:>« made guests of the Congress from Washington to St. Louis, via
^^ialtimore, Philadelphia, New York, Niagara Falls, and Chicago. On
"fciie Far-West excursion special terms will be secured, reducing the
•^^^gregate cost of transportation with sleeping-car accommodations
^^iKid meals materially below the customary rates. It may be necessary
limit the number of persons on the Far-West excursion. It is
Lanned also to secure special rates for transportation of foreign members
3m one or more European ports to New York, provided requisite
S.:a::ftJormation as to the convenience and pleasure of such members be
^>"lzDtained in time. Final information on these points will be given in
"t::»l:^e Preliminary Program of June, 1904.
The subjects for treatment and discussion in the Congress may be
<:^l^issified as follows:
1. Physical Geography, including Geomorphology, Meteorology,
Hydrology, etc.
2. Mathematical Geography, including Geodesy and Geophysics.
3. Biogeography, including Botany and Zoology in their geographic
aspects.
4. Anthropogeography, including Ethnology.
5. Descriptive Geography, including Explorations and Surveys.
6. Geographic Technology, including Cartography, Bibliography, etc.
7. Conunercial and Industrial Geography.
8. ffistory of Greography.
9. Geographic Education.
142 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY March
A special opportunity will be afforded for the discussion of methods
of surveying and map making, and for the comparison of these methods
as pursued in other countries with the work of the Federal and State
Surveys maintained in this country.
Membership, Members of the Congress will be entitled to partici-
pate in all sessions and excursions, and to attend all social meetings in
honor of the Congress; they will also (whether in attendance or not)
receive the pubUcations of the Congress, including the daily Program
and the final Comptc Rendu, or volume of proceedings. Membership
may be acquired by members of Geographic and cognate Societies on
payment of S5 (25 francs, one pound, or 20 marks) to the Conmiittee
of Arrangements. Persons not members of such societies may acquire
membership by a similar payment and election by the Presidency.
Ladies and minors accompanying members may be registered as asso-
ciates on payment of $2.50 (12^ francs, or 10 sliillings, or 10 marks);
they shall enjoy all ])rivileges of members except the rights of voting
and of receiving publications.
Geographers and their friends desirous of attending the Congress
or receiving its publications are requested to signify their intention at
the earhest practicable date in order that subsequent announcements
may be sent them without delay, and that requisite arrangements for
transportation may be effected. On receipt of subscriptions, members'
and associates' tickets will be mailed to the subscribers. The privileges
of the Congress, including the excursions and the social gatherings,
can be extended only to holders of tickets.
Societies and Delegates. It is earnestly hoped that the Congress
of 1904 may be an assemblage of Geographic and cognate Institutions
no less than of individual Geographers; and to this end a special invita-
tion is extended to such organizations to participate in the Congress
through Delegates on the basis of one for each one hundred members
up to a maximum of ten. No charge will be made for the registration
of Institutions, though the Delegates will be expected to subscribe as
Members; and in order that the hst of afTiUated Institutions (to be
issued in a later announcement) may be worthy of full confidence, the
Conmiittee of Arrangements reserve the right to withhold the name
of any Institution pending action by the Presidency. The publications
of the Congress will be sent free to all Institutions registered. It is
especially desired that the Geographic Societies of the Western Hemi-
sphere may utilize the opportunity afforded by this Congress for estab-
lisliing closer relations with those of the Old World, and to facilitate
this, Spanish will be recognized as one of the languages of the Congress
igo4 NEWS NOTES 1 43
with French, English, German, and Italian, in accordance with previous
usage; and communications before the Congress may be written in
any one (or more) of these languages.
Institutions not strictly Geographic in character, Libraries, Univer-
sities, Academies of Science, and Scientific Societies are especially
invited to subscribe as members in order to receive the publications of
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Communications. Members and Delegates desirous of presenting
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in a Prehminary Program to be issued in June, 1904. The time required
for presenting communications should be stated, otherw^ise twelve
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Any proposal affecting the organization of the Congress or the pro-
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COMMITTEE OF ARRANGEMENTS
W. J. McGee, National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C,
Chairman,
Henry G. Bryant, Geographical Society of Philadelphia.
144 '^^^ JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY March
George B. Shattuck, Geographic Society of Baltimore.
A. Lawrence Rotch, Appalachian Mountain Club, Boston.
Zonia Baber, Geographic Society of Chicago.
George Davidson, Geographical Society of the Pacific, San Francisco.
Frederick W. d'Evelyn, Geographical Society of California, San
Francisco.
John Muir, Sierra Club, San Francisco.
Rodney L. Glisan, Mazamas, Portland.
Angelo Heilprin, American Alpine Club.
Herbert L. Bridgman, Peary Arctic Club.
William Morris Davis, Harvard Travellers Club.
J. H. McCormick, Secretary.
FINANCE COMMITTEE
John Joy Edson, President Washington Loan & Trust Company,
Cliaimian.
David T. Day, United States Geological Sur\'ey.
Charles J. Bell, President American Security & Trust Company.
National Educational Association, 1904. — The first of the many
importa,nt educational meetings to be held at St. Louis in 1904
is the National Educational Association. This convention will be
held from June 28 to July 1. Details of the geograpliical program
will be published in the Journal of Geography when it has been
completed. In anticipation of this meeting the Journal will issue, the
last of May or early in June, a special number devoted to "The Geog-
raphy of the Louisiana Purchase*." The Purchase has never before
been so completely written up from a geographical standpoint.
Bulletin of the American Geographical Society. — The Editors
of the Journal note \\4th pleasure a change in plan whereby the Bidleiin
of the American Geographical Society will hereafter be published
monthly instead of five times a year. The BxiUetin is the oldest regular
geographical periodical in the country, and represents the oldest and
most renowned Geographical Society. The geographical interests of
America are so large and so increasing in scope that there is plenty of
opportunity for two monthly periodicals devoted primarily to advanc-
ing the science of geography. Although the Bulletin, like its com-
panion, the National Geographic Magazine, will devote a certain
amount of attention to educational geography, neither paper will
cover the field which the Joijrnal of Geography and its predecessors
have occupied for more than seven years.
Newest and Best Text-Books
IN
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Morton^s Geographies
By Eliza H. Morton, Member of the National Geographic Society.
Elementary Geography f 0.55
Advanced Geography z.20
Natural Geographies
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Elementary Geography fo.6o
Advanced Geography 1.25
Brief Geography 80
TarbeH's Geographies
By Horace S. Tarbell, A.M., LL.D., formerly Siiperintendent of
Schools. Providence, R. I., and Martha Tarbell, Fh.D.
Introductory Geography f 0.50
Complete Geography z.oo
The same. With Special State Editions .... z.zo
Carpenter's Geographical Readers
By Frank G. Carpenter.
North America . $0.60 Europe .... $0.70
South America .60 Asia 60
Australia and the Islands of the Sea (in preparation).
Write for descriptive circulars and infor-
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JOHN LANE '^^''^ ^^^^^->' ^^'^'^ •••■ •••■•••■
.••• 67 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK
An Announcement to Teachers of
Geography
RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY will publish
this fall and winter a new series of Geographies
By Richard Elwood Dodge
Professor of Geograthfy Teachers College y Columbia University^ New York City :
Oh-editor of The Journal of Geography: and author of **A /deader
in Physical Geography for Beginners.^'
B..k On, ELEMENTAR Y CEOGRA PH Y «•«<!»
Cloth, Square 8vo, 8xio, 228 pag^es; 75 cents.
THIS la a geoflfraphy for begrinners. The book has, therefore, been divided into two
parts, entiued, respectively, " Home Geography " and *' World Relations and the
Continents."
In Part I. the purpose has been to show the relation of the individual pupil to all
parts of his own country, and thereby to emphasize the interdependence of people com-
mercially and industrially. Any treatment of Home Geography must be general in
order to make it true for all children in all localities. In the ** Suggestions for Review ''
the pupil is asked to study his own environment and to explain its geography by
the universal facts presented in the text.
Part IL opens with a treatment of those factors that must be understood by the
pnpil in order that he may appreciate his relation to the world as a whole. The inter-
dependence of nations is here brought out. The last part is devoted to the several con-
tinents, and shows the reasons, so far as is possible within the limits of an elementary
book, for the supremacy of certain industries in certain places.
Boot TWO, .AW A NCED CEOGRA PH Y.. /» Pr.i>aro»to»
Cloth, Square 8vo, 8x10, pages; $i.ao.
THIS book has been written with the idea of emphasizing particularly the ''causal
notion" in geography teaching. Part I., called "The Principles of Geography,"
treats of those phases of general geography which are necessary as a founaation
for an intelligent and disciplinary study ot the several continents. The topics in this
part of the book are considered as far as possible in the order of their mutual depen-
dence, and the pupils are thus led to see the dependence of the higher and more compli-
cated phases of geography on the simpler but fundamental conditions.
In Part II. "The Continents" are treated in such a way as to emphasize the impor-
tance of their physical characteristics. Especial attention is given to their economic
conditions, because it is believed that the greatest value from a study of the continents
comes: First, from the training in clear thinking involved; and second, from the
knowledge it gives of principles and facts that can be used in later life.
'T^HE attention of geographers and geography teachers is especialljr invited to the
•• •• fSAV\S •• ••
__ „__„_ hers and geography teachei ^ ^
large number and excellence of the maps, all of which have been made expressly for
these geographies. Each continent and the United States is represented by three
maps, a relufmat to give a bird's-eye view of the contour, a physical map showing, in
accordance with tne international color scheme, the land heights and water depths, and a
political map giving the latest information in regard to boundaries and other varying
points^ In Book Two appear commercial mapSy showing the railroads and principal
industries of each region. For the first time m a school geography water depths are
shown on all maps.
The drawings for the maps have passed under the critical eye of Dr. J. Paul Goode,
Assistant Professor of Geography in the University of Chicago, an expert in cartogrraphy.
Write US for further information regarding these books
Chicago ff9W York London
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XVI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SEPTEMBER
1903
EDITORIAL — The Batavia System — What the Batavia System Is — A Quickened Intellec-
tual Life — The Right View of a Superintendent's Duties — A Needed Amendment —
Muaac in the High School — A Difficult Undertaking Well Done — The Boston Meeting
— Medical Inspection of Schools — College Entrance Examination Board.
TEXT-BOOK LIBRARIES, Robbrt MacDougal.
COMMERCIALISM AGAmST CULTURE, J. H. Atkinson.
THE TEACHER'S PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE RESULTS OF CHILD STUDY,
P. E. Spaulding.
THE AIM OF EDUCATION. M. A. Carringer.
THE PEDAGOGICAL VALUE OF MEDIATE INTEREST, L. W. Hoffman.
MUSIC STUDY VS. PERFORMANCE, H. H. Langton.
AMBIDEXTERITY AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT, Samuel S. Maxwell.
A SCHOOL OF PRACTICAL SOCIOLOGY, D. C. Parr.
NEW BOOKS.
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\
Read This!
AN AUTHOR'S OPINION
Since the first dav n[ pul)licatit)n T have been a subscriber to THE JOURNAL
OF GEOGRArnv ancT its predecessors. It is so helpful and sujf j^estive that I can
not afford to do without it. It is an excellent means of keeping one's ideas
up-to-date both in methods of teaching: and in the evcr-growinjiC, ever-widening
science of geography, as well iis in kindred sciences. ^j fxis E Frve
Former Superintendent of Schools of Cuba;
Hotel Trot c ha ^ Havana, Cuba. author of Fryers Geoj^raphies.
Then Read This!
A SUPERINTENDENT'S TESTIMONY
For several years past all of our teachers who teach geography have taken
The Journal' of Geocraphv. and we see no reason tor changing. The
Journal gives to the teachers scientific information, pedagogically arranged,
on the most vital subjects in the curriculum. (Geography has ceased to be a
memory study in our schools and has become a thought study. THE JOURN a L
has done much to help to that result. Teachers of geography can not do
better than to take this very readable and profitable Journal.
John A. Long,
Streator, Illinois. Superintendent of Schools.
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HE SCHOOL SCIENCE PRESS, - Ravenswood, Chicago, III.
What School Papers Do You Take?
^y- is an important question ! There are two kinds and every
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p^l schoolroom methods and educational news, and one discuss-
^^^g" the deeper problems of the profession. The latter is by
*^^x* the more important of the two, for it will keep you growing
^•^cl make you worth more as a teacher. The first will be read
^^^ thrown aside ; the second will be preserved and bound up
"•-^^x* permanent reference.
We publish "EDUCATION," the oldest of the high-class
^^c^nthly educational magazines, now in its twenty-fourth year.
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World's Fair
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Tht? Juny numbernf TA*- TOUHSal tt/'(iEfirrKAf»n V will be a World'if Faif und
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Bhe Geography
of the Louisiana
Purchase
Amofijc ilie numerous articles that may be expected are the followln|| :
THE GEOGRAPHICAL VALUE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
THE SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
Iy\ X. 11. i>AKl(^N% ('////(' Litift'ti Sfafi's Gtt^js^t'itpknai Surt^v
THE HISTORY AND EXPLORATION OF THE LOUISIANA
PURCHASE
By Dk. a. C. HowlaS'u, of tbr I\'a<ht'f.< Ct^Hf^e^ Coiumbia Lfniversiiy,
^ Xeii} Yi*rk Ctfy
THE INDUSTRIES OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
By l*k[>KEssf]H Sr-EM'Kk TKDni-ik. i*f Su;tr//iniotr Ce/ii-jiT'', Stiar/A»i0re^
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THE IMPORTANCE AND PRESENT CONDITIONS OF IRRIGATION
/lytirifj^'^riipht'r J\}r the Ctnitd Sfuifs Gt'tfiQ^iOii Survey
ST. LOUIS
By Kllkn C. Skmple, 0/ /AmtM'iih\ AV,.- aufh&r n/ **Jmtfri'£0tt Hiifery
DENVER
By CBAkLES E. CifJ^ttiiKV. Asshfanf Snf^eriHtendcnf iif tkr Deftf^,
t'titiyradif^ Schiwis
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\p^t or who winh tn have vvcU Afflicted (^iH>jrrm>bkiU material on ih* Great
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nuuibtr will alrin include t* brief Kelccted biblio^raphv im the j?ei>j?raphy of
Llie I^uistann t'urehasu.', nml s^iati^iieal notes showing its poptiUtioa, euro*
merte, indu»trie»^ sind relative eLnmoniic inijiortuncr.
The price is 2Qc, postpaid
Thijs remarkable Special Issue should be m the handps of everv teacher
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Tlu- JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY
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The Tunc nuinburof 77/»: lOL'KNAl. o/ CIkograi'HV will be a World's Pair and
a Nationsil Rducatiunul Association Number. It will be devoted entirely to
She Geography
of the Louisiana
Purchase
Amon>c the numerous articles that may be expected are the followinsr:
THE GEOGRAPHICAL VALUE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
/fy Prokksmik a. \\ IlRlciiAM, 0/ Co/fTii/i' Cfiiz'trsity
THE SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
/>y N. H i)Akic)\, of tlw L' nit id S/a/tS lii'O^rapfticai Surzev
THE HISTORY AND EXPLORATION OF THE LOUISIANA
PURCHASE
Fy Dr. A. C. Howi.axp, of tlw Teachers College^ Columbia University^
AV:t' York Lity
THE INDUSTRIES OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
fi\ PR(»KKssi)R Si'KNrFK TRoriLR. of Swat tliviort' CoUt'f^e^ Stvarthmorey
Pa.: author of "A Comtmrcial (iio^'raphy"
THE IMPORTANCE AND PRESENT CONDITIONS OF IRRIGATION
/?v Gko. H. Hni.i.isiKR. .l.\soi/a/r liditor ot 1 ho Journal of Gcoj^rapMy :
llydro.i:raphor for (ho I'm fed Sfatcs Gooloxncal Survey
ST. LOUIS
A'y Ki.LKN C. SK-MTLK, of l.oui.\',tllt\ Ay.- aufhor of '\lnierican History
a nd ( rt\\i,'rj/>hio ( i uiditi\ 'fts ' '
DENVER
Jfy Chari.es E. Ciiadsicv. Assistant Superinfcndcnt of the Denver^
Color ado .^ Schools
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iPHY
We Give These
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PUT THE WORLD IN YOUR POCKET
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This AtlAS will help to keep fresh your jfcj>«:raphical knowledge. It takes but a small
I on your desk or shelf. It contaiiiN a fund of condensed information which is
always at hand.
1900 CENSUS
Maps of every
State,
Territory,
Continent,
Canadian Province,
Foreign Country,
Our New
PosaeBsions,
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Central America,
Etc.
All from
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1900 CENSUS
Pocket
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OF
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•1
\
1900 CENSUS
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Climate,
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Education,
Politics,
Etc.
1900 CENSUS
Pocket Atlas of the World
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^n Attai for Your School ^ Jin Atlas for Your Home
1900 CENSUS COMPLETE
LUt of Counties of every State, givinj^ Popylation and Index to T^ocatjon on Map.
LiiEt of Post Officer in the United StateK, and Popalation ot every City, Town, Village,
and HamleU
F€>r Geographicai, I/tsfoncalt and Siatisikai Reference
Jnrivaled Atlas
OF THE WORLD
43 pages of
Descriptive
Matter
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Features.
ClimHte,
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Education*
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The Census List
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159 pages of
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Our New
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every State in
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Seventeen of
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56 pages with
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Portraits of sll
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6* Trollope's Domestic Manners of
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8. Philippines in the 17th Centurj'
q. Simm's Vemassee
ID. National Docitmcnts
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12. DenifKracy in America
13. Hamerton's Intellecttial Life
14. De Qniocey's Essays
15. Lear's Nonsense Books
Jb. Familiar Letters of James
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17, Life of Benvenuto Cellini
iS, Pater's Marius the Epicurean
1*). Boker's Francesca da Rimini
(with a comparative study of
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21. Goethe's Faust
22. The Old Red Sandstone, by
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I
PUBLISHED MARCH 1. 1904
Dodge's
Elementary Geography
By RICHARD ELWOOD DODGE
Profess&r of G^og^raphy^ /'rachers Cot/cif,'^^^ CoiuMbid UHh*frsif\\ New York City;
i&'Cditcr i*f tht Journat of Geography, tiutfiar o/^'A Reader in
Pkysicai Geography f0r heginners^'* etc,
Consislinjj^ of
'Part I
Home Geographic
Showing the relation of the individual pupil to his own country, empha-
sizing thereby the interdeijendcnce ot people com-
mercially and inaustrially ; .ind
Vart II
World Relations and the Continents
Treating of those factrtrs necessary to an understanding of the pupil's
relation to the world as a whole.
With jiS iiiu St rat ions in hn/f-font, ^ dia^^rams, /o text maps,
tiHii 4^ maps in ini^rs,
Cioth, square Svo. (St lo inc/it's), ^^i pages. 75 cents,
RE.ADY SOON
DODGE'S ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY
Before adopting old books SI^K 1 IIIISE which are tip to-date.
RAND, McNALLV & COMPANY
Chicago New York
Fd,. 113* -/ iapt\ peninsula , and isthmus. This is a characteristic hit of
AVtt' England shore.
KV, ILLUSTRATION FROM "ELEMENTARY OfcOliHKVWV '
COLUMBIA
UNIVERSITY
NE.W YORK
SUMMER SESSION. 1904
JVednesdap, Julff 6 to
fVedntsdajf^ August 17
113 COURSES
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Buldwln jind Ur. Judd. <>'. V
KngllBti mill 111 Pfivrholntr
Mr. t:. N, KiTidttll^ Sii fieri n I in (lent uf Srh-n
fit ludlauapiHkii i\n Ei\ucmU*u>i mitJ Pr<>f*'*fnir
Monnuc, ut the t^iatf Noniial SehMoL Wt*«t-
ludgiQj? limy t>o tiQil Id Wblttter ttiiU.
The announcement is now ready and
will be sent liponi applicatmn to the
Secretary, Columbia University, New
York, N, Y.
lu, His-
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Nature
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PDpsiograpDp ^ eeograpbp
EOGRAPHY is a study of the earth
as the home of ^pnan, he7ice we have
two elements in the study of geography:
the earth and man. In one extreme
the study of geography is led toward
pure physiography which is a branch of geology,
on the other extreme toiuard sociology or history j
or some other branch of the study of man. Neither
aspect of geography should, however, be studied for
itself, but solely with reference to the relation of
earth and man. The utilization of physiography
in geography study is rational, well founded, and
scientific. If we are to have a study of the earth
as the hom^e of man, we must have some famil-
iarity with the earth. Physiography in the rela-
tion of the earth to m^an tells not merely the facts
of importance, but the reasons as well, and helps
in geography study to introduce the element of
interest — an ele^nent sadly lacking in 7nuch geog-
raphy work. Physiographic features determine
the industrial, commercial, and political aspects
of a section of country. Knowing the climate and
products of the United States one can predict with
a considerable degree of certainty what occupations
would be carried on in that country. Therefore,
physiography should be taught in a way that
brings out this relationship. Make use of causes
in explaining effects of a geographic nature and
you will make geography interesting. This is
rational geographic teaching. — RALPH S. TARR.
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. APRIL, 1904 No. 4
THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH
PART I
BY FOREST R. MOULTON
0/ the Univernty of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
lXTRODi:CTION
THE relative positions of the earth and the various heavenly
bodies continually change, and these changes imply that some
of them, at least, are in motion. The difficult part of the
question is to determine the i)art of the change wliich is due to the
motion of each. Tliis is illustrated and emphasized by the fact that
in antiquity it was believed by some philosoi)liers tliat the earth was
absolutely at rest, and that all apparent motions were due to actual
motions of the moon, sun, planets, and stars; by others, that the earth
rotated on its axis, but that the moon, sun, and planets all revolved
around it; by others, that the i)lanets revolved around the sun, and that
the sun with its retinue of planets revolved around the earth; and by
others, chief of whom was Aristarchus of Samos (810-250 B. C), that
the earth rotated, and that the earth and planets revolved around the
sun. It is an interesting fact that each one of these theories agreed
with all the data which their authors possessed as well as any other,
for it was only the relative motions they were explaining. If they had
had any fixed point of reference to start from, it could easily have
been determined which theory was correct. The difficulty is illustrated
by the experience which ever^^one has had of sitting in a railway
coach with another coach very near at the side. When one of the
coaches starts the observer at once knows that one is moving, but
he can not tell w^hich it is until he sees some object known to be fixed
on the earth. If we ever get airships passing each other at high alti-
tudeS; some amusing experiences along this line may be expected.
Copyright^ tgo4^ by E. M. Lehnerts
2
1^6 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Apnl
At -presont it is uiiivorsally believed by civilized i)eoples that the
earth rotates on it.s axis and that it revolves around the sun. It is
also known that this has been proved, but it must not be supposed
that it has been proved except on the basis of certain assumptions,
or axioms, as doubtless everything: is proved. This may appear to
weaken the case a little, but most of the axioms involved have an
immeasurably wide verification in human ex[)erience. It is something
like the residts obtainecl in ordinary (leometry, which are always suj)-
posed to be of the most certain character althoujrh they are directly
based on axioms which are admittedly incapal)le of proof. The rec-
otrnition of tlii^se conditions simj)ly sliows us that there is a possibility
of other pt^rfectly logical explanations, just as there are Geometries
other tlian tlie ordinary which are just as logical and at the same time
ajrree just as well witli every expericMice. l)ut which seem to our minds
nnich less simpl(\ How ohvn <lo we unconsciously accei)t as an axiom
that, of a number of j)ossil)ilities. tlie one which seems simplest is
necessarily correct I
The objects of this paper are to describe what are beheved to be
the actual motions of tlu* earth and th(* reasons for these beliefs, to
state on what axioms they are founded, and to discuss some of the
indirect conclusions which follow.
TUK HOTATIOX i)F THK KAKTII
The first j)hiloso))her of anti(iuity after Pytha^roras (500-470 B. C)
who seems to have advocated tin* rotation of the (»arth was Heraclitus
of Pontus (about :iS()-.S2() H. ('.). Ih^ was a friend and disciple of
Plato (42S :U7 H. ('.). a contemix.rary of Aristotle (384-322 H. C),
and an innnediate ])re(lecessor of Aristarchus of Samos (310-250 B. C.)
who strongly su])port(Ml his views, and argued for the heliocentric
theory of the solar system. Tufortunately Aristotle, whose towering
t:;enius wa> a «iuid(^ not only for most ot" his contemporaries but also for
the civilizcMJ world for more* than a tlKuisand years, maintained that
the earth was tlu* fi\(Ml cent(M' of the universe, although admitting
and attcMuptiniz: to i)rove its sphericity. It follows from the statements
in the Introduction that thi- error should not le.*<sen our resjject for
his remarkal)le talents, for physical theories bear necessarily the imprint
of the epoch in which they were born. To judge them justly, it is
necessary t(^ exclude from our consideration all their faults which
a|)pear only in the liiiht of sub-secjuent discoveries.
Since the tinu^ of Copernicus (1473-1543) the Dresent theory of
the rotation of the earth has been almost '
Copernicus ^ave no proof that the e
,,jo4 MOTIONS OF THE EARTH I 47
more .simi)lc than that the whole heavens should turn around it. After
tialileo (1564-1642) had applied the telescoi)e to celestial objects the
idea of rotation was supported by analoj2;y with the other planets
£Lnd sun, whose apparent rotations could not be explained except on
the hypothesis that they actually turn on their axes. So far we have
*the uncertain proofs (?) of simplicity and analo^ry.
After Newton (1042 1727) published his celebrated laws of motion
ill 16SG a new series of demonstrations based on these axioms became
|30S.sible. The first was (hie to Newton himself who showed that, assum-
i xig that the earth rotates, it will be bul<red at the ecjuator, and conversely.
The demonstration was completed in 174o ])y the verification of the
ol>lateness from the nu^asures of IMcanl in France, of Houguer La
Oondamine, and Godin in Peru, and of Maupertuis in Lapland.*
Newtcm also pointed out the fact that if a body is dropped from
a. jjjreat elevation, it will strike the earth a little east of the foot of the
|>lumb line let fall from the startin.t»; point. Tlie reason for this is (piite
i=^imple. The body is subject to an cnistward motion du(* to the rotation
of the earth which is j^reater than that at the surface of the earth where
it strikes. Now, the fact that it falls does not interfere with its east-
\var(l motion; consequently, durin*^ tlie time of its fall it goes farther
c^ustward than the foot of the plumb line goes, and the deviation is
the result. The variation is snudl, amounting to about two inches in
^ fall of oOO feet in our latitude, and air curnMits make its successful
execution very difficult. Nevertheless, it was successfully performed
*>y Benzenberg at Hamburg, in 1S02. l)v Reichert at FreibiTg, in 1831,
*^ii(l more frecpiently in recent times, mostly in deep mine shafts. This
^fgument is based directly on the laws of motion.
It follows from the laws of motion that a pendulum tends constantly
tcj swing in the same plane. It is (»asy to see tliat if a pendulum were
*^tispended at the pole of the earth, the (»artli would rotate under it;
tliat is. the plane of the swing of the pendulum would apparently
Rotate in the opposite direction with tlie |)eriod of a day. At the earth's
^^^liiator there would be no rotation at all. At intermediate latitudes
'^J'lere would be a rotation, though slower than at the poles, the rate
^l^pending upon the latitude in a way which can not be derived by
simple methods. This ex])eriment was devised and carried out with
S^^eat success by Foucault at Paris, in 1851, and has been many times
^^peated by others.
The gyroscope experiment, also due to F^oucault, is essentially of the
^ame character, the pendulum being replaced by a heavy rotating wheel.
♦See The Journal of Gkogr.aphy. November, 1903. p. 485.
There are other proofs of the .^ame general character, though less
conclusive* such as the direetinn of trade windis, ocean currents, direc- m
tion of rotation in cyclone?^, etf% f
A niethoti of independent character consists in me^isuring motion
in the line of sight liy means of the spectroscojie. When a celestial
object^ as the sun, is rising in the east the obser%^er is approaching it
owing to the earth's rotation, and when it is setting he is receding at J
the same rate. It follows from the wave theor}^ of light that this motion ™
causers a slight change in the apparent color of the source of hght,
just as the motiou of a locomotive has an effect upon the pitch of itafl
whistle. The s|)ectroscoix> is an instrument which can be used to ■
measure extremely slight changes in color, and conseciuently motion
in the line of sight. By observations of stars near their times of rising
and setting the lotation can be |)roved, thongli the amount f>f motion
is near the hmits of observation.
The question of whether the rotation is imiform or not was discussed
in the paj>er on Time/ The conclusion was that while the rate of]
rotation is almost certainly not exactly uniform, the variations are]
extremely shght and very nmch below the lituits of observation.
THE VAEIATION OF LATrrUDE
The latitude of a place on the earth depends upon its distance
from the earth's pole, wliich is detenuined by the earth's rotation.
Now if the earth*s axis of rotation is not always the same, the pole
will not always be at the same point, and the latitude of every place
will vary. There is no dynamical reason why it may not change if
the earth is given tlie proper ilisturbance but the period of variation M
will be a perfectly definite interval of time depending upon the size. ■
UHisg, distribution of density, rate of rotation^ and rigidity of the earth.
It is something like the wafibling which may be set up in a ** sleeping**
to]i by a little external disturbance, though the analogy is not perfect.
Assuming that the earth is pvrfnihj rigid Euler and Laplace sf vowed
that such a walihling in its rotation must take place, if at all, in 305
days. It was not su|>posed that the lack of perfect rigidity would
mako very nmcli tlifference in tfie period. Since no wabbling with
this period, or indeed any other, had been found, it had come to be
firmly believed that the earth's axis is sensibly fixed; but between
1S80 and IS90 new observations of extraordinarj^' ]>recision» chiefly by
Kiistner at Berlin, showed beyond a doubt that there is a variation
of at least two- or three-tenths of a second of arc corresponding to a
♦The Journal of Geogbaphy, September, 1903, p. 3,^,
I
1
*VN
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH
149
shifting of the pole by twenty or thirty feet. This work has since been
amply verified by observers in many plaeei?, and the question is of
such importance that by international cooperation observatories have
been estahUshed in Mar\'land, ('Ldifoniia, Japan, and Italy t<i make
further investigations along this line. The whole amount of the varia-
tion does not excee<l six-tenths c»f a second of arc. or about sixt}' feet,
ami 18 exceedingly irregular The aecomiianyinfj fignre whicli repre-
sentii sixty feet s:|uare shows the variation of I lie po^ition of the pole
from IS<M1 to 1898 according to the computations of Albrecht. Dr.
^lO ♦o3o <o.1o qjto -P.I0 -oJio -oJa^,
-tin
•I^^B
fOiD
foSo
^oSi~
+(iio +atio
^-N..
-oio
-vsr
-tiM
4A0
9U
^-olk
>^ote
A
Fig. t
Aibrechts compulations xhaa*ing Ihex^rtation of fht pvsitiovs of the pok, lAoo-iSo?**
From Yoiinfi's Mantntl of Astronomy.
Chandler has shown that this motion is the resultant of at least two
simpler ones, the smaller <jne having a iH?riod of one j^ear and the larger
one a period of 428 days. Ahhongh the eoml)ined effect is always
small it is conceivable that it may si>me tiiTie give rise to interna-
tional complications where bomidaries are defined by latitude alone.
There are two fpicstituis which at once arise in one's mind. One
it;, what is t he sotirce of the disturbance, and the other, how it happens
that the larger peri<ul difTers so mucli from tltat given by theory.
Any change of nuitcrial on the surface or in the interior of the earth
will cause a change in the axis of rotation.
Large masses are shifted b}" atmospheric currents, the How of rivers,
the deposit of snow, etc,» but these causes very nearly balance each
other, and even if they did nrU.the nias.ses involved in thent are sosnniU
compared to that of the whfjie earth that the results would be qtiite
inappreciable. At present the cause of the variation of latitude is
nut certairdy known, .Much less is there any assignable cause for such
Inrm viuiMtimis in latitude a."^ some have iujapned in attemptinu lo
explain tlie marked clianj^es in climate wliich different parts of the eartl*^
have undergone. The researches! of Darwin and Schiaparelli have^
shuwn cnntdusively the inernnpetency of such a theory.
The sef'i>nd question has been ^iveii a reasonalik* answer by Professor —
Newcorab xiiid ulhers. As lias been sti^erl, the 3()5-(lay ]»eriod i^ founfM_
under tfie hypotliesis that tfie eartli is perfectly riirid. The thoughtr.^
that a nearly ri|;id 1>ody would behave st'iisibJy as a perfectly rigid one?^
is suggested by our experience with v(^ry small bodies. The leverage^'
for strain increases so imich faster I ban the resisting power, as the siz<^^
increases, tliat matters are (|uite ahered in large l)odies like the earth
A glass marble will lie oh a rigid support and preserve its shape almost:.
i>erfectly; but if it were a few miles in rlia meter, it would flow out afc.
tlu' bottom like a visi-ous mass. Xewcomb njade a tost of the effee'^
of a lack of rigidity on the period i>f wabliling by assuming that thc*^
earth has the rigidity <rf steel His coiufHitatioii slicnved that if this
hypothesis were true, the jieriod would be 448 days, soniewliat gmat<*r
than that observed. Cons€*r|uently Uie actual efTective rigidity must
lie between i)erfoct rigidity anil that of sleel, i»r tin period of vanaiiofi
of liitttttde S'lmn's (hat tin nirth /> tin tftt tttrntin u fitflt mort' ritjkf thtin
Btci'l, It should be added thiit a uundjcr of otlier tests, such as certain
tidal phenomena ;md tlie transmission of earthquake wavers, lead to the
same conclusions. Here Dynamies and -\stronomy unite in giving the
geologist i>recious results respecting the condition of the interior of
the earth which his own metho<ls seem powerless ever to reach.
( 7^^ itr cottrluthtl hi Ihr Mny ii<,^m\)
TRANSPORTATION^
PART H
nV Jr»HN THOM HOLDsWnKTH
Ptof^snor of Comnierciai Gvitqrtipht/, Drexd InMitHit, Phittuit/i*ktH
CONTEST BETWFJCN CANAL AND RAILWAY
X no country has there licen a longer or more severe struggle between
eanab and railroads than in the United States. , . . In no
countiy have railroads antl canals lieen affonled etiiuilly free scope
for develi»pment, and in nrr country have transi)ortation rates been
cut so fine and reduce^^l so low.'' t At the outset, however, this struggle
Vol III
I
* CVintiiiue<I from Thk JnrrtXAi. of GEtHiKAPHV
page 120.
No. 3, :\ffirT h, 19t^,
TRANSPORTATION
151
%^'as waged under very unequal conditions. Up to 1S51, the railroads
v^'ere greatly handicapped by having to pay canal tolls on their tonnage,
^ud, in some instances, being prohibited from carrying freight. **The
State authorities looked upon the canals as a trust confided to their keep-
i. xig, and protected them against the railroads/'* With the repeal of these
discriminating laws in 1S51, railroads developed rapidly. In 1S57,
the total traffic of the canals declined 772,000 tons, while at the same
trime railroad traffic had a large increase. The railroads not only
c:>fTered much more rapid transportation, but also very low rates, and
e^xitered into arrangements with steamers on the lakes and rivers to
divert freight from the canals over their roads. Hadley says of this
Cop/rinht, lWit4. Krmii Do-lnf'. .\<lvanc«>l <ie<>era|>h.?.
Fig. 5. Traveling alottf: the Eric Canal.
The passage is only xvidc cuourIi for the passat^e of canal boats, and
the canal is not deep enoufih ;or larf:e boats.
contest: *^From 1853 to 1X59 there was a fight for supremacy between
canal and railroad. For twelve years more there was a contest for
profits. Then it became a (juestion whether the canal could pay
expenses of maintenance; a question which was finally decided in the
negative/' t
At present only three States — New York, Ohio, and Illinois — own
or give aid to canals. (See Figs. 5 and 13.) All the others have
leased, sold, or abandoned these waterways which have l)een unable
to meet the competition of the railroads. (See Map IV, page 153.)
A statement is appended showing the cost and date of construction,
length, number of locks, and navigable depth of the principal canals
of this country used for commercial purposes. t (See Map R', page 153.)
♦Jeans, p. 197.
t Hadley, p. 30.
t World .\lmaiiac, 10(«.
■ ^^^^ ^^^^^
^^B
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Aprii ^^^B
^
J
I
J
*!
^
i
^^^1
^^m CANALS.
H
-a
i
* LOCATrON. ^^^B
^^H
*f
"^
^1
^^H
e
o
2
6
35
H
^^H Allienmrlo & ChesafM*fike
, . $1,6413^3 1S60
44
1
7JXorfolk, Vh., to Curri- ^H
^^H
tuck Sound, X. C. ^H
^^H Aui^Hta. , .
K50{),tJCK)
1S47
9
11 Savannah H,. Ga,, to ^^M
^H Blui'k Jihi^r
3.581,194
1849
35
109
4 Ronif, \\ Y., to LvoiiS ^^1
Falls. X. V. ^H
^H ( !ayuga & Seneca
2,232,a32
1839
25
H
7 Moiitpieuiim, N*. V., to ^^M
C*avu|ia ^ SeniMii L. ^^|
^H L*hanipUii[L .
4JM4,nrH1
IH22
SI
32
0 Whitehall. X. Y,. to ^H
\\e.st Trov, X. Y. ^H
^V Chcsai>eake & Dt'luwiirt- .
. , 3.730;23U
1829
14
3
9 Che^ipeiike'ritv. Md., ^H
to IM. City, l>d. ^H
H Chcsiipeake A' Ohio ...
li;>CMVi27
IS50
1S4
73
0 Cuniherlaud. Md.« to ^^B
Wai^hin^ton, D. V. ^^M
1 Corii[mMy8
tHKO(K)
1K47
22
1
B MisH. HivtT to Bavou ^^H
Black, La. ^M
1 1 Jplnwar*' *t Ranlflu. .
4.K8,H,749
1838
(ill
14
7 Xew Brunswick. X\ J,, ^^|
to Trent on, X. J. ^^H
1 Deb ware !>iYision .
2,433,3r>l>
IS30
(M>
33
6 Easton, Pa., to Hri^tol. ^H
1 Des Moines llapids.
4,.S.s2.0tHJ
IN77
74
3
5 At Des Moines Rapids, ^^M
Misf^Wtppi Riv. ^^H
i>isin:d Swaiiip
2,800.O(K)
1822
22
7
6 Connect^s Chesafx^'ake ^^B
Bav wit h A Ibeiuarle S. ^H
Krie
F)2M0,Hm
1826 387
72
7 All Kill v, X. Y., to Buf- ^H
lalo'. X. Y. ^M
Fairfield. .
4 J None
Allii^ator R. to Lake J
MatiiniUHkeet, X. C. 1
Galveston tk Hraxos. . . .
340,000
1851
38
3JGalveston. Tex,, to Bra- 1
sjos River, Tex. 1
Hocking
975,481
1843
42
26
4 Carroll. O,, to Xelson- 1
villi', th ■
lUiuDif} l\: MichifCHiv.
7,357.787
184K
102
15
6 Chi<Ti^o, 111., to 1ji fl
Salle. Ill ■
Illinois & Mississippi , .
5as,r>43
1895
4J
3
7 Anjund lower rapidi* of H
K ork R . < o 1 \ . v^-itli M i« . H
Lehigh Coal & Xavigatioi
iCo. 4,455,001)
1821
108
57
6 Coalport, IVu, to EaistoUt ^|
At FnlW of nhio R,. ■
Lovimville & Port lain J . . .
5,578.631
1873
24
2
Louitiville. Ky. ^H
Miami & Erie . ,
. 8,0B2,aS0
1835
274
93
54Cinfintiati. t >, to To- ^H
Morris .
CpOOO/MKJ
1S30
103
33
5 Efii^ton, Pa,, to Jersev ^^M
City. X. J. ^B
Muscle Sboals & Elk R.Shoals 3.1.^,919
1889
16
11
6 Bis^ Musete ShoaJ^ to ^^M
Flk H, Shoab. Term. ^H
Xe whence & Beaufort
3
Xoiic
Clidifoot Cri'ok to Har- ^^H
low Creek. X. C. ^^1
Ogeechee . .
407,SI<*
1840
10
5
3 Savannah IC. Ga,. to ^^H
( >^iH>rlu*e River, Ga, ^^^H
Ohio. ...
4,695,204
1835 317
150
4 Cleveland. 0,, to Port^- ^^H
^^^H
Oswego
5,239,526
182.S
38
IS
7 (J^wego, X. Y,, to Syrn- ^^^H
nisc, X. Y. ^^^H
154 'THK JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHV April
CANALS ^'= x-| j= ^ J- LOCATION.
w _: :«?: '-'
PeMinsvlvMiiia $7,731,750 IS'M) 193 71 (> Columbia, Northumber-
land. W-B. Hunting-
don.
Portage Lako iV: L. Superior. . 5'2s,s92 1873 25 Xonelo From Keweenaw Ray to
Lake Superior.
Port .\rthur 1S09 7 20 Port Arthur, Tex., to
Gulf of Mexico.
Santa Fe 70,(MK) IssO 10 5 Waldo, Fla., to Melrose,
Fla.
Sault Ste. Marie 4,000.000 ls9o 3 1 IS Connect.s Lakes Supe-
rior and Huron at St.
M. River.
Schuylkill Xaviiration Co. . . r2.4(il .000 1S20 lOS 71 OiMill Creek, Pa., to Phil-
adelphia, Pa.
Sturgeon'.s Hay i'c L.Michi«:an 09.0(>1 ISSI 1\ Xonelo Het ween Green Bay and
Lake Michigan.
St. Mary's Fall^^ 7.909,007 ls90 1^ 1 21 Comiects Lakes Supe-
rior & Huron at Sault
Ste. Marie.
Susquehanna i^' Tidewater .. 4.931,3 45 1.S40 45 32 5ACoUnnl>ia, Pa., to Havre
de Grace, Md.
Walhondinj: (i07.2(')9 1M3 25 11 4 Rochester, O., to Ros-
coe. ().
Welland 23.790.353 2(> 55 14 Comiects Lake Ontario
and Lake Erie.
Despite tlic ahaiuloiiniont of many lines of State and private canals,
the interest and faith in canal transportation, properly adapted to
modern conditions, has not died out l>v any means. "Canals as they
were a century ago have no longcM* any function to fidfill that is worthy
of serious consideration. Their mission is ended, their use is an
anachronism. Tlie canal of the futun* must be adapted to the new^
conditions of commerc(\*' Cliief int(M'est continues to center about
the Erie Canal, comiecting \ew York witli the steadily increasino;
trade of tlie (Ireat Lakes, in trrain, ow. timlx^r. animal products, coal,
etc. (See l''i<rs. o and (>.) These hidkier raw {)roducts, which originate
lar<i;ely in the States drained by llu» (Ireat Lakes system, are shipped to
the foot of navi<iation at HutTalo. Thence^ lh(\v are transported by barges
througli the 3.S7 miles of the I'^rie Canal to Albany, and down the broad
Hudson to the docks of X(nv \'ork. The comj)etition of the railways, how-
ever, has gradually overshadowed the canal, and now it retains only
a very small ])art of the traflic l)etween the lakes and the seaboard.
The canal has brought such inestimable benefits to the JState of
Xew York, and especially to the cities of New \'ork and Huffalo, that
many plans have been proJtM'ted to improve it so as to meet the demands
*9H
TRANSPORT ATIO>«
155
of modern traffic. M eomiAvXvd iji ls25 it was 4tJ feet wide nn the
surface, 2fl feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deeix Eniarjienieut?? were
made from 1836 to 1S62 so tliat the dimensions were: Surface width,
70 feet: bottom width, o(> feet; dej^tlu 7 feet. This canal, improved
but little ^ince. acconuiiodated liuats i>s feet long, 17^ feet beam,
drawing 6 feet uf water, and having a cargo capacity of about 250
tons. In 1S95. the legislature voted SO.OOO.CKK) ff»r deepening the
Erie^ Chamiihiin, aiul Osvvegci canals, biU this sum i>ri*vcH| jpiite inade-
quate.
For matiV years tliere ha*^ been an earnest agitation for a <h:e|i-.sea
waterway, large enmigli ta carry iK-ean-going vessels, from the lakes
to the Hudsrm. Two snrvevs have actuallv hetm made: the St. I.aw-
Vtc._ >t. I anal f'oafs Jri>in the l£rir Cunal b^in^': iiKt'^:J fo sUiifHi r'j i\:
Xne York Harbor jt*r the inmsshiptttcni oj ihcir caraoii^s,
rence-rham|>lain route, suggested by the Cleveland Commission of
ISlKi, and the Oswego rf)Ute, approved by the Raymoud-Xoble-Wisuer
Commission appointerl by Fresiilent Mclvinley. The first route would
re*iuire a canal froniToiiawanda. near Huffalo, to < )h*ott \n\ Lake ( >ntario,
thence down the St* Lawrence to a point op|iosite Montreal. From
here a canal wouhl cross to the Riclielieu River, thus giving ctnmection
with Lake Chamjilain. which in turn is comuH*ted liy the Champhun
Canal with the Hudson. The Oswego route would foUovv a canal from
near Buffalo Ui Olcntt. thc^n Ijv Lake Ontario to Oswegii. where it
would turn inland along < tneida Lake and the Mohawk TFiver To rolu»e8
'56
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Aprn^
-^^I^JI
^ii
Fig 7, CatuiJ IhhUs abtfut io <nUt the htcks. A canal v^rry frcqncntiy runs aton^isidv a
Hvtff, Here a dam has htrti buiil across tkt river in order t0 supply that canal with water.
Oil I he Hudson. This hittt^r nnite, besides being 244 miles shorter than
the Chaniplain route, has the advantage of being entirely within the
American line.
The latest project to fin<i fawir, liuwever, is the barge canal rectun-
rnended hy the ex|>ert Cnnnnitfee nn Canals appointed by Ctovernor
R<»(>8evelt. A bill embodying the refonnnen<lations of this Omnnission
recently passc^d the New York Legislature, and in No%'emher last the
voters of the Stale ar^^reed to make the proposed impr(»vements at a
cost of f l()l,()tK).n(K). The bill provides for ihc eidarijjing and rebnikhng
of the Erie and Oswego canals to carr}^ boats 1.50 feet long. 25 feet ■
wide, and 10 feet draft, with a rartro capacity of 1,000 tons each. The
Champlain Canal is \i) accommodate boats of 250 ton>. The proposed
new canal over the old l%rie mute is to follow the present canal for
about two-thirds of the ilistance. It will be fit for use by steamers of M
900 tiHis cat>acity lowing two barges of l,OtMJ tons each. It is estimated 1
that these Inirges, capable of carrying 33,333 bushels of wheat each,
could do a profitable business at eight-tenths of a cent per busliel from
Buffalo to New York.
With the enormous development of traffic in the new raw products™
of the Mississippi Valley, the demand for an inland waterway coutiecting
the Great Lakes with the Mississippi has become more urgent. The
marvelous growth of the [>ort of New Orleans in recent years shows a
how the trade of the great valley has increased, and the construction
by the United States of the Isthmian Canal will undoubtedly greatly
augment the volume of river tonnage. President Madison urged the
great need of a ship canal connecting Lake Michigan and the Mississippi
TRANSPORTATION
157
SO that light-draft war vessels eooM reach the great inland seas in case
of war with Canada. When repeated attempts to secure the aid of the
t^ederal Government had failed, the city of Chicago, unaided, under-
took to build a connecting waterway* which, however, was to answer
stiiiitar}^ rather than niiUtary or eonnnercial needs. Work on the
Sarxitar\' and Ship Canal was begun Septend>er 3» 1892, and conipieted
January 2. 1900. It connects Lake Michigan at Chicago with the
XlUnoLs River at Lockport, a distance of thirty-four mile^s. **Tiie
oaual was cut for the purpose of giving to the city of Chicago proper
clrainiige facilities hy reversing Ihe movement of water which formerly
flowed into Lake Michigan through the Chicago River, and turning
ia. current from Lake Michigan through the (*hicago River to the Illinois
I^iver at I^ockport, and thence down the Illinois Kiver to the Mississipfn.
"^^he niinimuni depth of the canai is 22 feet; its width at bottom, 100
€^eet; and the width at the top from 162 to 290 feet." (See frontis-
;|3iece, facing page 145.) The channel discharges 360.000 (ndnc feet per
Bminute, which capacity can be largely increased. The total cost of this
jarreatesii feat of sauitar>^ engineering in the world was $34,000,(X)0. It
is expected that Congress will make it a coimnercial highway by
vleepening the Illinois ami Mississip|)i rivers to fourteen feet and con-
structing locks for fleets of l^arges from Lockport', the terminus of the
«lrainage canal, to St. Louis.
■ af iVru' Or U arts.
Fin. S, Shipf'ing u-harj on in.-: Missisiippi ,
if a sktp eanal were built eonntciin^ the Great Lakes with the Mississippi River, the vaUt* of Nww
Orkans as a shipping port ^or the Mississippi Volley States urn* id be vastly ificreas«d.
158
THE JOL^RNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
April
PROPOSKD CANALS
In the lti8t Tpvv years Congress Ikis liepii (lpliit!;e<l vvitli nieinorials
pleading i'or shi|>-eaiml (Hmnertiiniis. i^liihulclpliia has Iniii!^ iirit«:ed the
necessity of a canal aeross New Jerfcipy to New Vnrk harbor; Baltimore
demands a passage across Dehiware; PittshurL; seeks a ship eanal from
the Allegheny River to Lake Erie, and Cincinnati demands a similar
channel to Ti)ledi>: Chicago urges the rnni[jlctinn uf a 22-foot water^'ay
to St. Louis, ajid, also, a cana! west to rhe Mrssissifjpi; and Minneapolis
expects to get a ship eanal to Dulnth,
< ANADV*S Vv \Tt UWAVS
Relatively to her trade uiul [^npulntion. Canada has one of the
most extensive and jnTfect systems of canal connnunication in the
world. Inasmuch as tli*» prim'ijnd articles of her trade are raw prod-
ricts, she has carefully develope<l cheaj> water transportation, nsing as
a basis the great drainage system of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence.
Canada has sjient on her canals S12 per heatl as against our 15 cents,
and has un<ler consideration yet larger canal pr*)jections. Canadian
vessels (and liy the Washington treaty of 1S70, American ve-ssels ako)
now have a 14-f(yot waterway from the head of Lake Superior to tide
water, a distance of over 2,UI)0 miles. Som«' boat.s loaded at Chicago
have actually made the passage through the Canadian canal system
to Kngland without breakint: l>u]k.
)
Pig, Kt. L<~-ui;cj,u\i trt.iitspcrta!ion.
This flici of idki! <ankfs is tud up at Stsult St^. Maru bfcanse af a bhckadt^ caused by heavy
traffic in the canaL
■«*M
TRAN&l>ORTATION
159
444^:--^|
A whttUhack jt^ifituer passing through tiw "Soo" iMks »»t iht* >i«// Sfe. Afarv cmtat t>etitWM Liihe
Snffcrior and Lake Hnron,
The important rujials uf ihv J)fiiniiiit>a arr as follows:*
I, The thrcmpfh route lietwceii Moiitreal anJ t!ie hi^ad of Lake Superior.
1. Laehiiie, 8i miles, exteialhijj: from Montreal to Laehine, uver-
eoming the St, Louis rapids,
2. ir^uulangps, 14 miles, exteiidiiiii; from Taspinle Tnini to Coteau
Lanilin;r, overeomin^ several rapids.
3. (*ornwalL 11 miles, frnm foriuvall to Dickenson's Larnling, past
the Lon^ Sault li:i])i(ls.
4. Williamsburfr t'anals (the Inrrans I'niul. Jlapide Hat, and Galops
canals) 1 12 miles,
5. Murray, o miles, extending through tlie Lsthm\is of I\lurray
between the Bay of Qiiinte and Lake Ontario, thus etuibling
vesselj? to avoid the open-lake navigation.
0. \A>lland, 26 J miles, connecting Lakes Ontario and Erie, and
avoiding Niagara Falls, This canal was constructed in IS33,
enlarged in 1S71, mid again in 11)00. It has 25 locks, with a
total rise of 327 feet, and cost S2riX)00.nnn.
7. Sault Ste, Marie, 1^ miles, through St, ,Mary's Island on the
north side of the rapids in the St, Mar}' River, and connecting
Lakes Huron and Superior,
IL Ottawa River canals, avoiding rapiils between ( htawa and Montreal.
♦Report Cmindiiin Depart ineiit of Railways anil Canab, 1900.
•'r<tTiv1tt, ItOi FftMB 1M(b'* KlMBiiMmj timgntfttf.
,4f this port all v«sseh f^assing titrougk the canal fioy ftili.
II L Rideau* 126 miles, connecting Ottawa on the Rivor Ottawa with
Kingston at the eastern eml of Lake Ontario.
IV. The Trent extends from Trenton on tlie Bay of Quinte, Lake
Ontario J through a chain of lakes imd rivers to Lake Hnron.
As yet tliere is not a eonnerted system of navigation.
\'. The Riehelien & Lake Chamjilain commences at Sorel, at the eon-
fluence of the St. LawrerK'o ami the Richelieu, 46 miles below
Montreal, extends alon*r the river Richeheii, through the
Chamldy Canal to St. Johns, thence down the Richelieu to
Lake Champlain. Lt is eighty-one miles from Surel tu the
boundary line.
VL St. Petei-s connects St. Petem I^ay <>ri the southern side of Cape
Breton with Bras d'Or Lake,
Camula's total expenditure on her canals up to June 30, 1900,
anunmted to S95. 31 7,000. Still other canal projects are couteniplated,
notably the Montreal, Ottawa, and Cierirgian Bay Canah intended to
divert the trade of the Lakes to Montreal. When completed it wnll
bring Duluth and Okicago 500 miles nearer to Mont real, and will afford
a direct, air-line route to Liverpool, saving 1,000 miles over the route
via New York, Much interest has been shown, too, in the ]>roject to
connect Winnipeg, in the center of the great Manitnba wheal fields,
with the Great Lakes by a ship canal. That Canada realizes the great
TRANSPORTATION
i6i
importance of her chief water route is shown by the n^ittition to deei>eti
the Lakes-St, Lawrence I'lianiiel to ei|[f;hteeii feet thr<iun;hout.
GREAT SIMP TANALS OF THE WORLD
The artificial w^aterways of the Avorld, properly termed ship canals,
Suez Canal, begun 1859, completed 1S60. In its present form the
canal cost about ? 100,000.000. It is without locks, bcin^ at the
sea level throughout the SK) miles of its length. Passage througli
the canal averages about 18 hours. The tolls arc 9 francs per ton
net register (Danube measurement), which is a little more than
S2 per ton U, S. measurement. In 1900. »1441 vessels with a gross
tonnage of 13,G90.2H7 tons passed throu<i;h the canal.
Kronstadt & St. I'eterslnirg CanaL begun 1S77, completed 1890.
This canal extends from Kronstadt on tfu* Gulf of Finland to St.
Petersburg, a distance of 10 miles, though the canal proper is
only 6 miles long. It has a navigable depth of 204 feet, and
represents a total cost of »lf).(H10.n00.
Corinth Caruil was begun 1S.'»9 and completed 1K93. It connects
the Ciidf of Corinth witli tlie Gulf of .Kgina, and is about 4 nulcs
hmg. It has a tleptJi of 261 ^^^^^* ^^^^^ ^^^^ about $5,000,000. The
average tolls are IS cents ]ier ton and 20 cents per passenger.
Like the Suez and Knnista^lt canals, it has no locks.
Manchester Ship Canal crjonecting Manchester witli the Mersey
River, Liverpool, and the AlJantie Ocpan, was openetl January^,
1S94. The canal is 35 i miles long, and cost S75 ,000,000.
* Great Canali* of tlip WorUi, Bureau of Statislirs, Monthly Siimmnry, May. 1902.
st^^.
:-'?*-•«
Plc, I J, The Suc2 Canal at tlte entrance to Lake Timsak,
Tht canal « 1 50 U'ft u^^d* /A*? whok distance.
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
ApriL
5, Kaiser Wilhelm'or^Kiel Canal, boguu in 1SS7» completed 1895. This
€aiial, 61 miles long, ami 29^ feet deep, connects the Xurlh Sea^
with the Baltic at Kiel The total cost was about $4O,OUUv0iK)-
6, Elbe Sc Trave Canal, opened in 1900, connects the North Sea an A
the Kllie River with Lubeek on the Baltic, It is 41 rniles loiig;^
has a depth of 10 feet, and cost S5,s;il,()00, of which Liibeck con —
tribiited over $4,000,000.
Fjc, 13. A strtct canal iti Amsterdam,
Mu£h of rfc# ammwrce af Itu city is carried on by titc me oi thfic numerous ciHots,
OTHEK IMPORTANT CANALS
^ In athlition to the above great ship canals, there are a number of
important waterways worthy of notice :
1. North Ilohand Canal, cut in 1845 from Amsterdam to Helder, It
is 51 miles long, 20 feet deep. 125 feet wide at the surface, and
carries ves^si^b of \,'Si}0 tons. Tlie great ]>rosperity of Amsterdam
in recent year^ is largely due to this canaL
2. The Caledonian Canrd runs through the north of Scotland, and con*
nects the Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea. The canal proper
h 250 miles long, 117 feet deep, 126 feet wide at the surface, and
cost about $7,0(KK000,
3. The Canal du Midi, cut through France from Toulouse on the Garonne
River to Cette on the Mediterranean, is 150 miles long, 6^ feet
deep, 60 feet wide, has 114 locks, and at its highest point is 600 feet
above sea level. It cost $3,500,000, and will carry boats <yf 100 tons,
(7Vi 6** r*m till tied.)
«^<^4
A NORMAL COURSE IX GEOGRAPHY I 63
HE COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY IN THE STATE
NORMAL SCHOOL AT SALEM, MASS.
T'
BY WILLIAM CHARLES MOORE
Inatruetor in Oeooraphy, State Normal School, Salem, Massachutetts
HE State Normal School at Salem, Massachusetts, is most favor-
ably situated in a locality rich in geographical illustrations.
Looking northward from the windows of the school building the
pi"! Jicipal industrial features of a moderate sized city, including a cotton
miU^ shoe factories, and a tanner>^, are easily identified. Towards the
nox^lieast is the harbor from wliich in times past the vessels of Salem
sa,i led to all parts of the globe. (See Fig. 1.) Towards the west can
b^ s^en the line of railroad by which the city is connected with the
chi^f center of trade in New England, and in this direction also is a
Jft**g^ freight yard in which cars of all the principal railways of the
Ea^^^m United States arc to be found. Looking in a southerly direc-
^^^^3. ^he eye is pleased and rested by fresh green meadows through
whiic*"|-i the tidal creeks reach out their glittering arms. Here also are
fer-t: il^ vegetable gardens, fields of waving corn, smoothly graded knolls,
^^ * in the distance, numerous ranges of irregular rock hills spiked
^'^ ^"^ dark green cedar trees. (See Fig. 2.) In one direction, there-
"^^^^» ^re the agricultural and pastoral conditions typical of a rural com-
^'^-■- ^*^^ i ^y, and in the other the imj)ortant industrial and commercial
feii^tix^^sof city life.
-■"""Vie organization of the normal scliool provides a two years' course
^l^ '^ Ine professional training of teachers, and a system of elementary
^^^^^^Is which serve as the basis for the observation and practice-work
*^ ^ normal school students. The work of the elementary department
^ ^^a=^ to prepare the children for admission to the high school in eight
-*-^lie course of geography in the normal school proper consists largely
^. ,*^^ observation and discussion of the methods of teaching pursued
J "^ ^lementar>' pupils. The outline of work actually performed by the
rr« *^^^s of children is made the basis of these recitations and discussions.
£ ^1^^ _^3istnictor in charge of this department finds a ver}^ profitable part
^1^^^^^*^ duty in supervising and teaching tlie lessons in geography in the
jpT^^^^ntary school. One marked result of this intimate and actual
jqX^^ "^^ct with the children is the unity which exists between the theo-
^^,^^^^1 work of the normal school class room and what is actually
^^*riplished with the elementarA^ ])upils.
I 64 Trf^SHoBE OF GEOGRAPHY April
Perhaps another n^«ult is tliat some of the things which find an
honored pUiee in nuiiiy of llie "geography ont linos have been discarded
in favor of a simpler, more rational, and less formal treatment. The
study of geography in the elementary'' school is suffering from the
severely logical metlind of teaching into which the work has been thrown
by educators who have had little or no actual experience with children.
The regidar wiirk in geography with tlie children begins in our
school with the third grade, that is, with the [jupils who have attended
school ftir three yeai^, and continues tlirougli the eighth or last grade.
During the first and second years of school life the nature study and
language lessons have been creating a certain fiUKl of experience which
contributes more or less directly to the work in geography. During
the third year this information is gathered together and additional
experience created in the study of the surface features, oeeu pat ions,
people, map readin;br. simple weather ]4ienomena. and i>roduciiuns.
This introductory treatment is of enurse very simple. It is intended
as a preparation for th(Mnore careful study of these topics wliich comes
in the next year. In that year, the fourth, the work with local surface
features is followed closely by a study of distant areas whicli are similar
in type to the local forms or which contril>ute niorf* or less directly
toward sitjjplying the materials nec<le<l hv the rhildren for food, clothings
and shelter.
The study of tlie local surface features Ijcgun in the third year and
continued throughout the fourth year is based upon the usefulness of
the hills, valleys, and plains to the people of this community in affording
suitable building sites, in determining the location of street.s, roads,
and railways, in furnishing a fotid supply, and in giving beauty and
variety in the hind scape.
The physiogra|>hieal aspect of the fulls, valleys, and plains, although
not ignored, is not made the staiiiiig ])oint. For example, witliin easy
reach of the school buikling are various illustrations of rock hills and
gravel hills. But the study of hills as individual tilings, separate rn»ni
any obvious relation to the life of the couHmmity, is not of geographical
importance. Instead, therefore, of selecting types from the unsettle*!
district to the south and west where, although numerous hills of both
kinds are to be fourid. few of them are fonsjucuous for their usefulness,
we turn towards the settled area, for it is here that the surface fea-
tures are in a more intimate relation to the daily life of the people.
The gravel hills within the settled portiou of the town have streets
laid rmt u[>ou their surfaces^ the npirroaches to their summits are in
I
most cases easy, and the sides and tops of the hills are well built upon.
The nearby rock hilb, on the cnutrarj^ are not laid out in buikling: loisA
there are few houses upon theni^ and the area is useil for little morel
than pasture land. Some of tlie hills, therefore, afford desirable buikling
sites, and some do not. Ttiese facts are easLl}- witliin the everyda}
experience of the pupils anfl may be considered also as coming withiaj
the range of their natural interests.
The explanation of these facts leads in a very simple way to a '
recognition of tlie differenee in structure between rock hills and gravel
hills. The pupil soon discovers that in every case the hills that are notj
occupied by buildings are of solid rock. The reason is that the blasting
and excavating necessary for the constniction of cellars adds* consid-l
erably to the cost of Iniildin^. l\ulher, the laying out of streets uponj
the rock hills is almost prohibited by the steepness and irregularity j
of their slopes. The hills that are well built upon are found by the]
pupils to be composed of gravel and sand. This loose n\aterial offers I
little resistance to the pick and shovel. As a result streets are laid
out without much difficulty and the erection of houses is encouraged.
Tlie eontnil which the surface features have exerted in determining i
ordinary lines of travel is well illustrated in the location of Lafayette]
Street, the main thoroughfare. Although in the beginning it was!
simply a rough country mad from Salem to Marblehead, tlie fact never- j
theless remains that throughout its entire length it avoids both the
highest and lowest parts of the land. Thus the steep grades of the ^
hills as well as the marshy lowlands, wliieh at times must have l^een I
quite impassable, are both avoideti. The influence of the topography j
upon the location of other streets is also easily seen.
To the south of the school buil<ling in the agricultural area before
referred to there is good opportunity to study the usefulness of theJ
surface features in providing a supply of food. Here upon the flati
stretches and gentle slopes where the loam is fine and dark are the vege-
table gardens; on the lowlands, where the soil is too wet for planting,
the rich green grass gives promise of an abundant hay crop; and upon I
the SDUtliern slopes of the gravel hills are fields of waving corn. The
rock liills with their steep sides and their gravelly soil offer httle encour-^
agement to cultivation and are therefore used only for grazing.
This brief description indicates the kind of work which receives
emphasis in the study of local surface features. Whenever it is possible
to do so without making the instniction stiff and formal the attention
of the pupils b directed to the effect of the diversity of the surface
i^
1 68
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
1
I
featurej^ in giving beauty and variety to the lanciscinie. It is impos-
sible to indicate, within tlie limits of this article, the numlDerless details
in the study of the home geography which the very favorable situation
of the school building makes; not only po?isible but eai?y. Let me empha-
size the fact tliat the study of the locality does not stop w^ith simply
observing and describing the characteristics of the liills, valleys, ami
plains^ although this in itself would be a very coniinendal>Ie aim; it
includes a recognition and emphasis of those relations of the local
geograpliical features to the life of the people of this community which
help to ex|>kin the control which distant geographical features exert
upon the distribution of the world's popuhition.
The knowledge of the jiosition and characteristics of tlie natural
and artificial surface features of the neigldiorhood gained in this study
of tlie local geography is a very important basis for the first work in
map reading. In developing this line of thnnght the children have the
advantage of a very carefully constructed model of the locality surroutKi-^
ing the school building. This model is fashioned in putty. Its hori- "
zontal scale is thirty-four inches to the milej and its vertical scale is
one inch to forty-five feet. Upon it the hills, valleys, plains, coast line»
harbor and mill pond, streets and railwa3^s are shown. It is not used,
however until after some familiarity with the various natural and
artificial surface features has t)ecn gained. Then the pupU is led toB
make a close association between the actual features of the locahty ■
and their re]>resentations upon the model, and the study of surface
features goes hand in hand with the study of the local maps. Thei
tletails of this work can not be included in this description.
We have founds by the w^ay^ that the almost imiversal device recom-
mended to teachers of having the pupils tlevelop logically the map of
the neighborhood step by step from the plan of the pupils' desks is;
not a good way to teach young children what drawing to a scale means.
In the first place the careful work requiretl for good results is not inter-
esting to children of that age; in the next place, the results, even
after considerahle effort on the part of the teacher to give the work an
acquired interest to the pupils, are slovenly and unsatisfactoiy. Finally,
it can be saiil, the work is wholly unnecessary, for the pupils from the
kindergarten upward, in their clay modeling and outhne drawing, hav
been making use of the principles involved in representation to scale
All tluU is really necessary at this time is to show the children, by
[ueans of photographs of themseh^es, of the teacher, and of scenery with
which they are familiar, the necessity for making the features that
!i
A NORMAL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY
169
^^n^aUer than the others in nature the smaller parts in the representation,
^^iid that each part in the picture or model is oiade tlie proper size to
^-Ook right.
Following the work with the motlel of the neighborhood and closely
^i-ssociated with it and with the features out of doors conies a slope-line
^tn.ap of the same scale. The sloi)e lines are hnes which in<licate thi-
T>aths wtiich running water would take in flowing down tlie hills. The
"V\rork with tliis map, therefore, is very closely associated with the
^ tudy of local drainage.
A contour map of the home locality with a vertical interval of
^^^ven feet comes next in the study of map reading, and prepares the
'^^^ay for a very intelhgent appreciation of the Salem sheet published
V^y the United States (leological Survey. It also leads directly to an
i ^interpretation of wall maps like llie Sydow-Halx^nicht.
The w^ork with tlie series of local maps is found to be an exceedingly
iTiiportant and valuable part *>f the course in geography. Tliere are
tnany interesting details cormected with the devel(jpment of this topic
xvith the children w^hich must be omitted from this article for want of
^pace. ** Without maps true geography teaching is impossible/^ but inth
maps like those used in this scliool the work takes on a concrete char-
tic ter which gives an interest and reality to the lessons that is most
gratifying.
The study of distant surface features implies considerable progress
in the reading of maps. The successful interpretation of the map
symbols, however, will depend upon the thoroughness with which the
study of the home locality has been pursued in connection with the
local map. The use of pictures and the abiUty to form good mental
images from verl)al descriptions are also indispensable.
The plan by which the pupils in ttiis school are led to an under-
standing of maps of distant pjaces throvigh a study of local maps has
already been outlined in part. The steps have been so natural and
easy that when the map of North America is readied the pupil recog-
nizes at once the meaning of most of the conventional symbols. Just
as soon as these luive been nameth suitable pictures of important
featiu^43 are shown. These pictures help the process of visuahzation
by giving life and reality to the places represented upon the map. A
picture of the Arctic cr >ast Hne. one of the tropical shores of Central
America, others of the coast hnes of New England » New^ Jersey, Florida,
CaUffirnia, and Alaska; views of the Rocky Mountains, the great plains,
the prairies, the tundras, and of the Mississippi and other rivers—
all of these are recoi^nijied, describecL tn\<\ ui^soeiated with the part
area upon the map or with the appropriate symboh
The study of the map (Sydow-Habenicht) ilhistrated by pictures
and supplemented by verbal desenptions is made from this time on the
basis of every geography lesson. Those distant siuface features which
are intimately connected with the lives of the people in this locality
are t^tudied first. The pupils recall the varicms needs in their own
climate, and some of the more important cunmiudities of life are traced
back to their region of production. Then pictures which illustrate the
conditions under wliich thest^ tilings are grown or raised are used.
The significant things in the picture — the character of surface, kind of
soil, chmatic conditions, productions, and people — are looked for and
emphasized.
The wlieat fields, grazing sections, garden farms, fruit districts,
lumber regions, cotton and sugar plantations, and tlie mining and
manufacturing centers of North America in i>articular and the world
in general are recognized atul studied as the work progresses. The
control which relief, climate, and soils exert over natural ]>roductions
is continually kept before the pupils, and frequent reference is made
to the local conditions which illustrate these relations.
The study of these industrial regions leads almost immediately I
to the recognition of the physiographic types — prairies, coastal plains,
flood plains, delta plains, tundras, mountainous regions and coaMal
forms, and the relation of the rivers to these surfaces features. ■
The topics, weather, climate, and natural prod tic tiona receive due
attention in the ivork of tlie third and fourth years. The aim in the
study of the weather is to secure definiteness in the observ^ation of
characteristic |)henoniena, and to acquire the experience necessary for
a rational understanding of climatic conditions. Instead of a formal
record kept day after day the teacher is expected to take advantage
of the opportunities as they occur for studying typical conditions.
The study of natural productions^plants, animals, and minerals —
is closely related to the so-called nature work. The geographical aspect
of the study of the organic side of nature consists largely in picturing
and describing the plants and animals in their relation to the climatic
conditions and physical features. This work, like the study of People,
can be done most intelligently, not as a separate topic, but in connection
with the work on relief, drainage, and coastal forms,
A summary of the work which is attempted in the fourth year, of
which the above is only a partial and very brief description, is as follows:
I
1904 A NORMAL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY I 7 ^
Relief, Drainage, and Coastal Forms.
Local surface features studied in detail.
School buildings, dwellings, factories, streets, in relation to gen-
eral surface features.
Hills, valleys, plains, and coastal forms of the neighborhood.
Surface drainage in relation to hills, valleys, and plains.
Distant portions of landscape seen from schoolroom windows.
Usefulness and beauty of forms of land and water.
Distant surface features studied in their relation to life.
Plains: prairies, coastal plains, western plains, tundras, pampas,
llanos, selvas, steppes, etc.
Mountains: Appalachian and Rocky Mountain highlands; Andes,
Alps, Himalayas.
Rivers and valleys: Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Columbia, Mac-
kenzie, Yukon, Colorado, Hudson, Cianges, Indus, Yang-tse,
Nile, etc.
Coastal forms: irregular coast lines, harbors; regular shore lines.
Rocky, sandy, and marshy coasts.
Map Reading.
Position: distance, cardinal directions.
Local maps: model, slope line and contour maps; Salem sheet.
Maps of distant places: wall maps, globes.
Natural Phenomena.
Forms of water: Atmosphere. Observations of sun, moon, stars.
Climate.
Weather observations at characteristic times; distant climatic con-
ditions.
Productions.
Minerals.
Plants and animals.
People.
Races: life and surroundings of people recognized in study of distant
surface features.
Occupations: industrial conditions of home locality and distant places.
Commerce: inland and maritime trade of Salem.
The pupil at the end of the fourth year of school life has gained a
fairly good knowledge of his own locality and considerable information
concerning distant physical features, climate, and people.
During the next year, in the study of the earth as a whole, the aim
is to give the world-wide view^s of these same geographical phenomena.
The largest foalures of reli(*f. drainage, and cua?sl line, already described
to some extent as individual tliings are now reeognized as a part of
and in relation to the whole earth.
The various things eonsidered are form and size of the earth, earth
in space, rotation. \nm\ and water divisions, latitude and longitude.
The relief, drainage* coast lines, ciimat^}, and productions of the world
and the tiii>ic People.
Tfie splierical form of the earth is not a new idea to the pupils,
and the purpose i\i this time is to furnish some reasons for the belief.
The usual proofs are pre.^^ented and illustrated by means of objects,
pictures, and tliagrams, but the teaching does not stop with the appa-
ratus. By mean.s of the imagination, with the device nut of sight, the
facts are applied to tlie earth itself.
To picture the earth in space is a difhcult thing, even for adult8»
and it ought not to be attempted by children without previous oliserva-
tion of the moon. Some basis for imagining the earth in space may also
be obtained l>y looking at pictures representing the earth seen along dis-
tance away, and if the mental image which the pupils acquire is nothing
more than the memory of a good ]>ictnre interpreted in terms of their
observation npi)n the aiiion^the teaching need not be counted a failure.
The rotation of the earth is also something which requires a well-
trained imagiiuition to perceive. Usually the teaching of this topic
anion nts to nothing more than a mere jugghng with objects. The
geographical phases of rotation, however^ include not much more than
a study of day and night . and since the alternation of light and darkness
is sonu^thing within the ex{>enence of every ciuld this is tlierefore made
the starting point in teaching rotation.
The ptipils descril>e the a])parent movement of the sun from morning
until evening. They think also of the possible path durhig our night.
They are then UAd what fieople at one time believed and what the facts
really are. Then conies the work with objects, not with a candle or
lampj but with a sphere held in the sunlight. This objective demon-
stration is followed by the application of these facts and relations to
the earth itself. Tlie rletails ctf these lessons have been carefully worked
out, but space forbids more than this brief nu^ntion.
Small hand globes are supphed each jiupil, uml are constantly u.sed
in the naming and description of the divisions of the earthV surface
into land and water, continents and oceans, and hemispheres. Pic-
tures of mountains, plains, deserts, coast line, Arctic seener>% and
tropical vegetation are associatetl with particular areas and appropriate
symbols upon the giobe,
X904 A NORMAL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 1 73
The primary highlands of the world, the lowlands and basins, the
relation of drainage to highlands, lowlands, and basins are studied in
"fche order named. New facts are not so much in evidence at this time,
3,lthough of course no opportunity is lost to broaden and clarify the
pupils' knowledge. The work has the character of a summary in which
"the aim is to see the' w^orld features in their relation to each other and
"to the whole.
The study of the climate of the world — heat belts, winds, and rain-
fall— is one of the most important and perhaps most difficult parts of
the work of the fifth grade. The successful presentation of this topic
requires very careful teaching. The writer was, moreover, inclined to
believe at first that even under very favorable conditions the work
might prove too difficult for the children, but actual experience has
proved this not to be the case. Indeed, in the succeeding grades we find
t/hat the facts and their simple explanations which have been taught
at this time constitute a very reliable part of the children's geographical
information.
It is impossible to describe within the limits of this article the
numerous concrete illustrations which are brought in to teach the
fundamental facts about climate, nor to dwell upon the use which is
made of pictures and stories in giving life and meaning to verbal state-
ments. It must be remembered that the work here outlined depends
very much for its success upon the previous preparation of the pupils,
and upon the closeness and unity with which the work has been
organized.
The line of thought is in general as follows: The location upon the
globe of the warmest parts of the earth, the coldest parts, and the
places of intermediate temperature. This is review. Then comes the
explanation of these conditions by recalling the observations which the
pupils have made upon the relation between the inclination of the
sun's rays and the morning, evening, and noontime temperatures, and
also the relation between the sun's meridian altitude and the seasonal
variations in temperature. The importance of these observations in
explaining fundamental differences in temperature upon the earth's
surface is shown by means of a slated globe and a cardboard ring with
parallel lines drawn upon it to represent the sun's rays.
The distribution of temperature upon the earth's surface as deter-
mined by latitude and as modified by the relation of land and water, is
presented to the eye by means of a heat belt globe. Upon this globe
the cold polar caps are shown in dark blue, the cool belts in light blue,
the warm belts in green, and the hot belt in orange. This heat belt
174
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
April
globe is referred to constantly in the subsequent study of coutinents
and countries.
The study of winds and rainfall of the world is closely connected
with the work oji heat belts and is based upon previous observation and
experimental work. Oeean currents are taught as an application of
the efl'ect of the planetary circvdation of the atmosphere upon the ocean
waters.
The topi(\ World Prod \ict inns, offers an excellent opportunity for
summarizing and relating a large part of the geographical information
already acquired and for emphasizing the control which the surface
features, temperature and moisture, exert upon the distribution of
plants and animals. Further, a discussion of the importance of the
products of the world in supplying marfs needs, of the land and water
rentes by which the surplus productions are sent to different parts of
the world, and of the location of the principal trade and transportation
centers, is valuable in showing the relation of the earth to man.
The study of People is pursued in connection with every topic in
geography. As a result the pupils ac(piire in the most natural and
informal way considerable information concerning the habits, customs,
and the degree of civilization of the different races. The aim at this
time, towards the close of the fifth year of school life, is to recognize
in a somewhat more logical way than before the rlistinctive character-
istics of each race, and to note their original and ijresenl distribution
upon the eartirs surface. This work give^ a gooil opportunity for
reeognizing the different states of society and for diseussii^g, in a simple
way, the progress of the human race from savagery through a condition
of barbarism to civilization.
The work of the sixth and seventh grades is conceiiUil with a study
of each continent as a unit. The particular aims are to recognize the
most important physiographic regions in each grand division, to describe
the chmate, and to trace the inJinence of relief, <lrainage» chmate, and
soils in determining the development of industrial and commercial
conditions. The division of each continent among the nations of the
earth, and the characteristic features of their different political insti-
tutinns and habits of life, is now an important part of the work. The
relation of distant people to ourselves in particular and to the rest of
the world in general is. of course, kept constantly in mind.
A NORMAL COURSE IX GEOGRAPHY
/:>
The outline of the work of the sixth and seventh grades is given below:
The Continents,
North America.
Position.
Hemispheres, relation to oceans and other continents, latitude
and longitude.
General Description.
Outline.
Relief: highlands, lowlands.
Drainage: Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic, interior.
Coast line: regularities, irregularities, harbors.
Climate: heat belts, winds, rainfall.
Productions.
People.
Physiographic Regions.
Atlantic Coastal Plain.
Position in North America; direction and distance from home;
relation to us in supplying needs.
Surface features; slope, soil, drainage; fall line; geographic
history.
Climatic conditions; effect of proximity of ocean.
Productions in relation to surface features and climate.
Location of cities as centers of accumulation and distril)ution.
Routes of transj)ortation — by rail, by water.
Gulf Coastal Plain.
Location.
Description; surface features, history, climate, agricultural
products.
Leading cities and trade routes.
Northern Plain.
Location in North America; direction and distance from home;
means of getting there.
Description; surface features, history, climate; comparison
with Gulf plain.
Productions and occupations.
Prairies.
Location, extent, direction, and distance from home; relation
to us in supplying needs.
Description: surface features, history, climate, agricultural
products.
I 76 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY April
Commercial routes: Great Lakes, rivers, railroads.
Leading cities.
Great Plains.
Location, extent, relation to prairies.
Description; surface features, climate, industries.
Cities.
Rocky Mountain Highland.
Extent, general direction, principal ranges, and subdivisions.
Description and comparison of physical features, climate, drain-
age, and industries of Rocky Mountains, the Pacific ranges,
Great Basin, Colorado and Columbia plateaus, Yukon
region, and the highland of Mexico and Central America.
Appalachian Highland.
: Extent, general direction, principal divisions.
Comparison with Rocky Mountain highland.
Description of physical features, climate, and drainage of the
mountainous region and the Piedmont belt.
St. Lawrence Basin.
Countries.
Location, extent, comparison of relief, climate, soils.
United States.
Groups of States.
Description of each section.
Cities.
Canada and Newfoundland.
Political organization.
Industrial conditions.
Mexico, Central America, and West Indies.
South America.
Position (same as for North America).
General Description (same as for North America).
Physiographic regions.
Description of surface features and climate of Andes, Brazilian
and Guiana highlands, the selvas, pampas, and llanos, the
desert of Atacama, and tlie plain of Chile.
Plants, animals, and people in relation to surface features and
cHmate.
Countries.
Location, extent, political organization.
Brazil.
Relation to physiographic features and climate.
A NORMAL COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY I 77
Industrial conditions.
Cities and trade routes.
Similar plan for the other countries.
Observation Work (Carried on parallel with the study of The Continents)
Meteorological.
Prevailing winds of summer and winter.
Changes in weather caused by passage of storms.
Weather map.
Astronomical.
Sun; time and place of rising and setting, meridian altitude.
Moon ; position and shape of young moon and changes throughout
the month.
Planets; evening and morning stars, names of planets.
Stars; circumpolar constellations, other groups.
Local Geographical Features.
Weathering, formation of soils. Gutter streams.
Industrial conditions.
Continents (Continued).
Eurasia.
Position, Relative Size, Outline.
General Description (see North America).
Physiographic Regions.
Eurasian highland; principal mountain ranges, plateaus of
Mongolia, Tibet, Iran, .Asia Minor.
Northern lowland; tundras, forest plains, steppes.
Plains of Manchuria; China, Indo-China, India, and Mesopotamia.
Plateaus of Arabia and the Dekkan.
Plateaus and plains of Europe.
Countries of Eurasia.
Location, extent, political organization.
Industrial conditions.
Cities and trade routes.
Africa.
Position, size, shape, coast line.
Relief, climate, drainage.
Productions, people, countries.
Australia and the Island Groups.
Position, size, coast line.
Relief, climate, drainage.
Productions, people, government.
I 78 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY April
The work of the eighth year consists principally in a study of the
life of the worid in its geographical relations. The discussions depend
to a great degree upon current events and cover matters of local interest
and happenings of national and foreign importance. The work includes
the recognition of the geographical significance of the particular event,
a discussion of the conditions leading up to it or surrounding it, and a
study of the })eople — their characteristics, government, territory, and
international relations.
In addition to the study of the life of the world the work of the
eighth year includes something of astronomical geography and physical
geography.
The study of the eartli in its astronomical relations consists in a
review of the form, size, and rotation of tlie earth, latitude and longitude,
and the presentation of the topic, Light Zones, with a discussion of the
causes of change of seasons and variation in the length of day and night.
The topics in physical geography include a study of glacial phenom-
ena, wave and river action, and soils. The character of the teaching
throughout the [previous grades has been such that the pupils have
already gained considerable information about these phenomena and
the aim at this time is to summarize and group the facts.
The outline of the eighth year's work is as follows:
Life of the World in its (leographioal Relations.
Current geogra])hical events.
Local, New lOngland, national, foreign.
Geographical conditions affecting the event.
People concerned; characteristics, government, territory, inter-
national relations; nations.
]\Ian; races, distribution, advancement, government, religion.
Industries of the world; importance, development; commercial
relations, trade routes.
Leading nations; relative importance, territorial possessions, char-
acteristics of ])eople, political institutions, industrial conditions,
commercial relations.
Astronomical (leography.
Form, size, rotation of the earth; latitude and longitude.
Revolution of the earth, light zones, change of seasons, length of day
and night.
Physical Geography.
Glacial phenomena; river and wave action; soils.
K^ca^ GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 179
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Plans for Home Geography Study. — The imagination must ever
l^lay an important part in all successful work in geography and the
^^^oncrete material furnished by our home surroundings is largely that
Xj^pon which we must rely for our correct images. The real things, the
^^ctual work and business that may be seen, the physical conditions
s^bout us, are first to be carefully and intelligently seen and then the
i magination may build up a larger world of real things, activities, and
'IDhysical conditions, all somewhat like and yet unlike those with which
x^ve are aheady familiar; but it must not be supposed that either children
^Dr adults have really observed many of those things that years have
KTiade familiar. Inaccurate, vague observation is neither knowledge
:«nor a safe foundation for knowledge. The larger understanding of the
"%3^orld must begin by giving the children's observation very definite
^nd conscious aim. Problems must be clearly conceived by the teacher
^nd then definitely and plainly proposed before either interest or
«idvantage can come from an attempt at their solution by the children.
Irrelevant matter, however valuable in itself, should be mercilessly
- ^excluded from consideration ; first, because it will confuse the children's
thought; second, the one who is tolerated in this way is deceived into
thinking he is contributing something valuable, and finally it tends to
:fix a vicious habit of illogical thinking, so ruinous to all effective work.
The knowledge which children may be fairly expected to gather
t:hrough well-directed observations will, very naturally, group itself
»bout the common foods and drinks, the fibers used for clothing, the
tuilding materials, and the fuels, with something about transportation.
The children can easily bring to the schoolroom samples of most of
'the cereals, of coffee, of tea, of sugar, and, after they have been suffi-
ciently studied, these samples can be placed in boxes or bottles of
appropriate size and form, and in a very short time a most complete
and useful cabinet will be formed. In a similar way can the children
observe fruits, nuts, :^ pices, and some of the more common special food
preparations. The home, or the nearest grocery, will readily furnish
specimens for study, and much more satisfactory work can be done
studying specimens in the schoolroom than in the home or the grocery.
A discussion of the common meats will lead to a knowledge of the kind
of animal that furnishes each variety and some of the more marked
characteristics in the life of these animals. Nothing should be sought
I
bceanso it is iTtnarkablo or strange: choose rather the familiar things
ill oriler the lielter to .see their great vahjes, and let the novelty of the
fiiscussion ami observation come frotii the more accurate and broader
knowledge that may be gainetl by properly considering those things
which \hv children niay have ilioiight iltey kjiew qnite th<>r{nighly
before. No more valuable lesson ran be learned by the (*hildren than
that of the necessity for actuirate knmvledge. The child that recognizes
his weakness has taken the first stej) towani strength.
Lot it never he forgotten that in carrying on this work a mass olfl
loose, chaotic, half-kntiwledge which the chihlrenV experience has
already furnished should now be corrected ami made tU-finitc. and thus
become a most valuable fund on whirh to draw in all future work
A consideration of the important food (>roducts will very naturall
leail to the further consideration of some of the most important tnatte
refjuire<l for their production; as soils, warmth, rainfall, methods
planting, cidtivatittn, aiMi harvesting. The further fact will come to
the kuowl**dge of the chiklrcn that some of the fr^oils are jrrodueed in
ovir own country and some come from abroad, antl we must consider
how to [nc^cut as clearly as pf^ssible the matter of location.
Prolialily no Ijetter way of traclting children the nieaning of a map,
including the idea of relief, has been devised than that of having thenil
take a binTs-eye view of some section and then show them how to
make a sketch map representing its nuun surface features. With this
will necessarily he associated some definite nieavSurement that shall
const it tite a scale. No stich excursi(»n should be undcMiaken until the
teacher has previously taken it and knows just what can anil sliould
be seen^ and has also instructeil the children what is most iniportant to
look for. Mere gating wilj ntvt be seeing, nor will it necessarily furnish
any t lung etUicative.
8ome observation of small hills and valleys, of watersheds and
surface rirainage and erosion, in convenient nearness to the school-
house, should be made and will be uinlerstood. The vahie of surface
cultivation in retaiiung nuasture may lie <lemonsti*ated by taking tw^oH
boxes of the same size and fdhng them with the same kiml of soih then
weighing them, and letting tlie surface of one be left nnlouched and
that of the other be frequently stin^efl and kept well pulverixed and
both boxes be teste*! by weighing from time to time. Thus childreu
can determine for thetuselves one of the main olgccts in the surface]
cultivation of various crops.
The textile fabrics lend tjiemselves to ^ch(K>lroom observation withi
lUS
nM
n
?r
I
I
UEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
iSr
g^M^^^^l readiness. If rei[ue8te(l, tho ehildreii will brin^ samples of
dJiJfif ^reii t kimU of cotton, of woolen, of linen, *^ind of silk fabrics* These
^M^B^^M^^* be o}>sen-p(l and fompared anil fimilly eul Ui a unifMnn size and
F* '^-•- -^^ ^f*d ou cardlmani of eonvenieiit size and laid away for future iitie.
^'^-i * * J08t always an inquiry will brin*; In tlie schonlrooiii I he* stalks of
^-^*-^^s^ with the seed still on, stalks of vniUni slmwinii: tlie fiber in the
^*^-*^ 1, always samples uf woul, and stunetiines of tlie silk cnetiorL Flax
^-■^^^J^ «cjtt«n seed may be planted and the plards nbservcMl during jLrrowth.
^^^ ^^^M.tly ever\' nei^hbt^rhfKKl eaii furnisSi a s[)itiirmiy;-wiieel, aiui a simple
*^i may t>e made or bouglit, and thus may be jy;ained a very intelligent
^iV ledge of the essentials in the great textile industries.
Tlie building matt^rials are always at hand an<l sam]>les may be
vij^ht into the scliuolrucun. If there is a stime quarry neur» visit it,
determining what it is desirable tn see: the sight <rf a brickyard,
**_ ^il^ faetoiT. or a liniekihi will be very helpful Vnjl the pruduels of
t.Vi.^se may always l>e ha«L One or more visits to a htajse in process
— *"^ction will be well. Tliere is no excuse for not knowing at least a
^f the trees that are s])e('ially valued for their hnnber. Almost
^^ neigld>orhood. prairie <jr woodlaiuly has white pine, N<uway fiine,
^^ ^"^^ oak, red oak, white elm, black waliuit. and hi<*knrv trees, and
1 1^1^
^ fundsh a very large part <if the worhFs luinl>er.
i Mn studying a few of the more important ijn>cesses in mainifut-turing,
^o see but one simple thing at a time. How is coal matle to produce
^^^^ ^rnr\*! Hnw is steam taken from a boiler to a steam cylinder au<l made
^^x^ve a jiistfUi? lluw can a belt front the drive wheel ou an engine
side to turn a line shaft in a factory? Ifnw can water I urn a wheel?
^^l^m of these* (juestions is fundamental in tlie nuinufacturing world,
^- ^ ^*ach by itself is very simple, and a htth* tibservatinii by the children
-^ ^^^T singly or in groups, after the matter luis ))een carefullv talked
tc^i
w will !ea«l to a correct answer. Visiting a large nuinufacturing
*^^ will not do it. In fact, such visits are {)f very small value to
^'"'^h or even fiftli grade children.
^^hildren can easily be led to see that each farmer spends quite an
* ^*^^ciable amounl of time hauling his snri>lus prod ue is, milk, grain,
'«^»^,
stock, to the most convenient shipping ptnnt. The amount of
di^ - ,.^^ and energy that this will require depends largely upon the eon-
^^a of the roads, and chiMreu can understand that a well-rouudej
^^^
^
^ Ihed thai has good surface drainage and a top finish of gravel or
1^^ ^*^hed stone is an economical investment of money. It is easily
^^^^^i-stood that to liaul a ton of pro<luce a mile, on even a good road.
c(»sts as irnich as it would lu sentl the ^anw material on a well^eqiiip]
railn>a(l twc^iity niile^, ur by ocean steamer two hundred nii!es, and th
on a poor road the expense in more than doubleiL so that it not nnfre
qnently happens that it costs a fanner nnre lo haid his mirphis pro<hi
five miles from his home to the nearest railway station than it doe^ t
ship it from there to a market five hundred miles away, he, in th
meantime, placidly etui tinning to tlrivc through nuul and ** chuck ^
holes day after day, putting in his spare time comjilaining of 'Miarc*'
times" and the exorbitant freight rates charged him by railroads U^^
taking his products to market. It is with the highways tliat we shouW
begin to stiuly the great jirf^lilem of transportation.
It is frequently surprising tliat children have so large a fund ti
loose observation on the transportation problem. It simply nee<ls t
be made more definite and jiut into organized form. They will ha\''^'
observed wagons very differently arranged so as to be ada]>ted to haulin
different products, as gravel, coal, hay, corn in the ear, flour, unsaek
wheat. They will have noticed railrfwl trains having cars adapt eil t-
carn^ing coal, loose grain, furniture, cattle, hogs, sheep, poyltrA% fnii^
butter, mail, passengers asleep and passengers awake, passengers th
are dining and passengers that are smoking. They may have notice
the springs under the passenger cnaches, and may know something
the use of airbrakes and automatic ciiuplings. Help the children
put this into the form of conscious knowledge by learning not only t
use of each of the tibservetl forms, but alst> to understand how each
ada[>ted to its use.
If the work here outlined is successfully done, the chililren will ha
a very fair foundation fi>r that larger knowledge which we hope to af^
them in gaining. All places referred to should be locatetl in directir
and coniparative distance from home, and the glolx^s and maps us
at every step to help in this matter Have all wall maps hung on t
north wall, and, so far as possible, maps in books placed with their to
actuallv to the nr*rth. Thr (\ttholic School JtmrnttL
The Effective Teaching of Geography. — There is, perhaps,
subject the teaching of which is more generally <listasteful than g
raphy, and few subjects which are so ineffectively taught. I say **in<
fectively" advisedly, thmigh I am, of course, quite aware that it
possible in geography to obtain nearly always fair results a.s far
examinations are eoncemed. But this fact is anything but comforti
when one reflects that it is simply due to the getting up of the text-boi^
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
183
on the part of the pupils. And I am sure I shall not be alone in main-
taining that mere lists of names and isolated facts do not constitute
geographical knowledge. True, they are indispensable adjuncts of
it, but that is all. Pupils need vivid and accurate knowledge of each
country they study, such a knowledge as will enable them in the future to
talk intelligently of other lands. The error in the teaching of geography
lies mainly, I think, in a wrong use of the text-book. The text-book,
which should be simply a correct outline of facts and a comi^endium of
data for reference, is a book for the pupil, not the teacher. The
teacher's lesson must be given on independent lines, and should be the
result of careful reading. Naturally, a power of graphic description
on the part of the teacher is of the greatest value. But a description
which is merely a monotonous reproduction of some book of travel will
fail to a certainty. Description, to succeed at all, and to make a real
impression on the pupils, must be vivid and lifelike as if the teacher
had personally visited the scenes described. Probably some will object
that this is a counsel of perfection and impossible to attain generally.
Perhaps so, but I am certain that the power can be cultivated even by
the most unimaginative teacher. And, when geography is taught in
the graphic manner I advocate, the educative value to the pupil is
^reat indeed. The pupil whose interest has been once awakened will
read up descriptions and details out of school. To take a few examples
a.t random : there are few pupils who, having once formed a picture
of the Bad Lands in the Lower Valley of the Yellowstone River, or of
t,he great canyon river, the Colorado, or of the wonderful asphalt lake
in Trinidad, will ever wholly lose the impression.
Pictures, to be pinned on the notice-board, of the places mentioned
^^re of the greatest help to the teacher. Generally speaking, the pupils
c^re very glad to bring such pictures if they happen to possess any.
I quite foresee, however, that, in the desire to be graphic and interesting,
^^x^curate detail may be overlooked. Pupils must know how to use
'fclieir maps, be trained to observe always its scale, and to give when
^*:^equired the distance from one place to another or an area, approxi-
^Kr"Kiately only, as I need scarcely add. Positions of towns, rivers, etc.,
^r^aust be known as exactly as possible, and pupils should be made to
^""^el that a slight misplacement, which means in reality some hundreds
^^^^f miles, is a serious error.
As to actual map drawing, this has to do with facility in drawing
^■^-ather than anything else. There is one thing, however, which is most
^faelpful in the teaching of geography: The pupil should be able to
^■*<5produce from memory a country or a part of a country with a fair
\
dfgret* of accuracy, aiui, above all, be able to mark town;^ and rivers
correctly. Perfect accuracy of outline is im attainable except for the
few, and should most certainly not be insisted on. And, indeed, it is
not really of great imj)ortance. Use may be matle occasiunally of
lantern-slides, but this should not become too frequent, or the geog^raphy
lessiin may come to be mgarded as amusentent and nothing more.
I have not space hi this letter to touch on the teachin*: of physical
geography at aD, for that branch is important enough to ekiim a sepa-
rate consideration. And, indeed , there i^ so much to say on the subject
of the teachint!; of geography, that 1 Viave not attempted to write com-
prehensively. I have u^erely trietl to indicate briefly the practical
lines on wliich my own teachinjc f*f the suVjjeet is based. — The School
Worhl Dcfomber. VMl.
The Eastern Shore of Virginia. — Perhaps few of the tourists on
the "Cape Charles route'' have an idea what an important strip of
our eoimtry they are rushing through, down the ** Eastern Shore " sliced
t>fT by Chesapeake Bay from the states of Maryland and Virginia,
The monotomms succession of flat, sandy fields, marshy inlets, and
unpretending railway stations hardly tempts the eye from novel and
nevvs[japer, or arouses more exciting emotions than the through pas-
senger^s nervousness as to con riect ions after the train's unaccountable
delay at some little nowhere-in-particular, or his mild amusement at
such apparent misnomers in his time-talde as '' Fruitland,*' *'Eden.'*
and **Bloomtown "; or ''Only/' whose sole visible claim to uniqueness
is its "Hotel de Fox,^' suggesting that a rival Hotel de Rabbit may be
just out of sight in the brier-patch.
The through passenger is peril aps unaware that to this sand strip
and its invading tides liis city table, whether set for him in Philadelphia
or New York, Boston, San Francisco, or say London, ha.s long been
indehled for many of its costly luxuries; fur soft-shelled cral) and caviare,
quail and ptarmigan and reed-bird, canvas-back duck ami diamond-
hack terrai)in, for early dainties of sea and shore, orciiard and garden,
too numerous to catalogue.
If our tourist have economic as well as gastronomic tastes, it may
interest him to know that this l>ackbone railroad and its branches
netting with nerve force the peninsula, have carried northward in one
year over ten thousand carloads of peaches and small fruits, as many
more being shipi>ed by boat or preserved in the canneries and evaporating
I (hints; that ten million bushels of oysters are taken yearly, giving
enq^loyment to over thirty thousand hantls: and that widle the northern
J
half of the two-hiindreU-mile strip is a fine wheat and grass growing
region, figs and pomegranates cunie to perfection at its southern extrem-
ity. To enjoy these kifuUy fruits t»f the earth and sea, six million fuu-
suniers %vait within twenty hours* distance from the lowest point of
the jieninsula. and wheel and keel bring its farmers, fniit raisers, and
fisheruieu into quick cuntact with the markets of the world. VV^-U may
this narrow sand strip be called the Land of the Epicure. — 77^* Southern
Workman f Ja^uar>^ 1904.
I
An Interesting Atmospheric Phenomenon, —Recent newspaper
announcements of an active volcano in Kentucky *M>ee<uninf!: quite
ulurniing/' etc., recall a familiar |iheni>meuon which is srunelimes most
impressive and deceptive in its appearance, ( hi January IM. a party
of geologists visited the ruice famous Pilot Knnl> in Missouri. On
nearing the surmnit, %vhich is covered with great angular rock fragHietits.
many of the cracks seemed to be emitting steam in considerable quan-
tities. The amount of vafHir was comparable to that which might
}iave risen from a half-doxen f>ans ol' water boiling vigorously in as
many different cracks. The whf>le appearance was so vividly vol-
canic as to miggest at onee the origins of most of the sensational stories
about v^olcanic eruptions in the non- volcanic States, Careful observa-
tion disclosed the following circumstances: The atmosphere was cold
and dry; the temperature of the previous niglit was close to zeiv^ F.
The observation wa.s matle at 1 o'clock p. m., while the temperature
was still t>elow the freezing point, but the sun was shining brightly, as
it hatl been doing for some hours. To some of the vertical faces uf the
rocks, snow from a recent .storm was still adhering. On these faces,
exposed to the bright sun, both melting and evaporation were active.
Convectional currents were indticed b}- the same conditions, but the
vapor upon rising was soon partially condensed in the cold surrounding
air. Current* other than vertical, among the angular blocks, caused
the %^aj>or to be ilrawn into and to issue from crevices not illuminated
by the sun, and which contained no apfiareut source of the vapor,
thus adding to the deception. Ess.^ntially similar conditions and
phenomena are conunon at f»rdtnarv le%Tls where they excite no com-
ment. They are i|oul>tlcss mure comtiion, however, on high, rocky
peaks, where the bright sunshine is qulXe as intense as on the plains
below, and the air in cahii weather may be mtich colder. Here are the
best Ciinditions for great evajioration into ati atmosphere wiiose dew
point is far too low to allow it to retain all the moisture thus supjdied.
Furthermore the conditiotis of convection on the fiillside cause an
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
187
The English Mile Compared with Other European Measures. —
:Ejiglish Stat. Milel.OOO 0.867 1.609 0.217 1.503 0.212 0.289 0.142 0.151 0.213 0.335
:^5nglishGeog.Milel.l50 1.000 1.855 0.250 1.738 0.245 0.333 0.164 0.169 0.246 0.386
JKUometer 0.621 0.540 1.000 0.135 0.937 0.132 0.180 0.088 0.094 0.133 0.208
<3erman Geog. Ml.4.610 4.000 7.420 1.000 6.953 0.978 1.333 0.657 0.694 0.9851.543
Xlussian Veret . . .0.663 0.575 1.067 0.144 1.000 0.141 0.192 0.094 0.100 0.142 0.222
>\ustrian Mile ...4.714 4.089 7.586 1.022 7.112 1.000 1.363 0.672 0.7101.006 1.578
Dutch Ure 3.458 3.000 5.565 0.750 5.215 0.734 1.000 0.493 0.520 0.738 1.157
IV'orwegian Mile. .7.021 6.091 11. '299 1.523 10.589 1.489 2.035 1.000 1.057 1.499 2.350
Swedish MUe . . . .6.644 5.764 10.692 1.441 10.019 1.409 1.921 0.948 1.000 1.419 2.224
X>anish Mile 4.682 4.062 7.536 1.016 7.078 0.994 1.354 0.667 0.705 1.000 1.567
Swiss Stunde. . . . 2.987 2.592 4.808 0.648 4.505 0.634 0.864 0.425 0.449 0.638 1.000
Decisions of the U. S. Board on Geographic Names; Approved
January 6, 1904. —
Allegrippis; ridge in Huntingdon County, Pa. (Not Allegrippes nor
Allegripus.)
IBeckley; pond in town of Norfolk, Litchfield County, Conn. (Not
Blakley nor Blakeley.)
Brannock; bay, Dorchester County, Md. (Not Bronnack, Brannack,
nor Brannocks.)
Bundcin; island, Hingham Bay, town of Hull, Plymouth County, Mass.
(Not Bumpkin.)
Celoron; P. O. and R. R. station, Chautauqua County, N. Y. (Not
Celeron.)
Cienega del Gabilan; land grant, San Benito County, Cal. (Not
Sienega del Gabilan.)
Dorseys; creek on north side of Annapolis, Anne Arundel County, Md.
(Not Graveyard, Dorsey, nor College.)
Highland; lake in town of Winchester, Litchfield County, Conn. (Not
Long.)
Inchwagh; lake in Livingston County, Mich. (Not Nitchwage nor
Michuaga.)
Lemon Fair; river, Addison County, \i. (Not Lemonfair nor Lemon-
fare.)
Morgan River; stream in Barkhampst<?d, Litchfield County, Conn.
(Not Mohawk Brook.)
Rocky Mount; P. ()., town, and township in Edgecombe County, and
town and township in Nash County, N. C. (Not Rockymount.)
Rosbys Rock; P. O. and R. R. station, Marshall County, W. Ya. (Not
Rosbysrock nor Rosbbys Rock.)
1 88
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
April
SoUers; R. K. station, and point in Patapsco River, Baltimore County,
Mil. (Not Sollars nor Soller.)
Spa; creek on south side of Annapolis, Anne Annidel County, Md.
(Not Spaw nor Spat.)
Starvout; P. O., settlement, and creek, Douglas County, Oregon. (Not
Starveout nor Starve Out.)
From Paris to Peking by Rail. — According to the Boersen Courier,
a nuvting was nn-ently held in \'ienna to arrange for direct ser^'ice
Ix^tweiMi Western Eurojx^ and Peking. China. The meeting was
attemled by repn\sentatives of Russian. English. French, Bulgarian,
Dutch, and Oerman railnnuls. It was decided to run a train de luxe
(nm\ Lomlon and Paris via Berlin and Warsaw to the Chinese capital,
beginning May. IIHU. The Russian Oovernment will arrange to sini-
pHfy passport and customs n\siulations t\>r through passengers to min-
imize delays anil formalities. It is the pur^x^se of those participating
in this movement to make it possible for pass^Migers to book in London
or Paris to China without change. Another interesting item connected
with the arnuigoments is the issuing of a nnmd-trip ticket, first class,
for $204. which permits the tniveler to make the trip both ways by
rail or one way by niil and the other by water. The trip by rail is to
Ix^ maile in seventtvu ilays. The tickets an^ to Ix^ juhhI on the ships of
all companies voyairini: arv»i;i\d A>ia. anvl ivrmissiou is to be granteil
to stop otY at any iHMt at whicb. rho --iup calls, with the privilege of
taking another ship. ( .>»i,v...\!'* fx- :^-:<. Jai.v.ary. \\H^A.
Snow Crystals. Sr.vnv iTy>:a;s an^ viiv: it\i into two great classes
tluv^^ coiiimiunr ir. for:u ar.d tl.oM^ v^: a tai^r.Iar form. The forms varv
avvoTXii!!:: to :!:o wi'.ui. ::.o hei;
amou!\: v>: water i:: tl.o air. o:
^:" tl.e cl-n; i<, the degnx* of cold, the
Cry<:aN :" "riiuxi in cold weather or
ar or - *.: i ta'^v.lar. Those fonned
in r.uvionr.t^ woa:':.ev ar.vi 1:^1. : \v.::.-< or i:. !.>w c:o-.;ds are apt to have
>o V : :i tVa*-' er\ :yv< M:\t>«: forms grow partly
frail br^it^oV.o^ :r.
0^^^
EDITORIAL 189
^^^ low and partly in high clouds. High winds are given broken and
^^"■"e^gular forms, and much moisture the very granular crystals.
The most common forms outlined within the nuclear or central
T>ositions of the crystals are a simple star of six rays, a solid hexagon,
^^'^d a circle.
EDITORIAL
^S GEOGRAPHY RECEIVING SUFFICIENT ATTENTION IN ELEMENTARY
SCHOOLS ?
THE progress of the last decade in elementary school geography
work, evidenced as it is by better methods of presentation,
improved texts, more logical courses of study, more inquiring
'^^achers, and an enlivened public opinion, is encouraging and most
X^leasing. Is it not possible, however, that in our satisfaction at progress,
^Xe have neglected one important element, namely, the time schedule in
^ he curriculum?
How can thought work be developed and discipline given, even under
ti.he most favorable conditions of equipment, unless there is adequate
^-ime for such work ? Memoriter work may be secured through cramming,
V:)ut the emphasis of the '^causal notion" rightfully decreases, though
i t does not and should not eliminate, memoriter work. Here is the
tiheoretical difference between the old and the new.
In fact, however, the new in many cases is, and under the circum-
s^tances must be, memoriter work, because the time allowance for
** covering '' a certain ground permits of no other result. What training,
for instance, can come from 120 minutes devoted to the following series
of topics proposed for sixth grade work?
Northern Africa. Under control of various nations. Political divi-
sions. Sahara — French; small section Spanish; area; surface; means
of travel.
Egypt (and neighboring British territory). The Nile; its impor-
tance; agriculture. People; progress due to British direction. Suez
Canal; agreement among nations concerning it. Cities.
The Barbary States. Location — climate; products; capitals. Trip-
oli (Turkish), Tunis and Algeria (French), Morocco (independent).
Conditions in Morocco with regard to progress.
Southern Africa. Comparison with Northern Africa. Dutch settle-
ment at Cape Colony. Emigration to Transvaal and Orange Free State ;
I go
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
April
I
discovery of gold; Hovr war; result. Industries, pnxluct^j, climate.
Mineral wealth (diamonds). Commerce and cities. I'nrtiignese and
German possessions, Comimre Southern Africa with Southern South
America in products and inipnrtauce.
Not unly is there a tt-ndency to cruwd individual grades, but the
total amount of time devoted to i:;en^rai»hy in the elementar}^ schools
as a whole is often gn^sslv, mie nnglit suy grotes(|uely, inadetiuate.
In the cfnii-se of study adopter! for Greater New York last year,
English, History, Matiiematics, and Gen^rat>hy together are given less
than one-half (»f the total school time in the eight gra<les. Geograjihy
receives less tlian 4 ]>er cent of the total weekly time scale and has five
mitmtes nn^re time a week than has histi^ry. The work of geography
is concentiiited in the fuurth, fifth, sixth, and seventh graiies, though
it shoulrl he noteil that there is a ver\^ small amount of geographical
nature sttnly in the second and third gnuies,
Sueh a condition of affairs in refeiTUce Xo a sidiject which has long
been and still is one of the four fimdamental subjects in the cnrriculiuu
is undouhtedly an extrenu^ eiise. It is not, however, so extreme as to
be particularly individual, ami herein lies the danger. We are so accus-
tomed to seeing the newer subjects almost replacing the old that we are
not surprised at ativ allot nuMit of time. We ([uietly ac([iiiesce and
accept what we do not approve, jierhaps unc<msciously taking comfort
in the thought that the pendulum must turn back in its course before
long, and that there are better times conung.
Surely ph\^sical training, miture study, including elementarv science,
hand-work, and music, have a right in a place in the curriculum, and
have ]>roved their extreme value as factors in elenifutaty education.
It is obvious that tf> introduce the new nuist mean a reduction of the
time to be giveti to the old. Have we gone too far in this reduction?
Has any one of these subjects as yet proved its right to have more time
thjin either history or gecjgraphy? Are our cnrrirula synnnetrieal or
lopsided? Are we sacrificing the essential h>r the relatively less valu-
able? Does geography deserve more or less time tlian it now receives?
W^e think it deserves m<n*e,antl believe Ihat if the geography specialists
are as insistent in their demands as are the st>ecialists in the newer sul>-
jects, geography will hold its own from now <m and jjerhaps regain some
of its lost prestige. J.et us work toward this end, not in the interests of
the subject, but pritnaiily l^ecause we believe that geography has proved
its vahie and that the best interests of the children in our schools require
more and belter geography.
tC^cmmercial Geography. By Jacques \\\ Uedway. Size, 6x3f inches.
^'Mii ^^jui 406. Clias, Scribner's Sons, New York, 1903.
^^eclway*9 Comtnercial Geogrnphy is the latest addition to the rapidly growing
»*^* of r^ommercial gt^ographies written hy well-known Arneriean authors.
T^Ji^ -iohuiie before lis contains thirty -four c'h:i]>ters. It is, like most of the
»ll3- published texts on coiinnerrial geography, mpable of divij^ion into four
There is, first, a general diiicuasion of eonmierce of 87 pages, next a desorip-
<^f the commodities of trade covering 122 pagcjs, iheti an at'ronnt of the
REVIEWS
ixmd
-les of the rnited States of 51 pages, und finally a review of tin? produt^tive
*"^^^^ mries of the remainder of the world covering i:i7 priges.
j^j ^r*X:i.^. first- seven chapters embra-fe iislroduclory elements on t:onnnerce, a brief
^ ^-^ *■">?" of eonmieree, a diBcusftion of the topographic and climatic control of com-
£^^^ ^^^ ^ a description of the means of transportation » and an enumeration of the
^1^^ '^^^M^^ goveniing the location of citiei*. All of these chapters are well done except
^^ *^^**^t, entitled "Genend Principles/^ which, to the rtnicwer^s mind, is too simple
j^. '^^^i:*© indefinite. The chi^HsiHcation of industries adopted here does not include
-•^».^^ cQUiiijon indnstrie8 later mentioned and distinctions are not jdwavs clearly
**- The climatic and topographic control of connnerco is well discussed, as
Ijso ocean and inland navigation and tranj^jKirtalion by rail. The chapter on
■^^^^^^ in the location of eiiies and towns is interesting, but not sufficiently
^^^ive. All our American commercial geographies have thus far failed to give the
^.^^ X>^T emphasis to the principle's of economics necessary to an understanding of coni-
**^^i»l geography. For instance, Btune idea of the function of a market and of the
c>nwof urban conditions through tiic application of the principle of production
,^^^ **► large scale might have prefaced the dJ.'^cussion of the general relation of cities
* ^^dustrial society to elucidate the 8nbje<'t; and, in the further development of
» ^He complex way in which conimerciaJ forces enforce physical conditions* and
^Ulate the frc^fttienfe and distribution of cities might have been attempted,
■-*t>lying, for example, the principles of railway transportation so coin|>{ictly stated
^^*^ Pages m, 70, and 7L
Tlie description of the tnimmodities of trade occypie* nine chapters, and is, as
**tjle, well done. This is a kind of material which it is hard to present except in a
^^logue fonn, and which yet mu><t be &o iirninged and treated that the vital
^lations in trade may be constantly brought out. To give too much is to make the
^^t mouotonons ; to give too little is to make it iji valuable. Between these
^ -^tremes is the happy mean :is to (juantity which the author has very closely
**^r>pr^jached.
The remainder of the l>ook i.^ devoted to the regional commercial geography oi
*^€ vrorld. The reviewer do^-a not believe that progress in an understanding of the
r*»iueip!es of commercial geography, nor effective coordination in the science can
^ brought about by such a representation of the facts of the subject. As yet,
iowever.few authors in this field have succeetleil in departing fur from this regional
'"^eatnient, inherited from the elementary school texts of to-tlay, and pa^sscd down
^^* tiicni from the "grammars" of nearly two centuries ago.
The aiubor hus presented his fat'ts with a gcKid distribution of spafc.so timl th«
relative iiiiporlaiire of fomgri counlries is imiirated l»y the attention thev reitive
The Ixjok is typographirally pipjisiiig, and is well printeiL It has in any features
whirh make it s^wni les5 forhiiiding than f^oinc l)ooks on the same .^snhjert. It is H
rival and not a hU|XTior to its colleajeuea in the held of romniercial geography, nnd
hen re does not represent the f>iogrfBi? that every new t)0€k in any field shoulcl
mark. E. D, J.
NEWS NOTES
All interested arc' reminded again that suggjesticms for the Etliiea-j
tional Proo:ram n( tiie Eighth Internationa! (Seograpliic Congress should
be sent to the senior editor of the Joiknal at the earhest possible date
Prof, D. C. Ridgleyj fornterly jinneipal of a grammar sehool in
Chicago, has )>eon irjade head of the Department of Cieography at the
Illinois State Normal University. Normal. 111. Professor Ridgley goes
to his new jiosition tuialified lx)th by training and experienee to placi
tfie work of geography on a high plotie.
Educational Papers of the International Congress of Geog;'
raphy. — The < )etober and Novend)er ntimljers of the Jouhnal o]
(iKototAPlty will eontain the most important papers on Kdiieational
Gec>graphy to be read before the International Congress of Geography
to he held in Washington, 1>. i\, HK)4. f]
Mr. Robert M. Brown, formerly instruetcjr in physiography at the?
High SehooL New Hedford. Mass., has l^een appointed as instruetor i
geography at the Normal Schord, Wnreester^ Mass, Mr. Browm wi
be known to the readers of the Journai. as an author of several vahiabli
papers. Other |mpers of a similar nattire may be expeete<l from bt
in the near future.
The Sea of Azov, — The daily papers reporteil in the middle o|
December that the Sea of Azov hail snchlenly receded, exposing th6
bed for several miles oil shore. \'essels were left high and dr)' anc
the sand was thrown ashore, eattsing great (ianiage. The shore of the
sea has very gentle slof>es, and thus a slight depression of the sea floon
or a strong wind whieh r*nuld hr^ld the water back woidd cause a large
area to be exposed, Tfie greatest reeessiou wns reported from Tagan-
rog, one of the important ports of the Russian Empire, because i
proximity to the wheat fiehls.
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This
Ihre is a iist of nr/hhs f/iaf rt/v so&n t& appear in THE
JO URN J L OF GEOGRA PH J '. Wtii these help y.nf m ike
^e&j^raphkaf li^ork of jtmr cluis/
The FuDctions Df Geography in the Elementary SchooL
Geography in the United States.
The Delta of the Mississippi River,
A Noteworthy Cave in the Coastal Plain of Georgia,
Weather Lore,
The Scope and Coatent of Geog-raphy, Two articles.
Map Drawing,
Studying the 5un| Moon, and Stars.
Transportation. A series <A articles.
River Study,
Geographical Education.
The Geography of the Louisiana Purchase. A series of
ten artides.
Practical Exercises in Physiography,
The Geography and History of Chattanooga and Vicinity,
Geography in the Civil War.
The Conduct of Excursions in Elementary Geography
Work.
The Growth of Wheat in the United States.
The Geography of the Fall Line,
Geographic Influences of Government.
Anthropogeography,
Mathematical Geography. A scries.
Geographical Course of Study In the Following Normal
Schools:
Terre Haute, Indiana.
Los Angeles^ California,
OswegOj New York,
Westfield^ Massachusetts.
Stii^^i f tf'f fi*r this Jour rtai. ^ttj jr^t ///*' uiif t*f fhtse artkltrs.
JviHriiiii of Gieifjrrj/^/ty to y^mr t^iickin,^ friends.
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THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
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Hi^re IS if iisf vf artieies that arc soon io appear in THE
J O CRN A LOF GKOGRA Pii \ \ t Viii these help yon in ihe
j[eo^raphktti u*ork of your c/tiss /
The Functions of Geog:raphy in the Eletnentarj School,
Geography in the United States.
The Delta of the Mississippi River.
A Noteworthy Cave in the Coastal Plain of Georgia.
Weather Lore,
The Scope and Content of Geography. Two articles^
Map Drawing,
Studying the Sun, Moon, and Stara.
Transportation* A series of articles^
River Study.
Geographical Education.
The Geography of the Louisiana Purchase. A Rcries of
Practical Exercises in Physiography,
The Geography and History of Chattanooga and Vicinity.
Geography in the Civil War.
The Conduct of Excursions in Elementary Geography
Work,
The Growth of Wheat in the United States,
The Geography of the Fall Line.
Geographic Influences of Government,
A nt h ropo geo gra p hy ,
Mathematical Geography, A series.
Geographical Course of Study in the Following Normal
Schools :
Terre Haute, Indiana.
Los Angeles, CaHfornia.
OswegOt New York.
Westfield, Massachusetts.
Sahsu* tf>i' fi*r ihis JtmrHtiL iind j^et tit*- ustr i'f /hrse aritcles.
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The D«ltJi of tlu^ Misdsslftpd FRAKCIS E. LLOYD J04
ht Motioos oi iHe Earth -Pan n FOREST R. MOUITON 213
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1900 CENSUS COMPLETC
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Home Geography an
World Relations
By RICHARD ELWOOD DODGE
Pro/esser of G^jp^apJht, Tea.
-J Vnhtrnty^t Am* York Ci/y,
fkor 0/ '*A Reader tm
Beiog Bf»ok I. of DODGES GEOGRAPHY BY GRADES.
Published March i* 19114,
Illustrated with roo half- tone illustrations, 6 text m^tps, 8 diagrams, and 7
maps in colors. Cloth, square 8 vo. (S x u> inches), pp. 71 + V. S5 cents*
TO FOLLOW
BooXf If* Elements of Continental Ceographp (nearly frndy) • 55c,
%ook III, Principles of Geography 06c,
fiooJt/F. Comparatit^e Geographic of the Continents . , (fQc,
RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY. Chicago mnd New York
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peak in the distance.
AN iLLLSrk\UoN \ kMii ' iit'MH < Lut ,RAl H V * To ILLL'STRATE THE SLRFACE OF THE LAXQ
PUBLISHED MARCH 1, 1904
Dodge's
B^lementary Geography
By RICHARD ELWOOD DODGE
Pr&fe4S&r ef Gi^j^riipky^ Teaiihtr^ ColU^^, Volumbia f/ttfersi/y^ Aeu> i'ork City ;
i^e-editijr &/ ih^ J^Hrnai &/ G^tij^rtiphy : saifior ^f'-'-A Reader in
Pftyficai Ct&^rmp/ty f^r Btg-mHers^" eic.
Consisting of
Vart I
Home Geography
Showing tbe relation of the individual pupil to )i\^ own countrj'', empha-
sising thereby the interdependence of people com-
mercially and industrially ; and
Vart II
World Relations and the Continents
Treating of those factors ueLussary to an undei'Standing of the pupil's
relation to the world as a whole.
Wi'ik jiS iliu si rations in hnif-iotte^s ditigrams, lo Uxi maps^
trfni 4ji maps in to/tfrs.
Ci&tA^ square St'ck iS.t lo inchis), ^j/ p^t^i^s. 75 centj,
RE.ADY SOON
DODGE'S ADVANCED GEOGRATHY
Before adopting old bfxiks SICIC THESE which are up to -date.
RAND, McNALLY & COMPANY
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Fiii, 113, A i:apt\ peninsula^ and isthmus. This is a characierisiic M i*/
AVi£/ Eft gland shur^.
AN ILLUSTRATION FROM "ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY."
Geography is the exact
and organized knowl-
edge of the distribiition
of phenomena on the
surface of the earth, cul-
minating in the inter-
action of 7nan with his
teri'esti'ial environment
HUCni ROBERT MILL
1
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. MAY, 1904 No. 5
SUMMER COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY
THE announcements of summer courses for 1904 sent out by our
leading universities and normal schools contain the welcome
evidence that geography will again receive, as it did last year,
^ very generous allowance of time and attention. This is especially
"true at the University of Chicago and at Columbia University, where
xmusually attractive opportunities for geographical studies and investi-
gations will be offered, and at Cornell University, where last year's
successful summer school of geography will be repeated under still
more favorable conditions by the same strong corps of well-known
instructors and geographers. So many and such valuable courses are
announced by the«e and other educational institutions that every
«tudent and teacher of geography will be able to find interesting and
profitable work in his chosen field. It is believed that many readers
of the Journal are planning to do such work this summer, and it is
for their convenience that the Editors have prepared the following
brief summary of the principal courses in geography and allied subjects.
COURSES IN GENERAL GEOGRAPHY
The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. The Principles of Geog-
raphy. Mr. L. H. Wood.
A study of the general principles underlying the distribution of
man and the development of human culture, and a special study of
type regions on the basis of the principles developed. June IS-July 27.
Columbia University, New York City. General Geography, Miss
Clara B. ICirchwey.
This course is especially planned for teachers of nature study and
geography in elementary schools, and covers the most difficult topics
ordinarily presented in the introduction to a school geography. Lec-
tures, laboratory work, and collateral reading. Sixty hours. July 6-
August 17.
Copyright y tgo4^ by E. M. Lehnerts
194 '^"^ JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. General Geography. Mr.
Henry T. Burr, assisted by Mr. Frederick M. Wilder.
A course designed primarily for teachers of geography in grammar
and high schools. The subjects treated in the lectures and illustrated
in the laborator>' and field work will include: Physical features of the
lands; classification of land fomis; the earth as a globe; meteorology;
oceanography; geographical controls of the distribution of plants
and animals; and geographical factors in the histor>' of man. July 5-
August 12.
Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa. General Geography, Pro-
fessor E. M. Lehnerts.
A course planned for stutlents and teachers desiring to review the
general principles and facts of geography: (1) The fundamental facts
and principles of mathematical and physical geography and their relation
to the distribution of life and the industries of man; (2) a detailed
study of the western hemisphere, with special emphasis on the geog-
raphy of the United States; (3) the continents and countries of
the eastern hemisphere and their conmiercial relations with the Unit^
States. Lectures, recitations, and laboratory work. June 20-
July 29.
The School of Education, The University of Chicago, Chicago,
111. Fundamental Corieepts in Geography. Associate Professor Zonia
Bab?:r.
Topography; development of topogra])hic forms. Climate; elements
which make climate. Life; relation to climate and topography.
People; relation to geographic controls. June IH-July 27.
State Normal Collkcjk, V])sihinti, Mich. General Geography.
Mr. Isaiah Bowman.
A course of lectures on the continents, with references for reading.
The lectures will give an account of the physical and climatic features
now regarded as most evi(l(»ntly governing human occupation of the
different ])ortions of the eartli, the more im])ortant political divisions
and tlieir re hit ion to the physical geograpliy, and the commercial and
historic or social points of contact with our own national hfe. Four
hours a week. June 27 August 5.
Xohthiohn Illinois Stati: Normal School. DeKalb, III. General
Geogra])hy. .Miss Marion Wellek.
A course in general geogra])hy from the teacher's point of view.
Home g<'ography; the earth as a whole; air and water; selected tyi>e
.studies. Junr 20 .////// 21).
SUMMER COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY I 95
MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY
The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Elementary Mathe-
matical Geography. Assistant Professor Kurt Laves.
The form of the earth and its size; how to constnict a map of a
given area of the earth's surface; the rotation of the earth; the
earth a member of the solar system; the seasons; climatic coniUtions;
the tides. July 2S-Septemher 2.
geography of the land
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Physical Geography of the
ZAinds. Professor Ralph S. Tarr.
A course in modern physical geography or physiography of the
lands, with special stress placed upon the questions relating to the
origin and life histor}' of land forms and their influences on man. Four
hours a week. July 7- August 19.
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Physiography. Mr.
S. H. Ball.
The course is designed for teachers and students desiring to take
work in physical geography and dynamical geology. Lectures and
excursions. June 27-August 5.
Columbia University. General Geology. Professor CIraijau and
Miss Maury.
A course in the elementary principles of geology from the physical
point of view. The development of topographic forms; their relation
to life; the making of geologic sections; reading and interpreting
topographic maps and models; half-day excursions in the vicinity of
New York. July 6- August 17.
The University of Chica(jo, Chicago, III. Two courses:
Physiography. Professor R. D. Salisbury.
The earth's features, treated with special reference to th(»ir origin
and significance. Genetic geography. Tlic course will hav(» special
reference to North America. Jiine IH-July 27.
Research Course in Physical Geography. Professor R. 1). Sallshuhv.
Topics will be arranged with students individually, on conference
with the instructor.
Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. The Develop-
ment of Land Forms y with daily field and laboratory work. Professor
Charles R. Dryer. June 27-August 5.
Drake University, l)es Moines, Iowa. Physical Geography. Pro-
fessor E. M. Lehnerts.
196 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY May
Land forms, and the agents and processes which have produced
them; the atmosphere and the ocean; scientific weather forecasting;
principles underlying the distribution of plant and animal life; the
influence of the physical environment of man. Library reading?,
recitations, and laboratory work are supplemented by a study of the
geology and physiography of Des Moines and its vicinity. Five hours
a week. June 20- July 29.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Meteorology.
Professor Charles R. Dryer.
A study of the atmosphere, weather, and climate, with daily labora-
tory work and instrumental observations. June 21-August 5.
Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb, 111. Meteor-
ology. Professor F. L. Charles.
A course in elementar}'^ science, with special reference to weather
phenomena. Recording of local data ; forecasting ; laboratory work
and recitations. June 20-JuIy 29.
The ITniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Elementary Meteor-
ology and Oeeonography. Mr. H. H. Barrow^s.
An outline course for teachers of physical geography and physiog-
raphy. July 2H-Sepiember 2.
Cornell rNivEusiTY, Ithaca, N. Y. Elementary Meteorology.
i\Ir. Frank Carney.
The o})ject of this course is to offer enough information to render
the subject of inetoorologj' and climatology more practical to teachers.
Lectures (with slides), recitations, and assigned readings. July 7-
August 19.
For a laboratory course in meteorology consult the courses men-
tioned in this paper under the heading Field and Laboratory Courses.
(IKOfJHAPHY OF plants AND ANIMALS
The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Four courses:
Elementary Eeology. Dr. Cowles and Mr. Howe.
Plants in relation to their environment. Field work, laboratory
work, assigned readings, and lectures. First term, June IS-July 27
Physiographie Eeology. Dr. Henry C. Cowles.
Origin, develoj)nieiit, and death of the various plant associations,
especially such as are found in the United States and Canada. Second
term, Jxdy 2S-Scptemher 2.
Researeh in Eeology. Dr. Cowles.
1904 SUMMER COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY 1 97
This course requires special training in ecology, and in related
lines of study, especially geology and plant physiology.
Field Zoology, Dr. C. M. Child.
A study of the fauna of the region about Chicago, with special
reference to the relations between animals and their environment.
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Three courses:
Commercial Geography. Mr. Philip Emerson.
A study of important topics in commercial geography, with special
relation to the position held by the United States in the commercial
struggle of the present time. The history of commerce and industry;
the physical controls of commerce; the great commercial staples and
the development of allied interests; the commerce and industries of
the United States and the leading commercial nations and regions.
July 7-August 19.
Geographic Influences and Relations. Mr. R. H. Whitbeck.
lectures and discussions designed to show the influence of physio-
graphic and climatic conditions upon human activities: The influence
of soil, coast line, mountains and valleys, plains and plateaus, gaps
and passes, winds, rainfall, ocean currents, altitude and latitude,
navigable inland waters; geographical causes leading to the location
and growth of cities, the location and migration* of industries, the
establishment of transportation routes, and the prosperity of states
and regions; man's reaction upon his environment, and his conquest
of natural obstacles. Jidy 7-August 19.
University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Economic and Commercial
Geography. Assistant Professor N. A. Weston.
A study of the effects of geographical conditions on economic and
commercial life. The physical features, resources, domestic and
foreign trade, trade routes, transportation facilities, and industrial
characteristics of the population of the United States and the leading
foreign countries. June 13-Aiigust 12.
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Commercial Geography.
Dr. C. A. Herrick.
A course of lectures, supplemented by class recitations, practical
demonstration of methods, and excursions. A general outline of the
subject with enough discussion and demonstration of methods to
prepare teachers for work in secondary schools. July 5-Augu^t 12.
The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Commercial Geography
for Teachers. Assistant Professor H. R. Hatfield.
19^ THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
The scope and methfxl of commercial geography, its bibliography,
text-books, and original sources. Special topics will ])e invest igateil.
June l^September 2.
For laboratorj' work in commercial geography consult courses
outlined below.
FIELD AND LABORATORY COURSES
Cornell University, Ithaca, X. Y. Nine courses:
Laboratory Course in Physical Geography, Mr. Carney and
Mr. Hubbard.
A practical course to illustrate the methods and materials available
for laboraton- and field work in high schools. Attention is given to
the possibilities open to the teacher in schools having limited laboratory-
equipment. Where desired by a teacher, personal suggestions will be
made regarding the local field work he may cany' on with his classes.
July 1-August 19.
Field Course in Physical Geography. Professor Tarr, Assistant
Principal Carn?:y, Mr. Whitb?:ck, and Mr. Hubbard.
One afternoon each week is devoted to the study of physiographic
phenomena in the field, and two days at the end of the week are given
to all-day excursioiLs. An excursion to Niagara is also offered in con-
nection with this course, but attendance upon it is voluntar}'. An
excursion to the anthracite coal fields is also open to students in this
class. July 7-August 19.
Laboratory Course in Meteorology. Assistant Principal Carney.
A course planned for both grammar and high-school teachers.
Some of the topics considered, discussed, and illustrated are: Non-
instnimental observations — when to begin and over how long a period
to continue the most simple observations; record-tables and methods
of using them; instrumental o])servati()ns — tabulation of records.,
averages; use of weather maps; filing of these maps and of newspaper
clippings of notable meteorological phenomena; the equipment of a
meteorological la])orator}'. July 1-August 19.
Laboratory Course in Geology. Mr. F. V. Emerson.
A course intended to furnish an opportunity for the study of such
geological phenomena as are capable of illustration by specimens,
maps, and models. July 1-August 19.
Field Course in Geology. Professor A. P. Brigham, Mr. F. Carney,
Mr. F. V. Emerson, and Mr. G. D. Hubbard.
One afternoon each week and two Saturdays are devoted to excur-
sions in the neighborhood of Ithaca. A voluntary excursion to the
SUMMER COURSES IX GEOGRAPHY 1 99
anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania is offered. Students of this
course are also permitted to go on the Niagara excursion. July 7-
Aiigust 19.
Laboratory and Field Work in Commercial Geography, Mr. Philip
Emerson.
Methods of teaching commercial geography and of studying com-
merce and industr}*: (a) In the factories and mills of Ithaca and
vicinity; (6) in the laborator>^ by means of selected specimens, photo-
graphs, statistics, Government reports, and other material in print,
and by the making of illustrative maps, charts, and diagrams; (c) in
the conservator}' and garden and on the farm. July 7-August 19.
Advanced Course in Dynamic Geology and Physic<il Geography.
Professors Tarr and Brigham, with assistants.
Advanced field and laboratory' work under the supervision of the
instructors. The work will vary with the needs of the individual
students. July 1- August 19.
Five-day Field Excursion. Professor R. S. Tarr.
An excursion by rail, steamboat, and wagon, with frequent stops
at points of interest. Its object is to study a large area, interpreting
the phenomena observed, and noting the influence of physiography
on the industries. The estimated expense is $40.00. All who desire
to go are expected to notify Professor Tarr before June 1st.
The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Four courses:
Field Geology. Dr. W. W. Atwood (first term) and Mr. R. T.
Chamberlin (second term).
Training in stratigraphic, glacial, and other field determinations,
together with mapping, sketching, and technical description. The
field is the vicinity of the Dells of the St. Croix, Minnesota-Wisconsin.
Field Geology. Professor Salisbury and Dr. Atwood.
Advanced field work, involving the systematic investigation of a
formation or an area. The fields for 1904 will be in the West, or in
Wisconsin. Dr. At wood's party will spend the month of September
in the vicinity of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. Other parties,
doing more special work, will study the former glaciation of selected
mountain regions in the W^est, or in Eastern Wisconsin. Second term,
July 2S-September 2.
FiM Geology. Professors T. C. Chamberlin, Salisbury, Iddings,
and Assistant Professor Weller.
Thorough and systematic work in close conformity to official stand-
ards, and, as nearly as possible, individual and independent. The
course may form the basis for a doctor's thesis.
Field and Laboratory Course in Geology. Mr. L. H. Wood.
2CXD THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
The geography and geologj'^ of Chicago and its vicinity, studied
in the field and from relief, topographic, and geologic maps. The
course will include two field trips and three laboratory' exercises weekly.
For teachers and for those who wish to leani methods of field work.
First term, June IH-July 27.
Map Study. Mr. H. H. Barrows.
An advanced course in the interpretation of topographic and
geologic maps. P^specially for teachers who wish to introduce labora-
tory methods into physiographic and geologic work. July 2S~Septem-
her 2.
Physiographic Drawing, Chalk Modelimj. Mr. Georg Thorne-
Thomsen.
The primary purpose of this course is to give students of physiog-
raphy ability to sketch topographic forms on the blackboard. June
IS-July 27.*
The School of Education, The University of Chicago, Chicago,
111. Field Geography. Associate Professor Zonia Barer.
The class will visit Northern Illinois and Southern Wisconsin; thence
by the way of St. Paul and the Mississippi River to St. Louis, where
a week will be devoted to a study of the geographic exhibits of the
World's Fair. Stops will be made at points of special topographic,
geologic, or industrial interest. July 2S-Septemher 2.
University of Missouri, Columbia. Mo. Physiography. Pro-
fessor C. F. Marhut.
A course of study in the principles of physiography, taken up from
the point of view of the noe<ls of the high-school teacher. Laboratory
work, field work, and occasional lectures and conferences.
University of Wisconsin. Madison, Wis. Field Geology. Mr.
S. H. Ball.
Students work in parties of two. an<l an area near Madison is assigned
to each party. Each student makes his own topographic map and,
with this as a base, prepares a geological map and a written report of
his area. June 27-August 5.
(iEO(;RAPIIY OF continents AND COUNTRIES
CoLUMiUA University, New York City. Geography of Xorth
America. Professor R. K. D(>i)(;e.
This course will ])e devoted to a topical outline of the geography of
Xorth America, which will ])e treated in such a way as to bring out
the causal relation existing between the physical and hfe conditions.
»^o4 SUMMER COURSES IN GEOGRAPHV 20I
The needs of teachers in the intermediate and upper grammar grades
"will be constantly kept in mind, and the endeavor will be to show through
^lie study of North America how each of the continents may be treated
in school work. The lectures will be illustrated by maps, models, and
jDhotographs. Training will also be given in the use of reference books,
^nd in the organization of subject-matter by ijieans of special papers
on selected topics to be prepared outside of the classroom and submitted
f"or criticism. July %- August 17.
The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Economic Geography
o/ North America. Assistant Professor Goodk or Mr. Wood.
A study of the natural resources of the continent as factors in its
economic development. The geologic structure, the physiography,
»nd the climate, treated as factors determining or affecting the location
«ind utilization of mineral resources, arable and grazing lands, forests,
^tc. The influence of these various resources on the settlement and
development of the continent. July 2S-Septemher 2.
The School of Education, The Univkksity of Chicago, Chicago,
311. Continental Study: North America as a Type Continent. Associate
Professor Baber.
Effect of the geography of North America upon the development
of its civilization. Means of study. Methods of teaching. Map
drawing and sand modeling. June IS-July 27.
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Three courses:
The Geography of the United States. Professor A. P. Brigham.
A summary study is given of the evolution of the North American
continent. The lectures are then mainly devoted to the several physio-
graphic regions of the United States. The origin of the land forms is
explained, and especial attention is given to the control exercised by
geographic conditions upon the colonization, social life, commerce, and
military history of the United States. Under the last head, military
.movements in the Revolution and selected campaigns of the Civil War
will be studied. Forestry and forest reserves, the arid lands and irriga-
tion, and the development of lines of travel and communication are
among the topics treated. July 7 -August 19.
The Geography of Europe. Professor R. S. Tarr.
A consideration of the physiographic features of Europe and their
influence upon the history and industrial development of the several
nations. The principal sub-topics are: (1) Physiography of the conti-
nent and its development; (2) climatic conditions; (3) natural
resources; (4) influence of these various physiographic features upon
202 THIS JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
race characteristics, early movements of people, development of navi-
gation, modern national development, and location of leading cities,
both in the past and present. Fully illustrated with lantern slides and
maps. July 1 -August 19.
The Geography of Tropical Countries. Mr. G. D. Hubbard.
This course is designed to meet the demand for a better knowledge
of tropical lands, a demand made by their growing importance, as
markets and sources of raw materials, in the industrial development of
temperate lands. July 7-August 19.
Indiana State Normal School, Terre Haute, Ind. Geography
of the United States, Physical and Political y with map drawing on mathe-
matical projections. Professor Charles R. Dryer. June 21-August 5.
SPECIAL METHODS IX GEOGRAPHY
Columbia University, X(»w York City. The Teaching of Geography.
Professor Dodcje and Miss Kirchw^ey.
This course will be devoted to a consideration of the course of
study in geography for elementary schools, and to the general principles
underlying good geography teaching. The lectures will consider the
following topics: The scope of geography in elementarj' schools; the
present status of geography in elementary schools; the pomt of view
to 1)0 hold by the teacher of geography: the division of the course of
study; the knowledge of location and how it should be secured; the
relation existing between geography and other subjects, especially
nature study, hand work, and history: excursions and reference work
in geography: the use of maps and illustrative material; commercial
geography in the upper grades; the use of a text-book; references for
teachers and pupils: thought questions in geography; the teaching of
industries, etc. A course of study will l)e outlined and suggestions
given as to the material available for presentation in each of the grades,
as to the general manner of treatment adaptable to pupils of different
ages: certain to}>ics like home geography and the topical treatment
of continents will l)c treated fully. Certain difficult problems like the
teaching of latitucle and lontritude, the understanding of a map, etc.,
will b(^ treated in sucli detail as time will permit. Each pupil will be
called upon to outline some special toj)ics in order to give training in
tlie use of references and in the organization of subject-matter. These
topics will also l>e later outlined as lesson plans to be given in certain
grades, and a certain number of class hours will be devoted to the criti-
cism of good and bad outlines and plans. Especial attention will be
«^o4 SUMMER COURSES IN GEOGRAPHY 2O3
^ven to .ways of teaching the present course of study in the New York
Oity schools. July 6-August 17.
University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. The Teaching of Geog-
raphy. Professor C. F. Marbut.
A course of lectures and occasional field and library work on the
"teaching of geography in the grades, with special emphasis of the
I>ublic-school geography, the methods of teaching, the aim of the sub-
ject, and the sources of material for properly illustrating it. The
geography of the whole public-school course will be considered, though
most emphasis will be laid on the work in the sixth, seventh, and
oighth grades.
Drake University, Des Moines, Iowa. Methods in Geography,
I^rofessor E. M. Lehnerts.
The work in this course includes both a review of the subject-matter
<z>f school geography and the special consideration of methods of teach-
ing it. A course for the grades is outlined, and the matter and the
xnethods of presentation at the several stages are discussed. Lectures,
x^ecitations, and laboratory work. June 20- July 29.
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. Three courses:
Type Studies in Geography for Grammar Grades. Professor Charles
-A. McMurry.
The selection of important topics as types in geography; illustra-
tions of type studies in North America, Europe, and other lands; the
l^rinciples of method illustrated by such type studies; relation of such
^atudies to text-books in geography; the course of study in geography,
^^nd the value of earlier lessons in the interpretation of later lessons in
^he course; the method of oral treatment of some topics; reviews and
^:*omparisoiis. July 7- August 19.
Home Geography. Professor Charles A. McMurry.
An analysis of those geographical facts and materials which lie
"%¥ithin the range of the children's senses. The necessity for this study
3BS a basis for later book and map studies of the large world beyond is
illustrated. The topics of home geography; study of excursions with
classes of children; the oral treatment of topics in classroom work;
the relation of home geography to the later geography studies and to
text-books; a course of study showing the leading topics in this transi-
tion from the home neighborhood to the state and the United States;
leading topics of the home state and their treatment; the study of the
earth-whole in the early years, and its relation to the child ; means of
illiistrating the earth- whole and its parts. July 7- August 19.
204 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
Aims and Problevis in Geography, Supervisor R. H. Whitbeck.
Designed more particularly for grammar school teachers. The
course consists of lectures, discussions, and laboratory exercises, dealing
with the actual problems of the classroom. Some of the topics treated
are: The chief aims in teaching geography; the relative value of differ-
ent kinds of geographical knowledge; methods of conducting the recita-
tion; the proper use of the text-book by pupils and by teachers; the
use and misuse of supplementary^ books; the value of studying things
instead of about things; map modeling, map drawing, and the use of
outline maps; written and oral exercises, reviews, tests, and examina-
tions; the proper scope and limitations of geography. July 7-Aiigust 19.
Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. Teachers*
Geography, Mr. I. Bowman.
The course is planned for teachers and advanced students, and
deals with topics in mathematical geography, map projections, and the
geography of the atmosphere. Lectures, recitations, and laboratory
work. June 27 -August 5.
THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI "^
BY FRANCIS E. LLOYD
Professor of Botany, Teachers College, Columbia Universitif
DURING the summer of 19(X) I undertook a trip to the Delta of
the Mississippi River and the islands which lie to the east-
ward, for the purpose, primarily, of studying the vegetation of
that bit of countr}'. Thoupih but a ver}' amateur in matters of geog—
raphy, I have to confess that my interest in the Delta well-nigh eclipsed
my more immediate interest in its plants, until, at least, my mind
regained its equilibrium. I shall in the present paper attempt to gives-
an ao(M)unt of my observations of this interesting region, ha\'ing refer-
once chiefly to that portion commonly known as the Delta, and not'
to that larger area bordering the lower Mississippi, which in recent
geological times has been built up by the same processes which may
now be seen in operation in the Delta itself. (See Map 1.)
The only practical way of exploring such a region is by means of
a boat of liglit draft. The waterways, though tortuous, are continuous
and the water, for a very considerable distance from the land, shallow.
♦For folding map of the Delta of the Mississippi see inside front cover.
i
Z904 THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI
205
For this reason the party of which I was a member hired a "scow
schooner," ordinarily used for oystering. This is the finest kind of
craft for knocking about such waters. Roomy, unpainted, stiff, draw-
ing little water, one can creep into the veriest bits of mudholes, and
get out again; being roughly built and no better finished, a naturalist
has to take no precautions for the preservation of appearances; and
being roomy there is plenty of space to sleep on the deck, under mosquito
netting, and thus be cool at night. A few weeks' cruise on such a boat
is an ideal experience.
On approaching the Delta from the east, with still a wide expanse
of water ahead, and in the distance the low stretch of green marsh
and a curious, jagged sky-line of willows, reaching far to the north,
one will, perhaps, receive a suddenly applied demonstration that the
land is not so far off as it seems. In a word, the boat is aground.
Instinctively, she is headed up to the wind, if possible, and all
hands jump overboard, a most comical procedure that never fails to
evoke laughter and remarks from one's companions. In this concrete
way we learn that beneath the mud-laden water the bottom extends
out to sea for many miles at a depth of two or three feet, and less in
places. Such an experience demonstrates to us what the great river
is doing. Its water, opaque with sediment, carries most of this over
the shallow, submerged extension of the Delta. Some of it, however,
gradually settles to the bottom, and thus slowly raises the level of the
sea floor, while the rest of the detritus is precipitated farther seaward.
Deeper channels in this platform are eroded by the currents, which
extend out from the various mouths of the river. Low, submerged
mounds are formed by eddies, and the whole vertical contour is modified
from time to time by storms. The constant change makes navigation
especially dangerous. You are compelled Uterally to feel your way
along, even in a small '*scow/' by means of an oar, a man on each
bow calling off the depth in feet and inches. It is only by the sub-
merged channel formed by the South Pass current that approach may
be had by ocean-going vessels, and this calls for skilled pilotage.
From a considerable distance the Delta appears as a very low
extent of land, with even, horizontal contour. The color is a uniform
dark green, the whole landscape being somber and monotonous, espe-
cially in the failing light of evening. The impression of the contour,
however, is deceptive, for a closer approach shows that the land is
broken up into a maze of bays, ** cut-offs," and lagoons, forming necks
of land and islands of all sizes and shapes. An adequate notion of
\
206
THE JOURKAIv OF GEOGRAPHY
May
Fig. j. .4 vU^ ktokinii tJ,!^ of south hom the top of thr Soulh Pass Liiththtmst. ; .. - ^^hlu^ui
Hnf if a board footpath to u boat moortne. The dark tine paralM io th-
is a sand sfHi ii^xtendinfi wfsh-rty frofH iiir nuyuth oj !h*r river.
thp cniiiplexity of the luml forms may best be had by getting a view
from a |KT!iit of vantage at the top iif tlie South Pass Lighthouse. Sucli
a view is seen in the set-tnid figure aiitl n<> furtiier w^ml of iiescription
is necessary. How this honzontal contour is brought about is lo be
explairieil, at least in part, by the sefon<biry action of the waters outside
of the Ueha. Were it not for tlu* tidal aetion and tlio ptTeets of wind
and currents, the Delta would be Ijuilt up regularly r as is suggested by
the more even eontuur hue of its submerged portitni. But, given these
ffietors and a soft, homogeueuus, flat, low-lying alluvial deposit to work
upon, together with oeeasional tuu^venuess, due to buried or partly
liuried detritus of small ami large pieces of tree trunks, branches, ami
the like, which flr>at down the river and are deposited, we can easily
imderstand how the irregularities of (^{intonr arise. These help to
direct the erosive forces, and thus are a factor in prodneing the result
above described.
Our entrance to the Delta was made through Cubit's Gap on its east-
ern side. This is the main channel of a seeondary delta, caused, at some
period of extraordinary flood, by the main current breaking through its
low-ljnng bank at a w^eak pcjint. The lateral stream thtia originated wdll
in time build up a form similar to, Init smaller than, the chief delta.
At occasional points along the shore are encountered fishermen *s
houses, btiilt on the low-lying marshes. Their situation is precarious,
because the muddy surface is frequently submerged, and the run of
rough water during storms is sometimes disastrous. The danger is
X904
THE DELTA OF THE MISSISSIPPI
207
reduced by building upon long spiles, which lift the house above the
surface. The experience of entering such a dwelling is certainly novel.
The fisherfolk are chiefly Italians, who are very hospitable. Their
boats are single-masted luggers of light draft, well built and graceful.
Upon entering the main stream of the Mississippi, we follow the stream
in its southeasterly course. At once the appearance of our surround-
ings changes. A few minutes previously a whole sea was behind us,
and the feeling we experienced was that of approaching the land. Now
it seems as if we are floating on a river inland, its banks clothed with a
tall grass {Phragmites) , or '* canes,'* as they are locally called, which shut
out the distant view. (Fig. 3.) Trees of black willow, which form a
continuous growth farther up stream, are to be seen occasionally along
the bank, and the *^ canes" are often overgrown by a species of ampe-
lopsis (Ampelopsis arborea), but more frequently and densely by a
leguminous vine {Vigna glabra), bearing numerous yellow, pea-Uke
flowers. Of these plants, the *^cane" is the most interesting, for its
growth contributes very materially to the stability of the muddy bank.
It spreads by runners, some of which project out into the stream,
extending downward with the current as much as thirty meters or more.
Those which take root contribute to the formation of hunuiiocks,
which, by their close juxtaposition, make a firm framework to support
the soft materials of the bank.
F O. 3. A view of the river bank of the South Pass showing the dense growth of canes (Phragmites.)
208
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
May
From the western bank of this part of the Delta stretch considerable
reaches of low, swampy meadow land, clothed with grasses and weedy
plants, among which a sensitive plant {Mimosa strigillosa) is ver>'
common, and responds rapidly to the touch by closing tightly its leaf-
lets and bending down its leaves.
Continuing the course down stream, we come suddenly to a parting
of the way in three directions — quite the reverse of the ordinary experi-
ence in floating down stream. Instead of the tributaries feeding the
stream, the stream divides its water among its distributaries (here the
three main Passes) of which the middle, in line with the chief stream,
is the South Pass, and the way we chose. Once well into this arm of
the river, the most illuminating evi<lence of the work of the great river
is l)efore us.
If we climb the bank in this region, we can look l>eyond a few hun-
dred feet out upon an (^xpanse of salt water. (Fig. 4.) The highest part
of this land is beneath us. only a few feet above the level of the swiftly-
running stream, and an equal distance from it. This low ridge is a
lateral barrier, built up from the sediment of the river laid down at
times of flooding, and allowed to maintain a level above that of the
sea level. In this manner a natural aqueduct of the stream's own
making guides it to its mouth. From the ridge, the bank slopes more
»■. 1* ii:jiaJ.VJ •■
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-..
ruVv. ..m:.: .'/v su-.
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.•■V > ^ii'.'n l^--ss.^ I. hi the right one sees the
'.-.'■•.■ r' .'/'.v cr.yur.J cu the Icf* of ih^
•.'. • ■' .-.'.uKd f^.jr: o- ii fi:>her9Kiin's
:-j tn :'•:•- ;- y;. Tiw r^shcrmen's
r^::- . : /.Vn: 'r,->ni floods.
1904 THE DELTA OP THE MISSISSIPPI 209
Fig. 5. South Pass, from the lighthouse, looking north. Note the river flowing between the narrow
irregular strips of land. The picture shows an outgoing steamship.
gradually away toward the salt water. The canes of the higher level
give way to a lower, stiff-leaved grass (Spartina). As one walks through
this bristling foliage, thousands of small amphibious crabs scurry in
all directions. It is in such low-lying, densely grassy places that the
alligator builds its nest, consisting of a mass of dead grass packed about
the eggs, which are laid in considerable numbers.
At the mouth of the South Pass is the small village and Govern-
ment station of Port Eads, the seat of the jetty operations. The effort
of the engineers who are managing these operations are so to control
and direct the stream as to keep a ship channel open up to and above
the mouth. This involves a vigilance as eternal as the stream itself.
From the top of the South Pass Lighthouse may be had a most instruc-
tive panoramic view. In Figure 2, which is a view looking seaward,
besides the details referred to above, we see in the distance a long,
slender spit, which is formed by the deposit brought about by the
influence of the still ^'back-bay" waters upon the moving waters on
the outside. This narrow stretch of land outlines most perfectly the
ideal form of the Delta. In the map (Map 1, Fig. 1) this is seen
on the western side of the mouth.
Looking north we see the South Pass with a vessel on its surface,
and the irregular and, at times, very narrow strip of land which walls in
the current.
Once outside, and we bear northeasterly to pass around the N. E.
Pass on our return to our *^port of departure. *' After passing out of
the ship channel, we are again in shallow water until we cross the
channels extending from the other mouths, in the vicinity of which
there are large numbers of very curious islands, all nameless, well termed
collectively the *' mud lumps/' They consist of a very compact black or
yellowish clay, overlaid with a thin top soil. In size they vary from
a few square rods to perhaps fifty acres, and their surface is three to
2IO THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY M»y
nine feet above sea level. They appear to have an origin quite different
from the other islands — for their topography suggests very strongly that
they have been erupted from below the surface of the water. I can not
say, however, that this is true. The vegetation of these dreary spots
is sparse, and weedy in character. The lack of natural charm is emphar
sized by the frequent abundance of flies, which buzz about one in a
most threatening manner and bite viciously. One very interesting
little plant we found, which evidently had been brought down the
stream — a little floating fern, Azolln Caroliniana, This was growing
in a little cove of a mud lump near Pass A Loutre. On islands near by
we found immense flocks of pelicans.
After leaving the North Pass we sail northwesterly for Bird Island,
a long, slender strip of alluvium overlaid on the seaward side by sand
in sufficient quantities to be heaped up by the wind into small beach
dunes. Here we find the beautiful sea oats, IJniola paniculcUaf which
add a strikingly graceful element to the otherwise monotonous grassy,
beach dune vegetation.
The most important grass is Panicum aniarum, since it is a sand
binder, and is largely responsible for the topography of the beach dunes,
which are found at the limit of ordinar}'^ wave action. (Fig. 6.) Growing
chiefly at this point we find the common tropical beach convolvulus,
Ipoinoca pes-capracj so called on account of the resemblance of the
leaf to the hoof of a goat. The runners of this plant attain a length
of 120 meters on the Florida strand, although the longest I found in
the Delta region were only a fourth as long. The plant has fine reddish-
purple flowers, seen in their beauty only in early morning. There is
another similar })laiit, found in Breton Island, with lobed leaves and
white flowers.
Bird Island serves as a type of many other islands, such as Breton
Island and Cat Island, in that the foundation is alluvium. Overlying
this, on the seaward side, which is also the windward side with respect
to the prevailing wind, is a layer of sand, more or less deep, according to
the size of the island. On the largest, enough is present for the making
of large dunes, in the lee of which stretches of sandy plains are found.
On these islands the vegetation is composed of pine trees and pahnettos,
and is v(*r\' similar to the vegetation of the coastal plain of the main-
land.
( )no other type of island remains to be mentioned, of which there are
many examples on our course from Bird Island to Cat Island, west of
Chandeleur Sound. They are similar in origin to the sandy islands, but
are peculiar in the circumstance that the sand is absent and small shell
21.
TBM JOURNAL OP GBOGRAPHY
:<t7j
Fig
A " sJt£lI-dum\"
with iis very s^panc, weedy ix'£t:iaiion. On
nnifonn chthing af a snccuUnt {Batis A/^
fragments take its pi are, (Fig. 7.) They are iheretore ai
called ^^shell islands.'* The shells are always fouud forrninc
narruw dime on the seaward edge of the island, c|iiite pant
cent to the very narrow, muddy beach. (Fig. 8,) The :
muddy, and marshy surface supports a growth of low i=H
{Saiicornia and Baii^), and, less frequently, of the v
(Aricennia nitkh), wliich is here at its northern limit
very interesting on account of its air roots, which proj
of the mud J and enable the plant to respire. For ft
the otlier succulent plants have corky outgrowths «
The shell dunes, on the other hand, produce
and ver>' scant weedy vegetation of anmranllis,
trailing vines, euphorbias, and the hke. (Fig. 7.)
The shallow waters of all the islands are veiy pr'
.shrimp, and small fish. The latter are caught \\y
.^fi^^^Pvv^^?;^ — —^ ^ — --^^ — V I —
Fia. 8. An idt'ni stfcfim oj *t small islind with a shclt-Jutu-
Th0 form of the dum as sfien in tmns\>*rse Sfct^:'
dircciimt in which it is moved by ihi> j
THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 2 1'
net," a circular net, which, when thrown with skill, brings death to
dozens of mullet or thousands of shrimp. This form of net is especially
adapted to shallow waters, although it is used also throughout the
West Indies. I am told that it is found in the Nile delta also, and I
have seen it on the Rhine.
One of the most unique experiences I ever had was on a dark night
at Breton Island. Taking the skiff, with the purpose of throwing the
Fig g. Another form of a shell-dune.
cast net, we saw, as we rowed, thousands of phosphorescent streaks of
light shooting hither and thither through the water, like comets in a
black sky. It was almost beyond belief, but all caused by the sudden
scurry of mullet as the boat frightened them by its approach.
The limit of space has prevented a more detailed account of what
we saw upon this delightful and instructive trip. I have tried, however,
to bring out the salient features of our experiences of three weeks, which
will never be forgotten. We were fortunate in landing at Biloxi, Miss.,
just in time to escape the terrors of the storm which laid waste the city
of Galveston.
THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH*
PART II
BY FOREST R. MOULTON
Of the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
THE REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
THE question of the revolution of the earth around the sun is
quite distinct from that of its rotation on its axis, some of the
ancient philosophers having held to one theory and not to the
other. Aristarchus (310-250 B. C.) was the first to systematically
develop the heliocentric theory, that is, to explain celestial phenomena
by supposing that the earth and planets revolve around the sun. He
could give no proofs of its correctness and it was quite generally aban-
doned. The most celebrated astronomical work of the ancients was
the Almagest of Ptolemy (100-170 A. D.) which dominated this field
"f science for fourteen centuries. Ptolemy showed in it that all the
* Continued from The Journal of Geography, April, Volume III, No. 4,
p. 150.
214
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
May
\
celestial phenomena known at liis ,time could be explained on the
theor>^ that the earth is the fixed center of the universe, the stars and
sun revolving around it in circles, and the planets revolving in little
circles whose centers move uniformly around the earth in large circles-
Copernicus (1473-1543) developed again the heliocentric theory ,
A^ith references to Aristarchus, but to explain certain irregularities
of motion he supposed the sun not to be in the exact centers of th^
various circles. His successor, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), returnee*^
to the geocentric theory because h£ could observe no changes in t
directions of the stars at different times of the year, which should va:
somewhat during the year if the earth revolved around the sun.
successor, Kepler (1571-1630), returned to the heliocentric theory an<
discovered the three celebrated laws of planetary motion which bea:
his name. From his time on the heliocentric theory has been universal!
accepted.
These different theories did not arise from any errors in the thinkinj
of the authors of the contradictory systems. The fact is that they ha(
no data by means of which they could prove one was right and anothei
wrong. Their observations, the same as nearly all of ours at the presen
day, were concerned only with relative motions, and one systei
explained them as well as another. The only proof that the grea
Newton (1642-1727) could give was that, by admitting the heliocentric
theory, a very simple explanation could be given to all phenomena b;
means of Kepler \s laws and the law of gravitation.
The first fairly direct demonstration of the motion of the earth was
through the discovery of the aberration of light by the great English
astronomer, Jamos Bradley, in 1726. If rain were falling directly
downward and one were standing still in it, he would be struck squarely
on the top of his liead by it. However, if he should walk rapidly through
it, he would bo struck on the forward side, or it would seem to descend
slantingly, the deviation from the vertical depending both upon its
velocity of descent and his rate of walking. So, also, light coming
perpendicularly from a star to the plane of the earth \s orbit seems to
come in slantingly l)eeause of the earth's motion. The result is that
the star is always apparently displaced a little in the direction of the
earth's motion, the amount depending both upon the velocity of light
and the velocity of the earth in its orbit. The actual amount of dis-
placement is found by measuring the little circle which the star appar-
ently describes in the sky in the course of a year. When the direction
of the star is not perpendicular to the plane of the orbit of the earth
!
THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH
215
the results are, of course, somewhat different, but the differences are
easily accounted for.
The velocity of light had been previously found by the Danish
astronomer Roemer, in 1675, from observ^ations of the eclipses of Jupiter^s
satellites, to be finite and about 186,000 miles per second. The one
unknown quantity remaining in the problem was the velocity of the earth,
which came out as it should under the heliocentric theory. Modern
astronomical observations have given the aberrational constant (20^.47),
and physical experiments the velocity of light (186,330 miles per second)
with a high degree of precision. The resulting velocity found for the
earth not only verifies its motion but also gives the size of its orbit,
and therefore the distance to the sun. This is, in fact, one of the
accurate methods of finding the distance from the earth to the sun.
If one were to deny the revolution of the earth around the sun, he
would have to admit that all the stars in the sky describe actual small
orbits, with the same apparent diameter whatever their distances,
in exactly a year, and in such a manner that they are constantly
ninety degrees behind the sun in its motion around the earth.
It has been remarked that Tycho Brahe abandoned the heliocentric
theory because he could not detect any apparent change in the direction
(technically, no parallax) of the fixed stars during the year. His
reasoning was conclusive qualitatively, and failed only because the
fixed stars are immeasurably more remote than the wildest imagination
could have suspected, and they have such small parallaxes that he was
far from being able to detect them. Every attempt at finding a star
apparently displaced by the motion of the earth failed until 1838 when
the German astronomer Bessel found that the little star 61 Cygni,
barely visible to the naked eye, was projected on slightly different
parts of the sky at different seasons.
The parallax of a star is the angle subtended by the semidiamet^r
of the earth's orbit at the distance of the star, and equals the apparent
displacement of the star due to the motion of the earth through a
distance equal to the radius of its orbit. The parallax of 61 Cygni is
0*'.40, an angle which would be subtended by an object an inch in
diameter at a distance of about eight miles, and one exceedingly difficult
to measure, involved as it is in the question of parallax with many
other greater inequalities, such as the aberration, and subject to a vast
number of possible errors. The distance of 61 Cygni from the earth is
more than 500,000 times the distance from the earth to the sun, which
18 93,000,000 miles. The nearest star in the whole sky so far as
2l6 THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY May
is known, is Alpha Centauri, a bright star in the southern heavens
which is 275,000 times as far from us as we are from the sun. When
a star is more than 2,000,000 times as far from us as we are from the
sun its parallax can not be certainly measured by present processes. In
spite of the arduous labors of astronomers of many countries less than
forty stars among the thousands which stud the sky have so far been
found to have measurable parallaxes. The stars are so inconceivably
remote that it is meaningless to us to express their distances in miles,
and astronomers have come to use, instead, the time it takes light to
come from them to us. The velocity of light is so great that it travels
nearly eight times the distance around the earth in a second, yet it
takes nearly four and one-half years for it to come from Alpha Centauri.
When you look out in the south in the early evening at Sirius, the
brightest star in all the sky, you see light which left it more than eight
years ago, and you see light from the north star more than forty years
after it started on its long journey.
If one were to deny that the apparent displacement of the stars is due
to the parallactic effects of the motion of the earth, he would have to
admit that nearly forty stars describe small orbits of different sizes in
exactly a year, and that they are constantly on the same side of their
orbits that the sun is of its orbit around the earth.
In discussing the rotation of the earth it was stated that relative
motion in the line of sight may be measured by the spectroscope.
Evidently this affords an independent means of testing the revolution
of the earth. Suppose a star in the plane of the earth's orbit is con
sidcred, and for simplicity that it is at a constant distance from the
sun. At one time of the year the earth will be approaching it with
the rate of its orbital velocity, about eighteen and one-half miles per
second; six months later it will be receding at the same rate. These
are velocities which can be measured very easily with the powerful
modern instrunients, and in this way the motion of the earth around
the sun has been often verified. If the star is in motion with respect
to the sun the problem is equally simple. For, suppose it is receding
at any rate, say, ten miles per second. At one time of the year the
spectroscope will show a relative velocity of 18.5 — 10=8.5 miles per
second, and six months later a relative velocity of 18.5 + 10=28.5 miles
per j-econd. If the observed star is not in the plane of the ecliptic, the
matter is a little different but presents no difficulties.
The spectroscope has been in effective use in astronomy less than
fifty years, and the observations of the kind under discussion have
nearly all been made in the last fifteen years. They show the exact
,ga» THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 2 I J
motion demanded by the heliocentric theory. If om were to deny
that the changes in the relative motion in the line of sight of the various
stars is due to the motion of the earth around the sun, he would have to
admit that all the stars move toward and from the earth with a period
of one year and with velocities precisely equal to the components of
motion in their direction which the earth would have if it did move
around the sun.
Each of these three independent methods of testing whether the
earth moves (by the aberration, by the parallax, and by the motion in the
line of sight) leads directly to the heliocentric theory, or to alternatives
which one can not bring himself to believe possible. The question of
the earth's revolution seems to be definitely settled and it is altogether
improbable that anything will ever be discovered which will throw it
in the slightest doubt. It is worthy of note, though, that the actual
proofs of it are quite recent, in 1726, in 1838, and in the last few years
respectively.
THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH's ORBIT
The ancients seem to have regarded it as axiomatic that all the
ci^lestial motions are uniform and in circles. The first dissenting voice
'^^TBS that of Kepler, who from a most laborious discussion of Tycho
^^rahe's observations of Mars, announced, in 1609, that this planet
x^inoves in an ellipse with the sun in one of its foci. The same thing
'^i'v-as in a few years verified for several other planets, and it was also
^liown that the radius from the sun to the planet always sweeps over
^<][ual areas in equal times. These conclusions, drawn without hypoth-
esis from observations, formed the direct foundation for Newton's
O.emonstration of the law of gravitation which was published in the
-f^^rincipia in 1686.
An ellipse is a closed oval which has the property that the sum of
"t: lie distances from any point on it to two fixed points within is constant
^nd equal to its length. Or, it is the apparent shape of a circle when its
X>lane is not perpendicular to the line of sight. In Figure 2, S and S' are
^lie foci, and PS' +PS =AB wherever the point P may be. The eccen-
t:iicity is OS-i-OA, As the ellipse becomes more and more nearly
<5ircular the foci S and S' approach the center 0. The orbit of the
^arth is so nearly circular that its eccentricity, which is .0168, can not
V:>e shown in a diagram.
To draw an ellipse easily set two pins in the paper, place a loop of
ti-liread over them of such length that there shall be a little slack, take
^ pencil with a small groove cut in the graphite near the point for the
2 I 8 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
thread to run in, and trace out the curve by moving the pencil so as
to keep the thread always taut. In the diagram the pencil would be
at P, the pins at S and S\ the thread reaching from P to S', from S' to
S, and from S back to P. It follows that if the curve is drawn in this
way PS' -\-PS is a constant and when P is at A or B it is seen that the
sum equals AB.
It is sometimes supposed that the orbits of the planets are ellipses
because of their mutual attractions, without which they would be
strictly circular. Nothing is more erroneous, although the proofs of
this statement and some of those which will follow can not be given
without conisderable mathematics, and will therefore l)e omitted here.
Suppose the sun is at the focus *S and that the planet is started
from A at right angles to the line SA. There is one certain velocity
depending upon the sum of the masses of the sun and planet and their
Fl(J. 2. B
distance apart which will give a circular orbit if there are no other
forces involved. A greater velocity will give an ellipse such as is
drawn in the figure, the elongation being greater the greater the initial
velocity. A lesser velocity will also give an ellipse, but in this case the
point ^4 will be the one farthest from the sun. Since there is only one
velocity which will give a circle while an infinity give ellipses it is not
in the least strange that all th(^ orbits are ellipses instead of circles,
and according to modern views the lack of circular motion indicates
no imperfection in the system.
Another view which is somewhat prevalent and entirely erroneous
is that the planets are so distributed that a perfect balance of forces
is kept up. and that any disturbance to the system would result in its
speedy collapse. The fact is that tlie planets interact upon each other
to some slight extent, but, i ' every ])lanet except the earth were removed,
only a somewhat attentive observer of the sky would ever notice
any difference.
As has just been stated the mutual attractions of the planets modify
C9(H THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 219
^heir motions to some slight extent and the result is that no planet
:Mnoves in an exact ellipse. These deviations from elliptic motion are
called perturbations. Although the planets do not move in fixed
-ellipses it has been found convenient, both in analysis and popular
<iescription. to consider that they always move in ellipses, but in ones
njvhich continually change in eccentricity, position, etc. The idea has
T)een aptly illustrated by comparing the motions of the planets with
that of a bead nmning on a wire hoop bent into the form of an ellipse
and whose eccentricity, position, etc., continually change. The bead
is always running on an ellipse, but the ellipse is constantly varying.
A question of the very highest interest and importance relates to
the effects of the mutual attractions of the planets upon their orbits,
particularly whether the present general configuration of the solar
system ever will be greatly altered or not. This is a question of great
mathematical difficulty, and has not been answered with certainty for
an indefinite time, but the conclusions are undoubtedly very nearly
correct for perhaps several hundred thousand years. The appropriate
mathematical discussion, due to Lagrange and Laplace at the end of
the eighteenth centur\% shows that the mean distances from the sun
and the periods do not change in the long run, although they are subject
to short period variations; that the eccentricities and inclinations to
the plane of the earth's orbit increase or decrease for many thousands
of years and then change in the opposite direction, and have also short
period variations; and that their lines of nodes (i. e., the lines of inter-
section of their planes with the plane of the earth's orbit) and the
lines of their major axes continually revolve in one direction, besides
having short period oscillations. The amounts of change and these
long periods of oscillation are different for the different planets. Thus,
^xi the case of the earth the eccentricity which is now .0168 is slowly
<iiminishing and will continue to decrease for about 24,000 years when
it* will be about .003, after which it will increase for about 40,000 years
"W-hen, according to Leverrier, it will be about .078; the plane of the
^a,rth's orbit changes through an angle of 2° 40' in the course of many
"tliousands of years; and the line of the earth's major axis completes a
dotation in the direction in which the earth moves in about 108,000
CROLL's theory of the ICE AGES
One might suppose that the questions which have just been discussed
^re of importance to the mathematical astronomer rather than to
One whose interests are primarily in geography or geology, but the
8
2 20 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
conclusions arrived at are very far-reaching in their points of contact,
as will be illustrated by an example in this section.
The point A (see Fig. 2) is the perihelion point and while in that
part of its orbit the earth receives more light and heat from the sim
than at any other time, the amount being about 1-15 more than when
at B, If the earth's orbit had its maximum eccentricity of .078, the
difference would be nearly 1-5, and if it had its minimum value of .003
the difference would be about 1-85. The earth is at A on December
31st and at B on July 2d (a variation of a day or two in these dates is
possible owing to the leap year and perturbations). If the angle DSA
equals 100 degrees, and the angle ASC 80 degrees, then the sun is at
the autumnal equinox when the earth is at Z), and at the vernal equinox
when the earth is at C. If the whole year is to be divided into two
seasons, winter and summer, the northern hemisphere will have winter
while the earth is moving through the arc DAC, and summer while
it is moving through the arc CBD. Since the area DAC is less than the
area CBD, and since the radius from the sun passes over equal areas
in equal times, it follows that our winters are shorter than our summers.
The actual count from September 22d to March 21st, and from March
21st to September 22d shows them to be 180 and 185 days respectively.
In the southern hemisphere things are precisely reversed. That is,
our winters are shorter than those in the southern hemisphere, but,
latitudes and other things being equal, we receive more heat daily
than is received there because the earth is nearest the sun in our winter.
Our summers are longer than those south of the equator, but, other
things being equal, we receive less heat daily. The appropriate mathe-
matical discussion shows, however, that corresponding latitudes in
the two hemispheres receive precisely equal amounts of heat in any
two corresponding seasons or proportional parts of seasons, but, owing
to their different lengths in the two hemispheres, the heat is dis-
tributed throughout the year (juite differently in the two cases.
About twenty years ago James Croll attempted to show" that the
six or seven ice ages which have followed one another in the continents
of the northern hemisphere were due to the very unequal distribution
of heat throughout the year, which would occur at the epochs when
the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is great, and the earth at perihelion
in our summer. According to this theory the glacial epochs have been
separated from each other by immense periods of time, in fact, much
longer than any other considerations seem to indicate. For this and
other reasons which can not be entered into here, the theory' is now
generally regarded as incompetent, although it can not be doubted that
X904 THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH 221
the causes which Croll pointed out have had considerable effects on
tihe climate of the earth in the ages that are past, and that they will
^xert sensible influences in time to come.
MOTION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM WITH RESPECT TO THE FIXED STARS
As everything on the earth, even the "eternal hills," is subject to
change, so also in the heavens everything changes. The fixed stars are
only relatively fixed, the configurations of the constellations being
greatly altered in the course of thousands of years. With modern instru-
ments the relative drifting of most of the bright stars and many faint
ones can be detected in a year or two. These observations imply
relative motions among the stars, and as the sun is a star it is only
reasonable to expect that it moves with respect to the other stars.
Over one hundred years ago Sir WilUam Herschel found that the
stars in one part of the sky were apparently getting a little farther from
each other, while in the opposite part they were apparently closing
together. Although these motions were very slight and found only by
taking averages, he boldly interpreted it as meaning that the whole
Solar system is moving toward that part of the sky where the spreading
out occurs, and he fixed the point toward which we move as in the con-
stellation Hercules. This constellation is almost at the zenith in our
latitude the 1st of April at five o^clock in the morning, being in the
^^stem sky immediately before daylight. The work of one hundred
3^^ars along the line of HerscheFs investigation has verified his conclu-
sions even to almost the precise point in the sky designated by him.
In the last few years the spectroscope has been applied to test the
^*^^otion of the system. It would be a simple matter if the stars were
^*>^t moving with respect to each other. As it is, the spectroscope gives
"^Vie combined components of motion of the star and earth in the line
J twining them. From a large number of observations it is found that,
^^-»i t?ie average, the sun and the^ stars in the direction of Hercules are
^-pproaching each other, while the sun and the stars in the opposite
direction are receding from each other. Therefore this method leads
'^o the conclusion that the sun is moving toward the constellation
liercules with respect to the fixed stars. The spectroscope also gives,
V>y averages, the velocity of the sun^s motion, which turns out to be
^bout eleven or twelve miles per second. The earth is thus describing
^ spiral around the fine of the sun's way as an axis.
Some of the stars and the sun are approaching each other or receding
from each other at astonishing velocities. Thus, Sirius and the sun
Hre receding from each other at the rate of more than twenty miles
22 2 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY May
per second, or more than 300,000,000 miles annually. Although this
has been going on indefinitely no observable change in the appearance of
the star has taken place since scientific observations of it have been
made. The reason is that this distance, great as it may be, is but an
extremely small part of the vast distance between the star and us.
Although Sirius is comparatively near us, as the distances to the stars
go, it will be more than 800 years before a velocity of twenty miles
per second will increase its distance by one per cent. Vega, the brightest
star in Lyra and (piite near the apex of the sun's way, and the sun,
an^ approaching each other at the rate of about fifty miles per second.
Probably the sun is nu)ving in a sensibly straight line, for the stars
are so extremely remote that their attractive influences are quite
inappreciable. It is not necessary to assume, as is sometimes done,
that its motion is due to the attraction oi other bodies, for this implies
that it was originally at rest, an as.sumption which is by no means
necessary, and not even probable.
(.>ne possible consequence of the sun's motion remains to be men-
tioned, and that is that it may some time encounter meteoric matter
or even coHide with a star. In fact, this outcome seems to be almost
inevitable, ultimately. If a collisii>n sht)uld occur, it would result in
the destruction of the pn^si^it system by the enormous amount of heat
generatinl in the impact. The combineil mas? would become nebulous.
after which it would undoriri> an evv»lution o\ looling and shrinking.
lndiH\l. it may be that our present system has evolveil from a nebulous
mass srenerated by collisions oi earlier and smaller bodies than the
sun. It i> fairly pnU^ai^le that temporary stars owe their sudden
intense lun.inosity to tlie heat irenerati^l i\v the impact of eoDisions
of <ome sort.
THE FUNCTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL: A STUDY IN
EDUCATIONAL VALUES
•:> w :: : : w. iii vxr: vu ? vr-ivv
1^ riH I 11^ :v^ -.:< l.wos: :or:r.s. i\iv.o:i::.':. O'T.sists in giAing to
"^ t'v ::\ ;;\i '^i::^ e\:vr*e::.r< \\h:o:; shal* ::\ • "ify his future adjust-
r..o:'.:< \v.::: ri^:\r\:.oo :.^ oer:.*iir. -'■.;":* ^^r ly.oral ends. Such
exivr.er.vvs r ,s\ Iv r. ..\tr:t\: i;:-;vr ::rtv:ly :hr v.irh the indixidual's
ivrs\>:\A! vvv,;.iv*. \x.::*. ::.o er.v:r^. :.:v.ov.: i^r ir.iirwtly (through Ian-
jCV.Aj^" .^r >o:vv .*::vr <v:v/:\^V.o :...^;:\::v. f^r :he transnui^on of experi-
X9«>4 THE FUNCTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY 2 23
^nce). Such experiences may function either automatically (as habit)
or consciously (as judgment or reason). The problem of the science of
educational values is to determine the part which the various items
of the curriculum play in this process. Given any subject of instruc-
"tion, for example, the question must be answered: In what different
'Ways will this knowledge be likely to function in future adjustments?
This question answered, the detailed problems of method can then
be attacked: How shall we teach this subject in order that it may
efficiently fulfill its function? How much time and energy shall be
allotted to this subject in comparison with other departments of instruc-
tion?
The increasing importance of geography in all stages of education
^renders the question of values especially important. Why has this
subject so suddenly assumed a position of great importance, not only
in the elementary schools, Vjut also in the high schools, the colleges,
^nd the universities? What has caused so marvelous a change in the
status of a discipline which, only a few years since, was derisively
termed 'Hhe sick man of the curriculum ''? An answer to these ques-
tions immediately suggests itself: A knowledge of geography has been
^ound to be of service to its possessor. What this service is, and how
the **new" geography has come to render it efficiently, when the **old''
geography was inadequate for this purpose, are questions that certainly
^ifierit careful consideration.
It is obvious that one's estimation of the vahic of geographical facts
depends entirely upon one's connotation of the term ^^geographical."
If we include under this term only those facts that were commonly
^Tiade the subjects of geographical instruction twenty years ago, we
^i^ust say in all candor that such facts have but a minimum of utility
^Or their possessor — unless, indeed, he chance to be a sailor. If, how-
^v-er, we mean by geographical facts all the knowledge which man
*>.as accumulated conceniing his environment and its relation to his
life, then the question obviously assumes a different aspect. Thus
defined, geography becomes the nucleus of all the sciences that deal
'^'v^th natural phenomena. But geography is something more and
Something less than a mere blending of these various departments of
•knowledge. It is both more and less than astronomy plus geology
t>lus botany plus zoology plus anthropology. Twenty years ago this
statement would not have been true, at least in so far as the geography
of the schools was concerned. Geography at that time was but a mosaic
of materials borrowed from the various sciences of nature. This
itiosaic was not in itself a science, because it lacked a unifying principle.
2 24 ^"^ JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY May
The ver}' looseness of the old definition betrays this weakness:
"Geography is a description of the surface of the earth and of its
countries and their inhabitants."
The unifying principle which has made geography a science is Man.
Not all the facts of botany are important in geography, but only those
that are directly connected with man's welfare. This does not imply
that a complete treatment of geography would not p)erhaps involve
all the facts of botany, but these would be arranged and classified with
reference to this unifying principle. The pure science of botany, on
the other hand, takes no account whatsoever of this principle. To
all intents and purposes, a pure science is a closed system.
This distinctively human view of geography was first clearly enun-
ciated by the great German geographer, Karl Ritter, who died in 1859.
It has only been within recent years, however, that the principle has
come to be generally adopted, and even to-day there are some author-
ities who refuse to recognize the hmitations which it imposes; but even
the latter would probably agree that, for educational purposes, this
view of geography is the most satisfactor\\ Mr. Red way has summed
up the matter in the following words: "The question of the nature of
geography is gradually settling itself into one that inqxiires into the
pro|)er basis and scope of the subject. During the past twenty years
we have seen public opinion throw aside the notion ... of geography
as a 'description of tlie earth's surface/ and substitute therefore a verj-
broad idea, 'the study of the earth as the home of man.' ... If I
felt called upon still further to add to the literature of definition, I
should put it as Mho study of man and his environment/ or. perhaps,
Mife and its environment/''*
If. then, we look u})on geograi)liy as a study of the environment in
its relation to the life of man. the utilitarian value that attaches to
this subject is ()l)vious from the outset. Broadly speaking, all life is
adjustment to an environment. Anything that tends to render this
adjustment more efficient is of value from the standpoint of utility.
Whatever reduces waste, whatever saves time, energj', labor, whatever
increases wealth and material pros[)erity may be looked upon as utili-
tarian in its value. That the facts of geography, as we now understand
that term, possess such utilitarian value in a degree sufficient to war-
rant their \i'ide dissemination is easily demonstrated. A few concrete
instances will suffice to illustrate this point.
The prooen ^ ^Utnha&m that is continually going on, tending to
relieve ^ of the earth's surface and to populate the
^ p. 155.
i
«^04 THE FUNCTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY
225
landeveloped areas, can take place either blindly or intelligently. In
the former case, lack of accurate information concerning the condi-
tiions of different regions — their relative productivity, healthfulness,
^tc. — leads to a chance or fortuitous selection of favorable environ-
i:xients; that is, under conditions of geographical ignorance, migratory
niovements frequently entail a tremendous material waste, to say
^:xothing of human suffering. Inadequate knowledge of climatic con-
<iition8, for example, led to the misfortunes that followed the wild rush
xnto the semi-arid regions of Kansas and Nebraska in the early 80's.
"Xo-day the work of the various scientific bureaus of the national Govem-
^K^ent is devoted to the gathering of accurate information regarding the
temperature, rainfall, fertility, and salubrity of various parts of the
<2ountry. Annually a vast mass of information is collected, digested,
-^nd published — information which is, in its very essence, geographical
Iscxiowledge. The pupil in the upper grades of the elementary school
^^oiild and certainly should be made acquainted with the sources of this
information and trained in its interpretation. The expense which is
irnvolved in the collecting of this data would be repaid in a generation, if
"^he schools would see to it that their pupils know where to get at it
"^nd how to use it. In fact, a more intimate connection between the
I^epartment of Agriculture and the public schools is earnestly to be
'^^ired. In some instances a start in this direction has been made
^Ixrough the medium of the State agricultural colleges^ but, as yet, it
^^ only a start. The only possible objection that could be urged against
^Vi^ch a correlation would come from wild-cat land companies that
^^tempt to colonize unproductive regions. An examination of the
"^civertising pages of recent magazines will demonstrate that such com-
^>^nies exist even to-day.
The merchant engaged in the export trade has no longer to send
■^Vis vessels to distant shores on the chance that a market may there be
^^ir^und for his goods. The Consular Reports published by the Govern-
^^^^^>ent give accurate information concerning the conunercial geography
^^:C foreign countries — what goods are in demand, at what profit they
^^«in be sold, what duty must be paid for their importation, what com-
'^Xiodities will not find a sale, and a host of other valuable facts which
^^perate to reduce losses and increase profits. All this geographical
knowledge is important, from a utilitarian point of view, to many differ-
ent classes of people. It is knowledge which the merchant, the farmer,
tilie manufacturer, and the legislator may frequently use to their advan-
t;age. And the laborer seeking a market for his labor may be just as
ixiaterially benefited by such knowledge as the manufacturer seeking
2 26 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY May
a market for his products. Here, again, is a suggestion toward the
making of geography practical in the elementary school. The writer — Dt
once proposed this question to an eighth grade class that had been ^— iv
exceptionally well prepared in commercial geography: The Great c*^,^
Northern Railroad recently sent a representative to Asiatic Russia to <z^ .-^
study the Trans-Siberian Railroad; what motives led the management n^^^^rm
to take this step? A variety of answers were obtained, nearly all
showing commendable acumen of thought. These were criticised by
the class with the aid of suggestive questions, and finally the conclusion
was reached that the Great Northern directors were anxious to know
whether they could compete with Russia in supplying wheat for the
oriental market. It is obvious that such a question of commercial
geography is of vital interest not only to the stockholders of the Great
Northern Railroad but also to the entire population of the northwestern
States.
/ We have spoken so far only of the utilitarian value of detailed facts
of geography. But the new geography, like all tnie sciences, renders .?=:S-:k"^3b
deductive processes possible. From the facts are induced great prin- — m:^:mi
ciples which can, in turn, be applied to particular instances with rea- .^x^a
sonable certainty that the conclusions will be justified by actual facts. — ^^^^t^
''All knowledge," says Professor Ostwald, "is prescience"; that is, ^ ^siis
the ultimate value of knowledge, as such, lies in the fact that with it one ^^ ^rxm
can forecast the future on the basis of the past. The value of the prin- -^'^■^ -'i-
ciplos of geography, from a utilitarian standpoint, is as unmistakable ^^X^e
as the value of detailed geographical facts. To-day we not only know, « ---^^^^
as a matter of direct observation, that certain regions are unsuitable .-«^^-t«e
for agricultural pursuits, but, given the contour of a certain region, .^ -^^^ ''^^
given other facts of its topography, given a few hints as to its geological ^ -^^^ '^'
history, given the prevailing winds, and its distance from the sea, we '^^ ^.^'e
can determine a lyriori its suitability for agriculture. There is, of "^ ^^^^o\
course, a possibility of error. Actual test may overthrow the results of "^ ^::i^of
our theoretical considerations; but the chances are greatly in favor of
their validity. An interesting example of a gigantic enterprise, based
upon a priori reasoning from geographical generalizations, is furnished
by the recent exploitation of the water power of Sault Ste. Marie. All
precedents seemed to justify the assumption that a great manu-
facturing and commercial center should grow up at this point. Its
situation near the wheat fields of the Northwest, near the immense
virgin forests of Ontario, near the unrivaled deposits of iron ore in the
Lake Superior region; its facilities for water communication with the
most populous centers of the continent ; its proximity to the labor market^ —
X904 THE FUNCTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY 22 7
—all these conditions supplemented the extensive water power devel-
oped by the rapids of St. Marys River in warranting the rosiest pictures
of the future. A large corporation was organized for the purpose of
developing these resources. A canal was dug on the Canadian side —
cut through the solid rock — to bring the water to the turbines at a
convenient point. Factories were constructed on a scale hitherto
unheard of in the business world. Steamer lines were operated on
the lakes, and a railroad was pushed north into the forest to bring
down pulp wood and iron ore. For a time everything went as antici-
pated, but a few months ago the entire organization collapsed. Some
important factor, no one seems to know just what, had been overlooked.
Possibly the results were expected too quickly; time was not allowed
Tor natural development. But that the fundamental conclusion was
valid — that a great city will sometime grow up at this point — no one
seems to doubt, even after this disastrous failure.
Does the utilitarian value of geography justify the importance
xvhich this subject has assumed in education? Is it of value to special
olasses rather than to the average citizen? Should the study of geog-
X"aphy be left, in the main, to the higher institutions? Every one must
l<now how to read and write, how to compute, how to express himself
effectively; could not the time of the elementary school be spent more
j)rofitably upon such subjects as these? Upon the basis of the above
considerations, and bearing in mind the fact that the majority of chil-
dren never get beyond the elementary school, these questions must
1)6 answered in favor of geography. The utilitarian value of geography,
lowever, would not justify its preeminence in the elementary school
'to the neglect of these other branches. Nor is the utilitarian value the
only value that accrues to its study. It adds an increment, and a
large increment, to the total value of the subject, but very few disciplines
rest upon utility alone. It is only necessary here to point out that the
utilitarian value of geography is extremely important, and that our
methods of teaching must be modified in some degree by this fact.
To what extent they should be modified can be determined only by
a comparison of the utilitarian value with the other values which geog-
raphy may possess.
We know that the prominence of certain items of the curriculum is
justified, not by the utility of their facts and principles in actual appli-
cation to the problems of life, but rather by the condition that ignorance
of these facts and principles brands a person as uneducated, and hence
serves to militate against his maximal eflftciency in society. The study of
grammar is, perhaps, the best instance of a subject of formal instruction,
2 28 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Maj
the 'main value of which is conventioncd. A sentence that is gram-
matically incorrect may express one's thought just as clearly as a
sentence that is grammatically correct, yet habitual use of incorrect
forms — disregard of conventional requirements — will distract the atten-
tion of one's auditors from the thought to the form, and hence will
militate against the maximal efficiency of one's expression. The
question now arises: In what degree will conventional requirements
justify the teaching of geography in the elementary schools?
Geographical knowledge is certainly "assumed" as part of the
intellectual equipment of every one who would claim for his thoughts
and opinions the consideration of the average man. The man who
does not know that the earth is round will surely be handicapped in his
dealings \\'ith others ; for, in social intercourse, men and women generalize
upon slight baseS; and the man who has proved himself to be ignorant
upon so common a branch of knowledge as geography will receive scant
attention upon other matters. The elementary school owes it to the
y individual to furnish him with those geographical facts and concepts
that " ever>' one must know." In this day, when " learning by heart " has
been practically banished from orthodox pedagogy, it is especiaUy
necessar>' to emphasize this point. A number of facts must certainly
be memorized for this reason if for no other.
In addition to the value of its facts in direct application to the
needs of life, and in addition to its conventional value, geography
has a peculiar value as a preparation for other subjects. A knowledge
of geography is especially important in the successful study of (1) his-
tory- and current events. (2) literature, and (3) natural science.
(1) "Histor}' is not intelligible without geography," says a recent
Nvriter.* "This is obviously true in the sense that the reader of history
nuist learn where the frontiers of States are. where battles are fought
out, whither colonies were dispatched. It is equally if less obviously
tnie that ixei^graphical facts ver}- largely influence the course of history.
Even the constitutional and social developments within a settled
region an^ scarcely indejx^ndent of them, since geographical position
affects the nature and extent of intercourse with other nations, and
thon^fore of t he intluenco exert eil by foreign ideas. All external relations,
luv^tile and |>eai*eful. are baseii largely on geography, while industrial
progn^ss de|HMuls primarily, though not exclusively, on matters described
in every giH\craphy lHM>k — the natural products of a country and the
facilities which its structure affonls for trade, both domestic and for-
H« K Qeoiltr: The RtkUiom of Gto^raphy and Hittcnry, Oxford. 1901 , p. 1 .
*904 THE FUNCTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY 229
It should not be overlooked, however, that the relation of geography t^
to history is, in some measure, reciprocal — that, while geography is
essential to the understanding of history, history is sometimes no less
important in the rational study of geography. It is perfectly obvious
that the significance of many geographical facts depends in no small
measure upon historical conditions. Boundaries between countries,
for example, are important geographically, yet they frequently have
no adequate geographical explanation and must be interpreted entirely
from historical bases. This point is also illustrated by the location of
certain cities, although here a geographical influence may often be traced
through historical media. For example, the capitals of the South
American republics in the Andes region (including also Venezuela) are
all situated away from the seacoast in all but inaccessible mountain
regions. The cause of this phenomenon must be sought, not directly
in geographical, but rather in historical conditions. For generations
the neighboring seas were infested with pirates, and cities on the coast
were constantly subject to pillage and sack at the hands of these out-
laws. Nevertheless, that this historical condition should have arisen
is undoubtedly due to the operation of geographical causes.
Admitting the reciprocal nature of geography and history, however,
it is plainly apparent that geography is the more fundamental, hence
its grfiatezLprepacatory value in connection with history.
The study of geography is also essential to the rational understand-*' '
ing of "current events." Not to evaluate current tendencies with some
ciegree of intelligence is certainly not to prove oneself efficient in society.
In this day when an occurrence on the other side of the globe may
immediately and directly influence the humblest citizen on this side,
'^he ability to read newspapers intelligently needs no elaborate argu-
^K^nent for its defense. And the ability to read newspapers intelligently
^iertainly involves not a superficial but a thorough knowledge of geog-
^^*aphy, as the contemporary happenings in the Orient abundantly
"^^estify.
(2) Geography stands in an intimate relation to the study of litera-
"tiure. The classics commonly read in the elementary schools — Robinson ^
<!ruBoe and Evangeline, to name only two — could not be adequately
appreciated without a prior knowledge of geographical facts. Just
"what weight should be attached to geographical study upon this ground
'is necessarily indeterminate, but this factor certainly adds an increment,
«nd a large increment, to its total value.
(3) Rather more tangible is the relation of geography to the natural^
sciences. As pointed out above, geography borrows many of its facts
230 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY May
from (lifT<»ront fields of natural science — from geology, meteorology,
UHtroiioiny, botany, zoology, etc. In the high school and college each
of th('S(» sri(Mic(\s is treated in and for itself as a pure science — that is,
without (explicit reference to its economic or human relations. It is
ol)vi()Us, liowover, that the initial study of a science should be from
the human side. The child should be introduced to facts and principles
in tlieir relation to his life. This is what geography attempts to do.
In a s(Mise it might be looked upon as an introduction to all the sciences
of natun*. It is here that the child must get that first large view which
sliould precede all detailed and abstract study — abstract in the sense
of b(Mng consid(»rod apart from its human relations. Educators are
now coming to believe that the curriculum should include geography
not only as a preparation for the sciences, but also as a culmination
of all scientific study; that is. an advanced course in geography
should form the capstone of the science work in high school or college.
The student should bring together the facts and principles that he has
acipiiriHl in tlie ilet ailed study of the various sciences, and discover
their Halations to human life. This is only a consistent application
of the giMieral principle that mind begins with large wholes, passes
fn^n\ these Xo detailed parts ami then back again to the wholes —
analysis fi>llowiHl by synthesis, differentiation followed by integration.
In any case, however, we can i\ot doubt that get>graphy has great value
as pivparatory to ilie study of science, and that, if the student is to
iiet the most from tl\o study oi scionoe in high schcK^l or collie, he
must Iv thonniiihly irnnuuKHl in ir^Hyirrapliy in the elementary' school.
Uen\ hvnvovor. wo atv ^|vakini: for the few rather than for the many.
To the majority of our pupils ti\e initial study oi geography forms
the sum total of tlioir scientific instruction. Therefon^ the preparatory-
\ aluo of coocraphy ca!\ iiot Iv u!\di;ly pn^s-sovi as a justification for its
p:x\ r.iiv.o:;co in t!\e oleir.c.rvary sc!\oo;.*
riie v;i\iiii:\c: H:.c Iv:n\iv!\ p-*.:*:;V';.' aiui c\!:ural values is indeter-
v.'.;r.a:o \\ l.,r. wo !.:n 0 viiscv.^so; r.v.vior :!\o lioad of utility is beyond
V U ^ V. *:^ ; " * ; v:» V : . i- :i 1 ' i : . : ; *. o : ^. a rr\ ^ w os : so : ; <<^ « ^ f : lie won.! . Hut con ven-
v.ov,;r. N .r./.os l\\\^v..o i^rai'tio:**. wi.ov. wo !vv»k a: them from a certain
s:ar,x;i\^::.: w'.or. wo rv^:r.o:v.lvr ::\a: oonvor-V.-^i-aliy valuable fact;? aid
v^r.o w, v^v»o'< >ov::i* ;Vvi;r.s::v.ov.:s The i^rt^par^itorv values are practical
v.'.:.:v.:4:i '.\ . i^rv^\ ;.1<nI :•.,*»: :V.o sr.l\\v:s w:.-cV. :hoy \vk forwarvl to an?
;:-. : '<:*.M AC-* v--^"*^''^- 1 --^^ v;\*v.o< wV/.oh wo h.^vo now to viisciiss
«904 THE FUNCTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY
^11 doubtless appeal to one as ultimately practical, although with
more intermediate steps than is the case with those considered above.
IBecause of this distinction we may class the following as cultural
values, remembering, however, that the distinction between practical
^nd cultural is one of degree rather than of kind.
Acquisitiveness in man is an instinct. Like all instincts it owes its
existence to the forces of natural selection working upon fortuitous
variations in nerve structure. It has been good for man to be curious
about his environment, to study his environment, and to determine
the laws that govern it. Primitive man did not realize, probably,
that his inordinate curiosity was good for him. In his own rude way
he investigated things for the mere ''fun of it" — for the pleasure which
it afforded him. Later in his development he came to find out that
many of the facts which he discovered and many of the laws which he
worked out were "good" for him — that the knowledge which he had
gained helped him in solving the problems of his life. But this appre-
ciation of the value of acquisitiveness came only after a long lapse of
time.
The desire to satisfy curiosity is thus seen to be at the basis of
knowledge. The child evinces this desire. His curiosity is boundless,
and upon this native instinct the educator may build. It is clear,
however, that he can not trust to it entirely, for the very fact that it
is an instinct means that it runs its course in passive attention. It is
Hot sustained, directed, organized. All these things mean active
^it/tention, mean work. Curiosity soon tires, but any measurable addi-
tiion to knowledge involves persistent effort.
It is the problem of the educator, then, to replace this instinctive
o\iriosity with a higher mental process. The desire to obtain knowledge /.^
for the sake of knowledge is not to be discouraged, but it is to be held
ti^o a definite line until results follow. Wherever possible, the child's
oxiriosity should be directed along fines that will help him most in his
fxiture adjustments. There are times, however, when this curiosity
^^iiay be directed toward ends the practical significance of which is not
Once apparent, and it is these cases that we must discuss under the
liead of cultural values.
In the first place, some children may be curious in certain special
directions. They may evince a desire, perhaps, to learn all that they
can about Arctic exploration. The facts that they obtain from various
sources may not be applicable to the problems that they nmst solve
in later life, yet no sensible teacher would attempt for a moment to
curtail this interest. He has here the opportunity to replace instinctive
232 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY 3Uy
curifmity with a hif^hcr Hcntiment, namely, intellectual interest. This
iH (rloHoly akin to other forms of sentiment, such as appreciation of art,
mimic, and lit^iraturc. None of these is, in itself, "practical." yet
(?ach Hu)mMyvH a very practical end. Without some form of pleasure,
life would be imfK)ssible. If the higher forms of pleasure — the senti-
ments— fiVi; not developed, the individual will be thro\\Ti back upon
the primitive pleasures. He will follow the instincts, the lines of least
resiHtanci!. In our s(;hool work to-day we are trying to develop the
aesthetic sentiments — to cultivate an appreciation for art, music, and
literature. We shoidd certainly not neglect the intellectual senti-
ment the pleasure that conies from knowing. It is for this reason that
the wise teacher would never think for a moment of curtailing interest
in such a subji'ct as Arctic exploration. The opportunity is too
valuable to l>e lost. With a little trouble he may lead the child to take
delight in an intellectual pursuit, ju.st as with a little trouble he may
lea<l tlu» (^hild to see the beauty in a great picture, or a classical musical
composition, or a world epic.
In the second place, items of knowledge which have little or no
significance in the practical affairs of life may nevertheless be necessary
to a HjfHtvm of knowhnlge. It is a well-known fact that systematic
arrangenuMit or organization is an extremely important factor in the
'*(»Hici<Mit r<M»all " of itcMus of experience at times when they are needed.*
Very frtMiuently in making a system of knowledge — in arranging the
itiMus of experience in an orderly fasliion — it is necessary to insert
many facts and principles whicli have in themselves little practical
value. Thus the imlividual may never l)e called upon to apply his
knowledge o( the .Vrctic regions, but such knowledge is necessarj' in
onler to make his world view conipix^hensive. Without it there would
Iv a distracting gap.
The briefest e\an\ination o( tlie curricula of the secondary' schools
and colleiics will serve lo demonstrate tl\e importance of the "cultural'"
valuoN \\l\iol\ we liave discussed in t!ie two {^receding paragraphs. The
larvi^M' part of these curricula is made up o( subjects which sul>?en*e
one or the o{\wr of tliese two functions: tending either to develop
ititelUvttial ituoivsts or to make mon^ compn^hensive and complete
the bod\ of knowledge. The science, the mathematics, the language
:\\u\ literatmv. w hioh oioe.py so prvMuinent a place in the higher education,
* t'ho •.;\usxr;,*v.vv ot * :houcht-vV. r.*v!uv.>"' ir. rwall has been (kfiM>n$tni;<d,
t\'.^\,- :\y.y\ M\^\\\. h\ \\w '\w^\^\\< o: oxjvrKuov.ta': p<vohvA\i^-. Cf. The ino>ri: of
X904 THE FUNCTIONS OF GEOGRAPHY 233
can be justified only upon these grounds. In the elementary school,
on the other hand, the cultural values are not so prominent. The
bulk of the time is given over to the study of arithmetic and language,
the latter including reading, writing, composition, and grammar.
Literature and geography divide most of the remaining time between
them. Arithmetic and language are justified principally because of
their utilitarian values. Literature is prominent chiefly because of its
conventional and cultural values. Geography might be said to occupy
a midway position, being important from all sides.
If the foregoing analysis of the aims and functions of geography
as an integral part of the elementary school curriculum is valid, it
follows that our methods of teaching must be organized with these
points in view. If possible, the various aims should be classified with
reference to their relative importance in fulfilUng the general end of
education, namely, the production of the socially efficient individual.
We should know with approximate accuracy just what facts and prin-
ciples are to be impressed because of their utiUtarian value, what are
essential from the conventional standpoint, what from the preparatory,
and so on. In many instances the groups will, of course, cut across
one another, but it seems tolerably clear that methods of impressing
facts and developing principles will var>' according to the function
which the facts and principles are to subserve.
These are problems which it must be left for educational research
to solve. From the standpoint of the practitioner, at least, this suggests
a field of investigation infinitely more promising than those which con-
temporary educational experts are attempting to exploit.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Wind-Blown Trees. — The communication on Wind EffectSy by Prof.
M. S. W. Jefferson, in your January number, interests me much, as it
concerns a subject to which I have given some attention for several
years. Observations of the kind to which your contributor refers are
easily made, and add much to the interest of the study of meteorol-
ogy* because they give it life. If any of your readers cares to pursue
this subject further, he will find an instructive discussion of it in a recent
paper by Prof. J. FrQh, entitled Die Abbildung der vorherrschenden
Winde durch die Pflanzenwelt {Jahresber, Geogr. Ethnogr. GeselU.y Zilrich,
1901-02,97 pp.). In this study Professor Friih classifies the effects
234 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
of wind action on trees, names the most sensitive trees, and gives
observations from different parts of the world. Savage tribes often
make use of tree wind-vanes to guide them on their wanderings.
Apropos of wind-blown trees, I have somewhere heard a story of a
gardener who, when shown a large number of trees which had been
blown by the prevailing wind, and not appreciating the fact that what
he saw was the result of wind action, said he could not take the place,
because he could never keep all those trees trimmed at that particular
angle. — R. DeC. Ward, Harvard Ihnversitji^y Cambridge , Mass.
Our Proportion of the World. — **ln area possessing one-four-
teenth of the entire earth, in population one-twentieth, and increasing
more rapidly than that of the rest of the world: in wealth one-fourth,
in international conunerce one-nintli, in banking power more than
one-half, in savings deposits nearly one-third, in Government revenue
one-tenth, in stock of gokl nearly one-fourth, in stock of silver one-
sixth, in amount of life insurance two-thirds, in railway mileage over
one-third, in coal production one-third, in copper production one-half,
in zinc production one-fourth, in iron and steel production more than
one-third, in wheat crop one-fifth, in corn crop two-thirds, in cotton
crop eight-tenths, in wool crop one-tenth, in outpiU of newspapers
and [periodicals over one-third —tliis is the achievement of the United
States after a century and a i|uarter of existence." — Wall Street Journal.
Primary Geography. — \ears ago. as many teachers remember,
such subjects as botany, zoology, and chemistry were taught from the
written descripti(>n in tlie text-i>(>(>k. but wo have progressed in such
a degree that any one attempting to teacl\ now. other than objectively,
would be considered on tlie verjre of huiacy. (Vography was taught
in the same maiuuT. bnt each succeeding year places it, too, more and
more on an objective l)asis. We iiave advanced to a stage where
objectiv(» teacliing of every subject seisms imperative. Verbal descrip-
tions are inadequate, for. no matter how graphically you describe a
place or tiling, each listener is forming a different mental image, and
no imagination, however clear, can create a mental picture at all correct,
ludess then^ is alrt\idy in the mind suitable exjierience gained from
actual observation of the thing liescrilx^l or from pictures of the object.
So little do business men dejHMui on verbal descriptions that, if they
wish to construct a building, l>efore entering into a contract for the
samei they must see on paj>er a complete picture, that there ma\- be no
X904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
235
misunderstanding. They realize ^Hhat a greater amount of informa-
tion and a more lasting impression is gained from a single picture than
from pages of description." We as teachers are slowly adopting busi-
ness methods. We are beginning to realize the importance of securing
^ood mental images.
We know the best means of doing this is to visit the object itself;
bxit since we can not charter an airship and travel with our little flocks
from pole to pole, nor can we import mountain peaks, seas, or rivers at
oxar convenience, the next best means is to model them on the sand
ti^^ble, and at the same time present the best pictures on the subject
titiat can be secured. Dr. Red way says that in the teaching of geog-
^i^^phy climate is fundamental, and the first topic that should be consid-
^x-ed, as its influence has every^thing to do with the food, shelter, and
<^lothing of the inhabitants of the earth. To illustrate the power of
^liis influence, I know of nothing better than the story written by Jane
-«?Xwndrews of the '^ Seven Little Sisters,'* which should be in the hands
<^"f ever}' primary teacher. It is easily illustrated and dramatized and
<^»^ates a desire for the further study of geography in children of every
^i ze. — Nebraska Teacher, February-, 1904.
^i^urrent Articles on Commerce and Industry. —
FEBRUARY
Bulb Growing in America (Illus.), Country Life in Am.
Camphor from Turpentine, Paint, Oil and Drug Rcv.j February 10.
China, Commercial, in 1904, Mo. Summary of Commerce and
f^inancej January.
China, Railways of (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
Coal Mining, Short History' of, BradstreeVs, February 20.
Cod Liver Oil Industry, Paint, Oil and Drug Rev., February 24.
Cotton-Boll Weevil (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
Cotton Culture in Foreign Countries, Crop Reporter.
Fire Curtains, Asbestos, Making of (Illus.), Sci. Aim., February 6.
Flour Milling (111.), Sci. Am., February 27.
Fruit Ranch in California (Illus.), Country Life in Am.
Indigo, Early History of, Paint, Oil and Drug Rev., February 24.
Korea, Commercial, in 1904, Mo. Summary of Commerce and Finance,
January.
Lumbering by Machinery (Illus.), World's Work.
Maple-Sugar Industry (Illus.), Country Life in Am.
Panama Canal and the Mississippi Valley, World's Work.
236 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
Peanut Crop, Comm. B\dL and N. W. Trade, February 6.
Peru (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Philippine Tobacco Cultivation, Mo. Summary of Commerce of the
Philippine Is. f August, 1903.
Philippine Mineral Deposits, Mo. Summary of Commerce of the
Philippine Is., September, 1903.
Porto Rico, Mineral Industries of, Census Bulletin, No. 6.
Power for the World, World^s Work.
Rose (larden Under Glass (Illus.), Country Life in Ain.
Shipping and Organization (IDus.), System.
MARCH
Abyssinia, Our Mission to. The Manufacturer, March 15.
Advertising, Bradstrcct's, March 26.
Asia, Economic Changes in, Century.
Electric Inventions and Human Activity (Illus.), Engineering Mag.
Farming I'nder Olass (Illus.). World's Work.
India. Old and New (llhis.). World To-Day.
Irrigation in the Far West (lUus.), Kvv. of Revs.
Jew. Russian. Americanized (Illus.), World's Work.
Korea. Japan and Russia (Illus.). World's Work.
Labor Savers of the World (llhis.). Engineering Mag.
Lampblack. Manufacturing of, PniiU, Oil and Drug Rev., March 23.
Manchuria ami Siberia, Lumber Industry in. Consular Report.
Manchuria, Wheat (Irowing and Milling in, Consular Report.
Natural (las. History of. in the V . S., Paint, Oil and Drug Rev.,
March 16.
Negro. The. McClun \n\
Pacifies. The Two (^Ulus.). Booklorcr's Mag.
Panama and its People illlus.V Riv. of Rivs.
Paris Bourse (^lllus.V (\ntury.
Pei>ia. Trade and Commerce in. Consular Rc}wrts.
Prime Miuer and its Inthienco i^n World's Progress (Illus.)..
Enginttring Mku:.
Railroading. Ten Years' Advance in (Ilhis.), World's Work.
Ru.ssia's Coal Supplies. Bradstntrs. March 19.
Santo Pomingo vHlus.\ Rtv. of Rtvs.
Texas Panhandle. Transformation oi, Bradsirect's, March 19.
White licad Manufactun\ Paint. Oil and Drug Rev,, March 30.
E. D. J.
■yn EDITORIAL
EDITORIAL
GEOGRAPHY FOR TEACHERS DURING THE COMING SUMMER
^"^HE opportunities for enlarging and improving one's geographic
knowledge during the coming summer vnW be exceptionally
varied and alluring. In fact, no such combination of geographic
possibilities has ever before been possible. The numerous summer
schools in the larger universities and normal schools of the country
offer facilities for geograpliic study valuable for t^'achers of all grades
of work, detailed announcement of which will be found in our columns
i;his month.
It should not be forgotten, however, that much geographic training
of exceeding value can be secured without tuition and that the cheap
rates to the St. Louis Exposition will make it possible for many teachers
to secure a wealth of information of daily use in their class work, at
an expense less than would be incurred in a six weeks' summer school.
The exhibits of industries and mankind at St. Louis will be exceptionally
fine and will form a school of geography of an unicjue character. The
trip to St. Louis will also give opportunity for personal study of the
topographic and climatic conditions of a region of great interest to
any one living amid the varied surroundings of the Eastern States.
To make such a trip of geographic profit the Journal will be devoted
next month to the geography of the Louisiana Purchase, and will be
particularly valuable as a guide book, to be read before leaving home.
People may pass through the most interesting region without seeing
or appreciating the geography about them. Teachers anticipating a
trip to St. Louis should therefore prepare their minds for what is to be
seen by securing a preHminar\^ knowledge of the geographic possibilities
during such a trip.
The studying of geography first hand, either in the field or the
classroom, is obviously the best means of increasing one's power in
this field. It should be borne in mind, however, that there is no single
means of securing inspiration and a due appreciation of the depth and
significance of geography like coming in personal contact with the men
and women who are leading in geographic thought and work. This
unusual opportunity will be given this summer at the meetings of the
International Geographic Congress, announcement of which has been
already made in these columns. This is the first meeting of the
2 7,S THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY May
Congrcfss in this coiiiitr}^. and one of the first opportunities there has
been for securing the presence of geographers from abroad. Neither
have there been, in the past, many chances for an assembly of the geog-
raphers of this country. All enthusiasts should attend some of the
meetings of the Congress without fail! All interested in the subject
will gain inspiration and help from listening to the papers and meeting
their fellow workers.
Thus, in at least three different ways, opportunities for growth in
geography are possible this summer. It is to be hoped that every
teacher will therefore take advantage of these conditions, which may
not be duplicated again for many years. Summer schools increase
in number and worth constantly; World's Fairs, cheap cross-countrj'
trips, and assemblies of geographers are rare. They therefore must be
taken advantage of at the moment.
REVIEWS
New PhjTsical Geography. Hv Halph S. Tarr. Pp. xiii. 4.57. The Macmillan Co.,
New York, 19(H.
Tarr's New Physical Cieogniphy is. as ihe author announces in his preface, a
** new lK>ok*' as comparcti with his earhor texts: and, as we should expect, is in
most resjxvts a distinct iniprovenicnt \i}x>n them, ahhough their excellence is
attt^sttnl by the numlK?r of ciiitions throiicli which each of them hrts passed.
Tliis icxl .'iciMns l>est adaptcil t<. tlic l:i>t years of the high school, where the sul>-
ject is mon* anil mon» fimling plue; aiul the author has evidently adapted his
treatment alike to the retjuircment*; of those who exjKvt to go to college, and to
the murh larger class who get their only training in earth-science in the high school.
S<i we find hen^ nuirh thai, in the opinion of the strict tH>nstructionist. would not
iH'long to physical gtM>graphy.
Hy his ••Tt>pifal iMitlincs,'* " l^ut^tions." "Sugi^fStions," and l»sls of " Reference
lVn>ks.*' giving pul^lishcrs anil prict^. at the end of each chapter, tin* author has
done an invaluable scr\ ice fi»r the vast army of teachers who are called upon to
te;irh plu>iral s;ci>graphy. but who have not Invn spivially trained for the woric.
Thi'M^ will th.nik him :ilso tor hi** su^gestior.s as lo '* Laln^ratorv R^uipment'* and
•' Kiclvl Work." apivridiivs J an^i K
ri'c lopii-al sn'.innarit's. cxrclleni astlicy ar.\ can r.oi be considered an unmixed
ad\antagc. ;»s they :»ri^ an c\ cr prt\<ent temptation to neglect the longer eonsidera-
tii^n that prcivdc^ tliom Many tcachci^. tin*, prefer to have .heir scholar? make
tlifir own ^vumuanc<
rhc illu^;r:ition> arc bo;h apprv^priaic atid aiiraitivc: but iNinsidering the size
and weigh: of the book, po^-il^ly tix^ niimon^us In a few instances they are not
as near their appn^pr.atc ic\t> as iv.iM iv ii«Mn\l. :ind the exivssive number of
iMTnekot n^fen^uvs to theni >ccn!> *o!if using A siwial word of praise is due the
block drawing>. and nu»rc of tlu^c .oif.d ha\c I een pn.>titably used.
REVIEWS 239
The treatment of the Land before the Atmosphere is not logical, nor does the
author's reason for it seem sufficient. Such treatment must be either empirical,
which the book before us is far from being, or to the scholar unintelligible. The
study of physiographic features in their evolutionary development presupposes a
knowledge of the air. It is unfortunate, too, that the author has seen fit to give
even less space to his consideration of the air than he gave in his " First Book."
Most of the appended matter might better find place under its appropriate
topic in the body of the text; and a fuller treatment, at the end of each chapter,
of the response of organic forms to their physical environment would make un-
necessary their separate treatment in chapters XVII and XVIII, which are too
largely biological.
There is not the logical arrangement of topics in sequence that one would expect,
and in some cases topics are considered out of what would seem their proper setting.
Thus superimposed and rejuvenated rivers, and river piracy are considered under the
subject of plateaus rather than under rivers.
A few unfortunate omissions occur, as on p. 45 where gravity is omitted from
the agents of erosion, and p. 50 where slope of the land is not mentioned among the
factors determining the amount of nin-off.
The author's u.se of " divide" is at lea.st unusual, and leaves no place for undivided
regions.
The treatment of tides and ocean currents are alike unsatisfactory; and the
mistake is made of considering risiyig and flood tide coincident in period, and likewise
falling and ebb tide.
A very small number of typographical errors have crept in, as on p. 259 where
"southeast trades" and **northea.st trades" should l)e interchanged, and in Fig.
325 where -35 is evidently not intended.
Chapters XV, XVI, and XIX are distinct additions to the excellence of the book.
In spite of these minor roughnesses, many of which can be remedied in a later
edition, the New Physical Geography will ea.sily take its place among the very best
texts on physical geography availal)le. W. R. C.
A Laboratory Manual for Physical Geography. Bv Frank W. Darling. Size
9i X 8i. Exercises 32. Chicago: Atkinson & Mentzer, 1903.
The growing emphasis laid upon laboratory work in physical geography is
evidenced by the steadily increasing number of laborator>^ manuals. The breadth
of the field and the lack of unanimity in regard to what the essentials in laboratory
work really are is clearly shown by the radical differences which these various
manuals present to the laboratory' teacher.
The manual under consideration contains thirty-two exercises; of these, six
illustrate various problems in mathematical geography, seven treat of the atmos-
phere, while nineteen pertain to the lands. The apportionment is certainly unfor-
tunate. The topic of the ocean has been entirely omitted, and that of the atmos-
phere, which lends itself so admirably to laboratory uivestigation, has received
scant attention. While no one can (juestion the importance of the land as a subject
of study, the causal relation existing among the various elements of climate and
weather may be so clearly demonstrated that this topic seems plainly entitled to an
emphasis approximately equal to that which the lands receive. In this book,
however, the author disposes of the subject of climate summarily — a single exercise
on planetary winds being practically the extent of treatment. The topic of the
\
240 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY May
weather is studied by means of daily weather observations, with the addition of one
or two exercises on cyclonic stomis.
The treatment of the lands is excellent — adequate in scope, det>ailed in character,
and of a nature requiring careful observation and clear thinking.
The exercises deaUng with mathematical geo.s^raphy are so suggestive that one
can not help wisliing for an amplification in this case also. The relation of the earth
to the other heavenly bodies becomes more a matter of fact and less a matter of faith
to the pupil, who makes direct though simple observations of the heavens, accord-
ing to the plan outlined by the author, than to one whose knowledge of this field
is gained through laboratory e<iuipment and text-books.
While the omissions in the volume under consideration are of a serious nature
and greatly impair its usefulness, its strong points and it^ valuable suggestions
should reconnnend it to every teacher of physical geography either in a secondary
or in a nonnal school. C. B. K.
The Yellowstone National Park. By Hiram M. Chittenden. Fourth edition,
revised and enlarged. Pp. vii, 355. Cincinnati: The Robert H. Clark Com-
pany, 1903.
Chittenden's well-known volume on the Yellowstone National Park has lately
appeared in a new and up-to-date edition, which forms one of the best guides to this
"Wonderland." The book is abnost eciually divided into an historical and a
descriptive section. The historical portion is extremely interesting, and gives the
salient points in the hi.stor\' of this region in a small compass. For any one who is
unfamiliar with the current beliefs in reference to the veracity of the early explorers
in this region, Chittenden's volume will form a welcome introduction to some inter-
esting histor>'.
Moat people who use the volume will, however, get the greatest help from the
descriptive portion of the Ijook. The descriptions are written in clear, accurate,
unassuming language, in strong contrast to the railroad folder style so common in
descriptions of the indescribable. This portion of the l>ook is also practical for the
tourist, as it includes a detailed account of the customary "tour'' as well as descrip-
tions of the animals, plants. geolo;2:icMl hi.story, and hot .springs. In fact the volume
is one of the necessities to the visitor.
The illu.strations are exc-cllcnt, and the statistical material well selected. Unfor-
tunately, however, the author has referred but infrequently to the work of the many
noted scientists who ha\e unraveled the story of the histor\' of the Park, and then in
such a careless way that no one could readily find the original articles. This Is a
serious defect in a book descriptive of a National Park, and written by an officer
of the I'nited States army, especially when most that is known about the Park
has been tlue to the indefatigable energies of Government officers, some of whom
have practically given their lives to the task. R. E. D.
RECENT PUBLICATION
The Philippine Islands, 1-193-1808. Edited and annotated by Emma H. Blair
and James A. Robertson. Vol. X, 1597-1591), pp.318. Vol. XI, 1599-1602,
pp. 318. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1904.
Like the preceding volumes in the series, these volumes are of especial value to
students of historical geography.
/
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thin little tiMUiiJtJnc Mipplii*s Uio
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THE SCHOOL WEEKLV
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CtiiCcigOt HI,
THE GLUG FAMILY
I!y WILLIAM K. WATT. A. M., Pti. D,
A PLW OF THE SORT TO TR/IW ,^
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IliH* A Hi-hfKtl pntprtalnmcDt noltiliiir ''an
i i^rniiii rhiri, for li: «tlM»»'si up III** *-hi m
ijiiiHly In ifh-^lki^n] Pill wrll )'i»ii wtiqkl [tilnic
ilir LkijiluM' h?kil rlK^iii In ndncL It liel^**
I fM' tt'iilnT rn ki'rp It t^iKpri »rlj(K)|. T<i<p luwl
jii 1-^ "d tin- ju^pfide wliik Irv Ut iatcffvt>' With
I 111' smiifi nork cpf tlio BirlMMa an* m* wpil jire-
hiiin-d in-ri* IIijit tNiTf wfil im IrnA ir+*uh)ufor
J i':tn. Mill f ft ijiiH ln'i'ii [i1vrn+ TIip Ini'ld^ni**
1 Mr joKt''^. till* rimiiy tliiiijrri, aEiit tlir- lanicuiir^
ri<i|iiL<'ri«-4l Willi ilie Lihiifm art* takuci FrnTii llii^.
'i lit' liiMiiiir" where 5Iin. <;it9it Ik ref^meil to
\hv I MinarUiNM' tm Ui'pii\VH tu ts^f bpr Mttle
iHiy'n MiniH'fK nii'mh'd Jirtjipi'n^il in ^'hlcaj^K
M ( , 1; nil?''" I'lndi'iiiiictl Inn ijf titp tf arU^r In the
jinC'Ciiri^ ill lih hikii wh'olie'* TTnifiitcdIy tabim
Jtud I hi'' tl'^b^'luT und Im t'XlHtM-d iHi thi'^ RtNit: It
iM t-ii 1 1 1 at>|i'('ii.l:nk% And rfit^rf urt?' nibctii InkPD
ir^i'iN I'imI llii' [hi- rfMirH ar ttpem-li and tbe
JiinndirTi In ii4«-K uri:^ ri''*l unt'ft.
Thli* t'lHv niik\ lit' irhvn wUh fewer rehears-
a tit trian utiv kHiit futi v^t^nLuf^'fl I'ntertiiiii-
iiii'nT. Till* '^l'I•|.lnl^^fn|lC limy Ik' L'^medtmliv
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t"']i;iriii4 Ih. TLree ifptirm) nh^JiivAli will
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Some Geographical Publications
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NM«iit«lii>, !be Inkf
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KTenl |M«n nii th«- ^timiiftb aii 1 Indlmi nanin* of tftlirnnilii. i:vefv sraifEDt^ut It UioruDi^ttiy
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THI
New Elementary Agriculture
By Dr. Chas. E. Bessey^ Prof. Lawrence
Brunery and Pro/. G, D. Swezey
of the
University of Nebraska
hn •I§0iwitar9 ttxt-book for tht tmMnth and •tghtk
gradat or tha High Sehool.
A STRONG ENDORSEMENT
Some time ajfo I received a copy of
your delifi^htful little book on Element-
ary Agrriculture. I am delighted with
the step you have taken. I have been
urjfing the necessity of this for some
time. The beginning should be made
in the common school, or, probably, it
should begin farther back than that — in
the normal school, with the fitting and
preparing of teachers, so that when
thev take up the common school work
they can introduce this delightful and
beneficial study. Every child would be
benefited by a course of study in this
book and instruction regarding it in the
class room. Hon. J.ames Wilson,
(/. S. Secretary of Agriculture.
Published in October, 1903, but already
in use in 114 different schools.
THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY.
LINCOLN, NEBRASKA.
Biraies
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It Is the story of the experience of I>elina
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CONTENTS are:
Birdies at Thetk Trapes: Mason-^
Swallow, Basketmsker — Crlmsonflncti.
"Weaver— Oriole, Fuller— Goldfinch, Carpen-
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Birdies and Their Sonos : In the Gsrden
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Canary, In the Grove — Mockingbird.
Birdies on tub Wixo: Huinnilngbtrd.
TiiK Birdies' Farewell: Jack Sparrovr
and Jenny Wren, GoodBye.
The book Is very prettily Illustrated by
IkTtha L. Corbi'ft. the artist of Snnbonnei
Babies. The author Is Ida S. Elson. of Phila-
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of Bethlehem, Pa.
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J
THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
The Mississippi Valley was destipteJ
to become the core of the nation as it
was of the continent. Its fertile soil
would support a demise population, and
its cheap waterways were to prove of
inestimable value for a yoiaig, agri-
cultural people. The acquisition of
the new West prolonged greatly the
fnost distinctive feature of American
anthropO'geograph ic conditions — the
abundance of free land, A nation is
influenced 7tot only by the topography,
but by the size of its territory. The
presence of the new West reacted most
wholesomely upon the East and the old
West; the stimulating effect of inex-
haustible opportunity never allowed
American energy to abate, and the
democratic spirit of the ever youthful
frontier fostered the spirit of democ-
racy and youth in the whole nation.
ELLEN CHURCHILL SEMPLE
An Important Book of Travel
1
AFRICA
FROM SOUTH TO NORTH
THROUGH MAROTSELAND
By MAJOR A. St. H. GIBBONS, F. R.G. S.
Author of '' Exploration and Hunting in Central Africa/'
^With Numerous Illustrations reproduced from Photo-
graphs, and ilaps. /.* ;; Octavo. 2 vols, $7*50 net.
Major Gibbons' ik.<tnptmi of his irai'eh thmugh the ^*uk&k kn^th cf
the Aft it tin i^titinrfif is amon^i the most imiuaifie c&ntrihuti^m to
this class of iitfrature putili^hed in recent years. Amongst other
important features in the "tuork is an account of the tracing of the
Zambesi River to its son re f, li^'kich had hitktrto remained undiscovered.
ORDER FORM
To JOHN LANE, Pub/ishcr,
6y Ftjih .Ivcnue^ A'i^^l* ]
Ptease send me "AFRICA
THROUGH MAROTSELAND
\'amf'
— m — H
ork City. H
FROM SOUTH TO NORTH ■
rltidr^KK - . ^^
1
■
JOHN LANE, Publisher, ^.V^ue New York
Usm tfrwm In Tomr Sth&^i
Swttd for a Collettion fof Vomr
Horn*
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GEOGRAPHY
Rv HAkou> W. Fa[riianks
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C7{f//t, do cents
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244
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
June
this is only the beginning, for we go south and find Arkansas, Okla-
homa, the Indian Territory, and Louisiana, another group that would
make a kingdom. And again we have the higher plains of Kansas,
Nebraska, and the Dakota?, and most of Montana, Wyoming, and
Fio.
The Mississippi River system, showing the vast area and
watered surface included in the Louisiana Purchase.
Colorado. So ran the new possession, from the Gulf to the 49th
parallel, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains,
distances that are bewildering, areas that we travel over but never
truly appreciate, an empire in which an average European state
might be lost.
To many doubting citizens of New England the settlements beyond
the Cumberland Gap seemed far away and of doubtful worth, while
the nation, the wealth, the intelligence, and the sound judgment
in public affairs were east of the Appalachians. Viewed with their
perspective, the Mississippi was hardly so big as the Connecticut and
it is not strange that their world faced eastward. But long before
Alaska was bought, or American abodes were found in the Pacific,
the geographical center of our territory had migrated to Northern
Kansas. And now our population center is in Indiana, and the center
of manufactures follows hard on in Ohio, and if there is in America
a pivotal area, it is in the upper Mississippi Valley.
When Illinois and the balance of the old Northwest were won, we
were assured of respectable fields of wheat and corn, but we could
x^04
GEOGRAPHIC IMPORTANCE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
245
not have entered the markets of the world. For this we must have the
prairies beyond the river, as well as on the hither side, and run on
a thousand miles to the plateau of Oregon and Washington and the
valleys of CaUfornia. In any reckoning of the values of the Louis-
iana Purchase, we must not forget that it made possible all that lay
between its zigzag western boundary and the Pacific Ocean. Across
it was the path to Texas, to the Mexican Territory, and the waters
of the Oregon; and this northern path was trodden without delay
by Lewis and Clark, though forty-three years were to pass before
Britain finally yielded her claim to Oregon.
If ever figures could be quoted without dulling the edge of truth,
it would seem that we might do it here. The wheat production of
the Louisiana tract alone in 1900 was more than half that of the entire
United States. The corn crop of that year came up to forty-eight
per cent of our total, the two grains amounting w^ithin the area to
$464,000,000. This says nothing of oats, barley, rye, potatoes, hay,
and cotton. In 1900, also, this area raised more] than one-third
of the wool of the United States, and adding sugar, and live-stock
Fig. 2a. A scene on a Dakota cattle ran^e. Thousands of similar herds scattered over the
western prairies and crazing areas, make the Louisiana Purchase region
a rich cattle country.
products, the census expert affirms that one per cent of the farm prod-
ucts for that year would meet the price agreed upon by Livingston
and Monroe and sanctioned by Congress.
Without Louisiana, Chicago might be an Indianapolis or a Toledo,
and New York herself, we need not fear to say, would not be the second
246
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Jane
eit}^ of the world ami iiiii^ht l>e running a rat-e with Montreal or New
Orleans for the priinacy of North Amerieu. Witlioiit the herds and
harvesters of Prairies and Plains » who should feed the East and where
woidd the sons of New England have liad a ehanre to ^row up, or the
colonizing energies of the eastern seaboard a f)laee to ilisport themselves?
We have not merely a country by so iiuieh bigger, but a land of more
men, more mills, more variety of industry* autl of intenser life.
The lumbernien (jf the Southern Appalachians are slashing the
forests with ruinous hand; every hamlet shows its sawmills and stacks
of lumber, and the washed and banen slopes tell of the tardy hand
of the national government, which might stay the ravage. Outside
of this disappearing wealth of forest, the great reserves are largely
j^^^fTS-.
.<tufi>r"^ -'
Fia.
Coppi^ ♦«MU4, BHid, AhffiUHt>i
found in Arkansas, in Louisiana, and in Texas; or, leaping again past
the Rocky Mountains, they cover the slopes of the Sierras, and mantle
with the densest forests of North America parts of the Cascade and
Olytwpic ranges. We should ruit have any of these but for Louis-
iana. We will not say that all lunged on the bargaining of a particular
year, or of nne adnimi strati on, for the westward current of American
life was too strong to be long ciiecked. It liad within a generation
rolled over the Appalachians, and was in no danger of being perma-
nently restrainetl from the long incline that leads np to the Rocky
Mountains. The particular deeds of histor}- that make most of wliat
is put into the books are liut euhninating expressions of the larger
life that dtics not de|>end on accidents or persons.
To speak of Muntana, South Dakota » or Colorado is to name a syno-
nym for the wealth of the mines. In 1901 Colorado yielded more
than $27,000,000 of gold and above $18,000,000 in silver, while the two
■
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PUBLICATIONS OF
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TEACHERS COLLEGE
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Teachers College is the professional
school of Columbia University for the
study of education and the theoretical
and practical training of teachers of
both sexes for elementary^ secondary,
and normal schools, of specialists in
various branches of school work, and
of school i)rincipals, supervisors, and
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and Ph. D. jf Many courses in other
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qualified students.
For circulars and further information
address the Secretarv.
JAMES E. RUSSELL, LL. D., Detn.
BULLETIN NO. i
The Geography of Chicago and Its En-
virons, by liollin D. Salisbury and Will-
iam C. Alden. Illustrated. 8vo. 64
pages. Price, 35 cents.
BULLETIN NO. 2
The Plant Societies of Chicago and
Vicinity, by Dr. Henry C. Cowles. Illus-
trated. 8vo. 76 pages. Price, 50 cents.
IN PREPARATION:
> Historical Development of Chicago In
Its Relation to the Geography.
4- Stony Island.
5. Post-Glaclal Erosion About Chicago,
with a Special Study of the ''North Shore.''
6. The Drainage Canal.
7. The Barrlngton Region.
8. The Local Fauna.
9. The Quarries and Rock Exposures
About Chicago.
10. The Blue Island Ridge.
RAND, McNALLY «& COMPANY
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and iilolescence
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application. These articles
form a part of the rapidly
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of the child. Address : : :
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Seattle, Wash.
Educational Gazette
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BRIGHT /• SCHOLARLY .•/ HELPFUL
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If JoritXAL OP Geoorapht Is mentioned.
FEATURES:
I. New York Uniform Examinations,
Questions, and Answers,
n. A Year of Birds,
ni. Correlation in the Grsdes.
IV. Rhetoricals and School Exercises.
V. Entertainment Page.
VI. Current Topics.
VII. Magazine and Book Reviews.
Vm. N. Y. SUte Educational News.
IX. Regents News.
X. State Department News.
XI. Silk and Its Uses.
XII. Editorials and Incidents.
QPPPIAI EDUCATIONAL GAZETTE
Methods Is Primary RradiHi both for >b 1 •UU
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D. H. Cook, Mgr. .••• .•/ Syr.\cuse, N.Y.
I904
GEOGRAPHIC IMPORTANCE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
249
fectly logical, if Louisiana and New Orleans were not to belong to
the United States. Those early days made experiment of dividing
the Mississippi along its course and failed. Later years down to the Civil
War made trial of cutting the Mississippi into upper and lower halves.
The simple and eloquent words of Lincoln in 1863 — *The Father of
Waters now flows un vexed to the sea** — might have cast their meaning
back over all American history', for now first in our own time does the
physical unity of the valley begin to find expression in social and his-
torical solidarity. Galveston, Kansas City, and Omaha, or Chicago,
Memphis, and New Orleans, more and more will point the way along
the lines of social and commercial interchange.
We can hardly suppose that Jefferson, or his diplomats, or his ex-
plorers even dimly knew that they were transforming the nation into
a world power. After Lewis and Clark had accomplished their mission,
almost nothing was known of the riches of the Columbia basin and
fifty years were to pass l^efore railway surveys toward the Pacific
were well in hand. The Plains were the Great American Desert of
every schoolboy's geography, and not imtil 1849 did the greatness
of California begin. And it has been left for the last ten years to tell us
"the meaning of our Pacific shore line. A friend whose wife is at this
moment visiting in Los Angeles tells the writer that lie was looking
\ip her proposed journey thence to a point in Oregon. It had seemed
like a run from Boston to New York. He found it was nearly a thou-
sand miles. Doubtless half of the l:)oys and girls in our high schools
Fig.
5. Shipping wharf on the Mississippi River levee at Xcw Orleans. This port has
grown rich from the outflow oj products through it from the Louisiana
Purchase territory.
250 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Jtme
would be surprised to find that if California were reversed and super-
imposed on the Atlantic coast, it would stretch from Boston to
Charleston.
But the Pacific coast has its meaning not so much in its length,
as in the Golden Gate, in the estuary of the Columbia River, and in Puget
Sound. These are the gateways that lead out to Alaska, to Hawaii,
to Manila, China, and Japan. Not less does Louisiana find its logical
outcome in the Isthmian Canal, in preponderant influence in the West-
ern Hemisphere, and in more complete use of the highw^ays and resources
of all Pacific lands. The Pacific outlet puts us in easy communication
in the near future with at least 500,000,000 of people, and opens possi-
bilities that outrun the most daring imagination.
Three of the seven greatest ports of the United States belong to the
territory which was foreign until 1803; these are New Orleans, Galves-
ton, and San Francisco, and it requires no seer to place the lower
Columbia River and the cities of Puget Sound among the first centers
of foreign commerce. Our great territory has given us room for all
kinds of people and for many millions of them. We have had open doors
tow^ard Europe and acres enough to receive her children. The number
and the cosmopolitan breadth of our population have been possible
through the expansion which made its vastest stride in 1803. Adding
to the weight of adequate nimibers the variety and bulk of our natural
resources, we became a nation largely sufficient to ourselves and able
to reach out and hold what the unfolding of the years puts into our
hand. For nations as for men, "To him that hath shall be given" is
law inevitable.
That wo should have more land, more men, more corn and wheat,
silver and gold, that we should l)e many and rich, has flowed from the
bargain of 1803. But beyond all this and higher, is the unfolding
genius of our people, which was in no small way then determined. We
were then assured of the long possession of a frontier, which means
toil, danger, plasticity, and free evolution of institutions. We have
had a hundred years of migrating frontier, marking an epoch from
which wo are now passing, l)ut whose consequences we shall not soon
outrun. We have had daring exploration, we have sketched in the
outlines of a new civilization on fresh ground, and this new creation
is now to be perfected in detail. We have had the discipline of long
distances, the strain of diverse chmates, the appropriation of untried
resources, and we are now to watch the growth of new types of society,
industry', and, it may be, of letters and the higher life.
i9(>4 SURFACE AND CLIMATE OP THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 25 I
Jefferson did not shrink from saying that they had done something
outside of the Constitution, but the Constitution grew by interpreta-
tion rather than by formal amendment. Events and not theory
develof)ed the corporate life of the nation then as to-day. It was then
that the first notes of secession were sounded, and they were heard —
from Massachusetts! The great New England Commonwealth was
more interested in fisheries than in a continent, but we must not judge
her in the light of our knowledge. She said that the original balance
of power was broken, that Virginia was all in all, that the South was
outweighing the North in the counsels of the nation, and that the new
slaveholding states that would arise across the Mississippi would leave
her a cipher in the Union. We can hardly wonder at her fears, but
looking backward we can see that the Louisiana Territory did indeed
precipitate the struggle over slavery, but that it was also the great
Northwest, the wide north end of old Louisiana, which turned the
scale at last on many bloody fields for freedom and the Union.
We need not believe, without limit, that Jefferson was *'the broad
statesman who saw beyond the Mississippi, over the Rockies to the
Pacific, and over the Pacific to the cradle of the world. ^' We may
hail him not only because he was wise, but also because he was wiser
than he knew.
THE SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF THE
LOUISIANA PURCHASE
BY N. H. DARTON
Of the United State's Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
STRETCHING from north to south entirely across the middle
United States, the region of the Louisiana Purchase naturally
presents great diversity of surface configuration and climate.
There are lowlands and mountains, hills and plains, prairies and forests,
with climatic conditions var^^ing from cold to warm, and from moist
to nearly arid. The mountains rise to altitudes of over 14,000 feet
and the lowlands extend to tide water in the Gulf of Mexico. The
plains and prairies occupy over a million square miles, and range in alti-
tude from 200 feet and less in the lower Mississippi region to the high
plains of Colorado, of which the more elevated portions reach 7,000
feet. The dominant features of topography are the products of depo-
sition and erosion by the western tributaries of the Mississippi River.
\
i9«4 SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 253
This river drains all of the region excepting its northeastern corner,
out of which flows the Red River of the North, a stream emptying
into Hudson Bay.
Mountains. From the Arkansas Valley in Colorado, northward
through Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, the western portion of the
Purchase includes the Rocky Mountain Range which rises steeply
6,000 feet and more above the Great Plains extending far eastward
from its foot. The high front range of these mountains trends nearly
due north and south through central and northern Colorado and south-
central Wyoming, passing a short distance west of Colorado Springs,
Denver, and Cheyenne. Though several of its peaks rise to over 14,000
feet above the sea level, it is not the main continental divide between
the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, for branches of the
Platte and Arkansas head behind it. In Wyoming the front ridge
is known as the Laramie Range and it is crossed by the Union Pacific
Railroad at Sherman west of Cheyenne, where its altitude falls to 8,251
feet. The elevation increases again northward in Laramie Peak,
north of which it soon sinks into high plains or off-sets west to the Wind
River Range. The latter, merges into the Shoshone and Absaroka
ranges, which extend north through northwestern Wyoming on the
east side of Yellowstone Park. Thence through Montana the Rocky
Mountains continue as a high range to and into Canada, forming the
divide between the headwaters of the upper Missouri and Columbia
rivers.
The Rocky Mountain Range thus forms the northwestern bojindary
of the Louisiana Purchase region, a huge rampart of high, rocky ridges
interrupted by a high, wide valley in central-southwestern Wyoming,
but elsewhere crossed only by elevated mountain passes from 8,200 to
12,000 feet in altitude and a few deep canyons through the Front
Range in Colorado and southern Wyoming. These mountains have
not had the effect of halting the tide of western progress, as in the case
of the Appalachian ranges, for railroads and highways were extended
across them in the earliest days of the great movement westward.
and a large proportion of the settlers and miners pressed forward to
the western slope without stopping at the foot of the mountains. The
growth of the great city of Denver is due more to the presence of the
mineral deposits in the mountains just west than to a halt in westerly
progress.
The Bighorn Mountains are an outlying range of the Rocky Moun-
tains in northern Wyoming, rising to an altitude of over 13,000 feet
2
World's Fair
and National Educational
Association Number
The JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY
The June number of TA^* Journal o/Gedohafhv will be a WorM'si Fair aRd
a Hatianal EducBtionol AssociRtirm Numth?r. It wtll be devt>lt?d unlirely to
^he Geography
of the Louisiana
Purchase
Amnnfc thc5 numerDii!i articles that may be expected are tlie fnJlowm^ i
THE GEOGRAPHICAL VALUE OF THE LOUtStANA PURCHASE
lly PKOKKsstJH A. P BkiGllAM, if Ct^ij^aff Uftwersiiy
THE SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
ih' K. H- ilAHiE^N, lij tfit I'ntfi-tl Sfafts Geoj^rapkuai Sttrirv
THE HISTORY AND EXPLORATION OF THE I.OUISIANA
PURCHASE
Nv Dr. A. C. H'.>vvi.S%'i»^ iif (he lt\tclii>{\i CtJlifge, Ct?/tiftifiia Uftive^rit/y,
Xt'ii' Vt^rJi tffy
THE INDUSTRIES OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
/iv PKfH KssoR SPEXCKH Tkottf,w. oJ Suarthmi^ft' ioii,-^, Swarfkm&rt'^
Pa. aiifhiff tf^'A Comfn^t'ciai (ftv^rafi/iy''^
THE IMPORTANCE AND PRESENT CONDITIONS OF IRRIGATION
//v Geu. 11 Hi] I. LIST BR. AsSiUiafi' /ii/f/tr t'/ /7ir Jduntiif *}/ tMig^rafAy ,
ffydrtf^rnph^r f*r /A*' L'tnleti Staie^ Gtvlo^Atii SHn*ey
ST. LOUIS
By ¥aa.vs C. SEMJ-LF., of Lou/srtl/r'. A>.; an/k&r if '\hnttiCiifi J/tsUry
atiii G^ttfj^f-jfAtt' L'i*fidief\>fis*'
DENVER
By £HAHLm E. CI I Ate, Kv, Asjstjfattt Sttfcrintend^nl tf ike DtHVer^
Citii-vradtii Sc^tfh
Tlii' iirtifles will be iliu^trateO t'Xl;i?nsli'C'lv hv phuiu^'^faphs untl n]apt» ;
thert* will bu u lurKt? fuklin^ ini%|i t>f tlit Lnuisuiha Pvirehase insvrleiJ, anil
the iiuttiber will be irtvahisiblt- Ui all HL?at:her-'« wlio intend iii viail *SL Luiii!* gii
IJ^J^*i^^ whi* wi^h tn hove v%f U Htkiiictl i;i'ii>;riiplijcal nuitirial on thtf Oruai
Weist and especially uf llu* Louisiana PurehH?»t. available far vIa&& ii*ie. The
n umber will nls*i indude a brief selected bjblii>g;ruphy i*n ihe jfeoffrophv uf
the LDUisiuiia Purchase, (ind sLntjstieal m^ivm ^hnvfink ils piipulatian, eum-
mcrcei induslrie?*, ;ind relaiive en'^onymic irnpfirluncf.
The price i3 2Qc» postpaid
This remark nble Special Issue should \nr in Ihe hnnds of c%'crv teacher
before attendinKf the Cfsnvenliim, lis pubKfftti<m U of dedded JniportanL^
in the Keo^rnphicol w*irld. f^rder miw and he surf nf « copy.
ijiibscriptums and advertisiemonts i^hould be sienl to
T/u- JOURNAL 0/ GEOGRAPHY
Riiiim s/fl, !6o Adams St., CinCAGO, ILL.
1904
SURFACE AND CLIMATE OF THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
255
ami local areas of bad-lanil?^. Wide dij^tricts i^f sand hills surmount
the plains in some localities, notably in northwei?tern Nebraska, where
high sand dunes occupy an area of several thousand S(juare miles.
The pn>vince is developed on a great thickness of soft rocks, sands,
clays, and loams, generally spread in thin but extenisive beds sloping
gently eastward with the slope of the plains. These deposits lie on
relatively smootli surfaces of the older rocks. The materials of the
formations were deriA^eil mainly from the west and were depositee!,
layer by layer, either by streams on their flood plains or in lakes and,
during earlier times, in the sea. x4side from a few very local flexures,
the region has not been subjected to folding, but has been broatily
uphfted and depressed successively. The general smoothness of the
region to-tlay was surpassed by the almost complete planatious of
the surface during earlier epochs. (Hving to the great breadtli f>f
the plains and their relatively gentle declivity, general erosion has pro-
gressed slowlVj notwit list audi iig the softiu*ss of the forouitions, and,
as at times of freshets many of the rivers bring out of the niountams
a larger load of setliment than they can carry to the Mississi|>pi. they
are now building up their valleys rather than deepening them.
«B»Li
'S)^«
Sam's Hancht in tiw Bad Lands. A iypicM view p; //»<* Grmtt Plains and catttt ranch in
central SoHih Dakota,
Read
This
Here /v a list of ixrth ies thiit are soon to appear in THE
JOURXAL OF Cl-J HiRAPUV. Will these help jv •/ /;/ the
j^eo^raphitiil 'n'ork of your ela^^ .'
The Functions of Geography in the Elementary School.
Geography in the United States.
The Delta of the Mississippi River.
A Noteworthy Cave in the Coastal Plain of Georgia.
Weather Lore.
The Scope and Content of Geography. Two articles.
Map Drawing.
Studying the Sun, Moon, and Stars.
Transportation. A scrios of articles.
River Study.
Geographical Education.
The Geography of the Louisiana Purchase. A series of
ten articles.
Practical Exercises in Physiography.
The Geography and History of Chattanooga and Vicinity.
Geography in the Civil War.
The Conduct of Excursions in Elementary Geography
Work.
The Growth of Wheat in the United States.
The Geography of the Fall Line.
Geographic Influences of Government.
Anthropogeography.
Mathematical Geography. A series.
Geographical Course of Study in the Following Normal
Schools:
Terre Haute, Indiana.
Los Angeles, California.
Oswego, New York.
Wcstfield, Massachusetts.
Suf'SKfif't' Jor this } urnal, .in J c z* //f'" u^i'*.\f fitt'ii' artiiltS
Talk The
THK JOl'RXAL OF (iFOCiRAPHY
Doom 560. 160 Adams Street. Chicago, ilU
L
,M^ ■> T^V ,»^ =^£
Ji im^"
Twin yttsUn j typical Imttt iti Hanncr Connty, Xebrniku, fkntt tluiniiL
i.oui;*. Its average volume of water a day at its mouth is ten hillioa
cubic feet. The longest affloent of the Mist^ouri River h tlic Platte:^
Kiver whirh rises in the R*>rky MnniitMins in .soiilhem Wyoinitig and
northern Colonulcj arnl eTn[)ties iiiio the Missouri River at Platt.suKmtiL
a few uiiles Ih>1ow Omaha, Its daily flow averages nearly a half billion^
cuhie feel. The Yellowstt*iK*-Hi^horn River s^^steni ik the next longest-
affluent, flawing north out of northwestern Wyoming anrl north-
ea?^1wiirfl acrc»s8 the southeastern corner of Ahnitana, U has a larger
volume than the Platte i>nt the anK>unt of flruv has not lux'n ai^eertainetl
The Kunsu.s Kiver, wliieh flows across th** northern portion of Kansas.
is a large fitreani, anrl in the spring of 1903 this river was the principal
t'anse of the ^^vphX flood in tht* lowrr portion (»f Kansas City, The Mis-
souri Kiver receives but rt^lativeiy little drainage from the east, the Big
Sifuix Kiver hrint- it^ [irincipal affluent on that side. Its larger branches
mostly rise in the innnntains and firing vast vohnnes <if water from
the melting snow and great watershe-iw. The Missouri River and
lower Mississi|>]>i Kiver as one great stream have a length of 4^2(K)
miles, tiie longest in tin* world.
The Arkansas Kiver is the third in size of the affluents of the Missis-
sippi River, rising in the niitldle of the Rnt'ky Mountains in central i
Colorado and draining a large watershed area in Kansas, Oklahoniatj
Indian Territory rnid Arkansas. Its length is 1,514 miles and it rarrie^
SURFACE AND CLIMATE OP THE LOUISIAKA PURCHASE
259
to the Mississippi River a volume of neaHy six billion cubic feet of water
a day. The Red River of the South rises in the southern end of the
Rocky iMovintains in northern New Mexico, flow*^ across the panhandle
of Texai?, the j^outhern portion of Oklahoma and Indian Territories,
and through Louisiana, joining the great river near its mouth. Its
length is l,20f) miles and its average daily discharge is five billion
cubic feet. These volumes of discharge represent a vast amount
of water going tu waste, nmeh of whieh in the western portion of the
Purchase will eventually be husbanded for irrigation.
The rivers of the (Ireat Thiins present many interesting problems for
students of physiography. They are not all of the same age and pre-
sent many features of diversity. Some of thosie which rise in the high
mountains to the west bear a heavy loa<l of se<liments, especially dtiring
freshets, which they can only varn' in the regions of greater ileclivity,
and as their velocity diniiiiishes in the Plains eastward, they deposit
a portion of their burden. In this way the Platte is filling u{> its pres-
ent trough, especially in eastern ('oloradi> and througli Nebraska. The
Arkansas and portions of the hnver ^lississippi present similar con-
ditions of overloading and de[)osition. For several hundn*d miles
in its lower portion the Mississippi flows on an embankment wliich
it has built up ten to twenty feet above the adjoining lowlands.
.7. The \prih Platte River at ihi SttbraskQAVyi>nn»g ^taU* hnt, laoktng dcnLfi
Slrtatn^ siuruit^X shfunkctt condition of tlut rwer in mid-suwtwer.
260 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY June
In North Dakota and South Dakota the Missouri River has a rela-
tively new course, the waters having originally flowed down the James
River N'alley. During the Glacial Period, the river was displaced
from this valley by the advance of \he continental ice sheet alon^
the western margin of which the outlines of the present course wer^
incised. The new valley was cut so deep during this period that,
when the ice retreated, the old channel could not be regained and th^
river has remained in its new valley, cutting it down gradually to it^
present level. One of the most striking contrasts between an over —
loaded and an eroding stream is in southern Nebraska, where thc^
Platte is filling up its valley and its neighbor on the south, the Rcpubli —
can, a branch of the Kansas, is deepening its valley. This is due to
the fact that the Platte is overloaded with sediments from the moun —
tains, while the Republican, fed by springs in eastern Colorado, received
relatively little sediment, besides having a slightly greater mearrfc
declivity, so that erosion preponderates over sedimentation.
Climate. The Louisiana Purchase region presents a general reg —
ularity in its variations in climate from north to south and east tc:>
west. This is most marked in the annual precipitation. At the south —
ern extremity of the region, the mean annual rainfall is slightly oveX*
sixty inches and this amount diminishes gradually to the northwes'*>
to less than fifteen inches in the Great Plains of Eastern Colorado, Wyo^ —
ming, and Montana. On the Rocky Mountains, Bighorn Mountains; ^
and Black Hills there is locally increased precipitation to from twenty^
to thirty inches a year, due to the influence of these highlands iir>-
arresting moisture passing ac^ross the Continent.
In thermometric range there is a regular diminution of mean annuarl-
temperature to the north. In southern Louisiana the mean is slightl>^
over 70°. In Arkansas it is 57° to 65° and then the diminution i^
regular to considerably below 40° in the northern portion of Nortln^
Dakota and on the high mountain summits to the west.
The JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY
Volume III. JUNE, 1904 Number 6
Copyright, 1004, by E. M. Lchucrts.
PAGE
The Geographic Importance of the Louisiana Purchase 243
ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM
The Surface and Climate of the Louisiana Purchase, N. H. DARTON 251
Explorations within the Louisiana Purchase A. C. ROWLAND 261
Present Industries within the Louisiana Ptirchase 270
SPENCER TROTTER
The Value and Development of Irrigation in the Louisiana Purchase
Tract GEORGE B. HOLLISTER 278
Geographic Influences in the Development of St. Louis .... 290
ELLEN CHURCHILL SEMPLE
Denver, the Queen City of the Plains . . . . C. E. CHADSEY 300
Geographical Notes :
Area and Popiilution of States and Territories within the Louisiana Pur-
chase, 304— Rank of Principal Manufactures in the Several
Purchase States. 1900, ^04 Agriculture in the Louisiana Purchase, 305 — Graz-
urchase, \o^-
Current Articles on Commerce and Industry, j*./).
ing in the Louisiana Purchase Territory, nyx., 305— Localization of Indus-
tries in the Louisiana Purchase, 305 — HiblioKraphy <»f the Purchase, 305 —
Editorial:
The Louisiana Purchase, 307.
Recent Publications 308
IVews Notes 309
Autlwrs are personally responsibh^ for opinions ami statements expressed
in the JOURNAL
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
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THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Room 560, x6o Adams St., Chicago, Illinois
Rand, mcRallp $i Companp's neu> publications
COMMON SENSE
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/u^ Common School
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By HENRY SABIN
Prepared for those who
are disposed to investigate
school affairs from a com-
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Each chapter meets a dis-
tinct need.
Cloth, lamo, 343 pp., $1.00
THE
CHILD
J lis Thinkitiff^ Feelings and
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By AMY E. TANNER
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and written on the subject
of Child-Study
Illustrated vcith plans and
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Cloth, lamo, 430 pp., $1.25
ELEMENTARY
CHEMISTRY
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264
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
to American authority was made, Jefferson, now in a position to give
effect to his eariicr plans, organized an expedition to explore the coun-
try, and early in 1803 obtained from Congress the necessary' authority
and an appropriation of money. His objects were varied. Primarily
the expedition was to seek for the best practicable route for commerce
from the Mississippi \'alley to the Oregon coast. At the same time
the nature of the country was to be determined, its soil and produc-
tions, the plant and animal life, the course of the streams, the mineral
productions, and the Indian inhabitants and their characteristics.
In selecting leaders for the exploring party, Jefferson exercised
great judgment. He chose two young men, Virginians and originally
Map 2. .'1 ntap shawinfi the Ixwis and Clark Expedition.
(From Murf's Iltstory of the I'nlted States.)
neighbors of his own, Ciipt. Meriwether Lewis, his private secretary-,
and Capt. William Clark, brother of (len. (Jeorge Rogers Clark, who had
won the Illinois country from the l^ritish during the Revolution. They
were acconipanietl by a party of thirty, including two French Canadian
interpreters and an Indian s(juaw, wife of one of the latter. The
winter of 1S03 4 was spent in camp on the eastern bank of the Missis-
sippi and in the following spring. May 14, 1804, the little expedition
crossed the river and set out on their dangerous journey. Their plan
was to proceed up the Missouri River to its source, there hide their
boats, and then, passing over the mountains by the easiest trail, descend
the Coluni])ia to the ocean. This plan they carried out successfully.
The journey up the Missouri was long and tedious. The current was
swift and their canoes often were inipedetl by snags and sand bars.
The banks fro(iuently crumbled in or were covered by brush and
bushes so that towing was almost inipossiljle. They made frequent
stops to hold councils with the Indians and distribute presents from
X9CH EXPLORATIONS WITHIN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 265
the Great Father in Washington, now heard of for the first time by
most of these savages. Finally after nearly six months of weary labor
they reached at the end of October the villages of the Mandan Indians,
situated 1,600 miles from the mouth of the river, near the present
Bismarck, North Dakota. These Indians, whose peculiar character-
istics differentiated them from all other natives of the northwest,
proved on the whole ver>' friendly, and here Lewis and Clark passed
the following winter.
On the approach of spring the expedition once more set out. Work-
ing their way slowly and with difficulty up the Missouri, they reached
the mouth of the Yellowstone, April 26th, and on June 3d the Marias
River, which is so considerable a tributary that the travelers were in
doubt which was the main stream of the Missouri and cast about for
some time making careful measurements before deciding. It was
a matter of much importance, for the wrong course would have taken
them far away from their tme objective, the nearest branches of the
Columbia. Finally, against the judgment of the majority of the
party, Lewis and Clark decided to take the more southerly stream,
which proved the correct one. On the 1 3th of June they came to the
falls of the Missouri. Here they had to make their first portage of
eighteen miles, which consumed some time and required great labor on
the part of the whole party. It was not till July 25th that they reached
the second forks of the river where the same decision confronted them
as before. There were three streams to choose from, but they rightly
selected the northern one, naming the other two Madison and Gallatin
after the Secretary' of State and the Secretary of the Treasury.
The party were now well within the mountains and it became neces-
sary to find and make friends with some of the Indians of the region
who might guide them across the divide to the headwaters of the
Columbia. The Indian woman of the party, squaw of one of the inter-
preters, was fortunately a native of this district, having been captured
by one of the enemies of her tribe some years before and sold into the
lower country. By her aid the explorers soon met a party of Shoshones
and persuaded them to show the way through the pass. They came
out on the Lemhi River, a tributar}^ to the Salmon which flows into
the Snake River and thence into the Columbia, so that the course of
the explorers seemed clear before them. But as a matter of fact,
they had arrived at the most difficult part of their journey. The
Lemhi and Salmon rivers proved impracticable and they were forced
to abandon them and strike off to the north over an almost impassable
266 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Jmie
trail leading through the Bitter Root Mountains along the great con-
tinental divide. Game became scarce and they almost starv^ed, being
forced to kill and eat some of the horses they had procured from the
Indians. From August 30th to Sept^mper 20th, they struggled through
these mountains, but finally emerged in the valley of the Clearwater,
where they encoimtered a band of Nez Perc6 Indians from whom
they procured food and further imformation as to the way. They
built and launched canoes on the Clearwater and paddling down this
and the Snake River at last reached the Columbia on October 16th.
Notwithstanding the dangerous rapids of this river, they passed safely
through in their boats and on November 7, 1805, came out on the
shores of the Pacific.
The winter was passed here in camp near the mouth of the Columbia,
and the following spring the party set out on the return trip across
the mountains. On their way back they discovered the Willamette
River, which had escaped their notice on the descent, owing to the
islands at its mouth, and then retraced their st^ps to their old camp
among the Nez Percys, on the Clearwater. Obtaining guides here, they
plunged into the intricacies of the Bitter Root Mountains, and on
the 1st of July found themselves at a point near the mouth of Travel-
ers Rest Creek, where the party was cUvided into three sections in
order to fmd if possible an easier route through the mountains than
the one they had followed coming out. Lewis was to proceed by the
shortest trails to tlie falls of tlu^ Missouri and explore Marias River
while waiting for his comj)anions to come up. Another party was to
follow the old route to the headwaters of the Missouri and, collecting
the stores left there, join Lewis at the falls. Clark was to accompany
these men to the three forks of the Missouri and then ascend the Galla-
tin River, pass over to the head of the Yellowstone, and follow this
down to its junction with the main stream. All these plans was success-
fully carried out and after many adventures with Indians, grizzly
bears, and buffalo, as well as dangers incident to the wild countr}"
through which they travelled, the entire party was once more united
on the 12th of August, a short distance below the mouth of the Yellow-
stone. Two days later they came to the Mandan villages where they
had spent their first winter and on the 23d of September, 1806, reached
St. Louis after an absence of nearly two years and a half.
One of the members of the Lewis and Clark expedition, John Colter,
had turnetl back before reaching St. TiOuis and joined a ])arty of trappers.
He spent several years in the mountains and in the winter of 1807
EXPLORATIONS WITHIN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
267
he crossed what is now the Yellowstone National Park, the first white
man to behold the wonders of that region.
While the way to the Pacific was being blazed, another officer of
Captain I^wis' regiment, I.ieutenant Pike, was associating his name
with the Louisiana Purchase. In 1805 he was sent to explore the
headwaters of the Mississippi, where he made careful observations and
supposed he had found the source of the river in Leech Lake. The
following year he was sent with a party to discover the headwaters of
the Arkansas River. Leaving St. Louis he traveled overland through
Fio.
Drawn from an old print l»y H. ^V, Coll>y.
riu- city of St. Louis iu the early fur-trading days
Kansas, turned south to the Arkansas, and then pushed on into
Colorado, where he discovered the famous mountain peak that bears
his name. In endeavoring to reach tlie head of Red River he came
upon the upper waters of the Rio Grande and trespassing on Spanish
territory was arrested, and taken to Mexico, whence he was later sent
back to the United States.
The Lewis and Clark expedition and the exi)lorations of Pike led
to the estabhshment of two trade routes through the western part
of the continent known as the Oregon trail and the Santa ¥6 trail.
The former owed its existence to John Jacob Astor, who established
a fur company to operate on the Pacific Coast and sent out an expedi-
tiion in 1811 under W. P. Hunt, to estabHsh posts along the route
followed in 1S04-6. Instead of following the great bend of the Mis-
souri so far to the north, however, Hunt turned west some 1,300 miles
from its mouth and passed by way of the Black Hills and Green River
268 THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Juni
through the mountains and thence to the Columbia. The War of
1812, however, broke up Astor's trading post on the Pacific and when
the route was reopened, a somewhat different course was followed
still farther to the south. Commercially the Santa F^ trail was more
important than the Oregon. The year after Pike's expedition the
first trading journey was made from the Mississippi to New Mexico,
but the real history of the trail l)egins with the trading operations
of William Becknell, shortly after 1812. P>om that time to the intro-
duction of railroads the Santa Fe trail was the most important land
route in America.
The road over the mountains followed by the Astorians was not
satisfactor}', and in 1819 the government sent out Major Long to search
near the sources of the Platte River for a more southern pass through
the mountains. In this he failed through following the South Branch
of th? Platte instead of the North. He made many important dis-
coveries, however, within the state of Colorado, including Long's Peak,
and explored the canyon of the Arkansas. His journey had pointed
to the valley of the Platte as the shortest route to the mountains and
it was but a few years before the Great South Pass in Wyoming was
discovered, it is said by Alexander Henry, a Canadian fur trader, in
1823. Through this pass afterwards ran both the Oregon trail and
the Overland trail to California.
In the third and fourth decades of the century the fur traders con-
tributed most to the histor\' (^f oxj^loration within the Ix)uisiana
Purchase. Gen. W. II. Ashley of St. Louis organized the Rocky
Mountain Fur Coni|)any in 1S22, and established many trading posts.
He led several expeditions into the interior, explored the Green River
near South Pass, and visited Groat Salt Lake, which had already been
discovered by the famous guide and tra])per, James Bridger. Another
trader was Nathaniel J. Wyeth, who led two expeditions to the Colum-
bia in 1S32 and 1S34, and did much to attract the attention of the
East to the Oregon cc^untry and thus lead to its occupation by Amer-
ican emigrants. Captain Bonneville, l'. S. A., was also interested
in tITe fur trade and traveled much through the Rockies from 1832
to 1S35. Ho crossed over into California by way of Great Salt Lake
and is said to have discovered the Humboldt and San Joaquin rivers,
althou»rh he was i)rocedod in the overland journey to California by
a St. Louis fur tra<lor named Pattio. who is supposed to have been
the first white man to cross the continent in this direction.
Durintr this period a number of sciontifio men added to our knowl-
EXPLORATIONS WITHIN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 269
?(lge of these parts. Among them may be mentioned Bradbury,
the naturalist, Nuttall, the botanist, Townsend, an ornithologist,
Nicollet, a French astronomer and .^.^eographer, and Maximilian, Prince
of Neuweid, a German naturalist. Nor should Schoolcraft's excellent
descriptions of the Indians of this region and Catlings Indian portraits
be forgotten.
In 1843 began the great emigration to the Columbia country. In
that year about a thousand people followed the Oregon trail to the
Pacific Coast, and thereafter for a number of years the exodus steadily
increased. It was important that fuller information regarding the
routes of travel across the mountains should be obtained and laid before
the country and therefore the government determined to undertake
an official exploration. At the head of the expedition was placed
Lieut. J. C. Fremont, son-in-law of Senator Benton of Missouri.
Fremont's work was of great importance in opening up the Rocky
Mountain country for travel, and from the passes he discovered and
the number of routes he demonstrated to be practicable he became
known throughout the country' as the ''Pathfinder." His first
expedition, undertaken in 1842, led him to South Pass and the Wind
River Mountains in western Wyoming. The second, in 1843-4, took
him first into Colorado where he found a new pass through the moun-
tains, and then north through the basin of Great Salt Lake and on to
the Columbia. All this region he carefully mapped out and then,
aft^r resting for a short time in Oregon, proceeded south through an
entirely unknown country-, into the Sacramento Valley of California.
He returned by way of the Utah basin. In 1845 Fremont again started
out, this time to find the best route for a railroad to San Francisco,
then a Mexican town. Shortly after reaching the coast news came of the
outbreak of war and he led a successful revolt of American settlers against
the Mexican authorities. Two more exploring expeditions were or-
ganized by Fremont, one in 1848 in which he discovered a practicable
route along the upper Rio Grande to the coast, and the other in 1853
when he opened new passes through the mountains between the 38th
and 39th degrees.
In 1849 began the stampede for the California gold fields and there-
after all energies were turned for some years to a quest for the pre-
cious metals. The mountains were penetrated in every direction
by the gold diggers, and the demand arose for railroad lines across
the continent. Subsequent exploring expeditions were mainly confined
to railroad surveys, among which may be mentioned the government
8
270 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Jvoe
surveys of I. I. Stevens, in 1853-4, from St. Paul to Puget Sound, now
largely followed by the Northern Pacific ; of Lieutenant Beckwith, in
1854, through the region of the South Pass, the route of the Union
Pacific; and of Lieut. John Pope, in 1854, along the line subsequently
followed by the Southern Pacific. Besides these there were many
surveys undertaken both by the government and private corporations
in the Rocky Mountain region between 1850 and 1860.
PRESENT INDUSTRIES WITHIN THE
LOUISIANA PURCHASE*
BY SPENCER TROTTER
Pro/eHnor of Biology^ Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. Author of the
"^ (ieography of Commerce"*
INDUSTRIAL Development of the Region. The eastern border of the
I^ouisiana Purchase was, during the first half of the nineteenth
century, the western frontier of settlement. The vast expanse of
rolling, grass-covered "plains" that stretched away westward from the
frontier to the Rocky Mountains was the then little known "Indian
Country" and the pasture land of the great bison herds. The first
commerce of the region was in the hands of Rocky Mountain trappers
and the traders of the Santa F^ trail and the Missouri. Pelts were
the earliest commodity, and St. Louis, from its location on the Missis-
sippi-Missouri waterway, was the focal point of this trade. St. I^uis
was the gateway to the "Far West" as Pittsburg was to the Ohio traffic
and Buffalo to the Lake Region. Here expeditions fitted out for the
long traverse of the "plains" and the wharv-es, piled high with goods,
were lined with the flat-bottomed steamboats of the Missouri naviga-
tion and the hirger craft of the Mississippi. Parkman gives a vivid
picture of St. Louis trade in the summer of 1846.
The trapper and the trader were essentially a part of the Indian
life of the Great Plains and gradually disappeared as the frontier
moved farther westward. The fertile prairie lands of more abundant
rainfall in the area now embraced by Missouri, Iowa, and the eastern
parts of Kansas and Nebraska were rapidly settled as the danger from
Indians grew less, and the great farms of corn-land spread to the
borders of the arid plains. To the north, in western Minnesota and the
Dakotas, the wheat was advancing westward. The Coastal Plain
♦The statistical diagrams that appear in this article are from Dodge's
Advanced Geography, and are used by special arrangement with the author and
the publishers.
PRESENT INDUSTRIES WITHIN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
271
and its upland borders in Louisiana and Arkansasjwas a cotton-growing
country with river facilities for shipment of the crop to the port of New
Orleans. The western extension of the railroads gave further impetus
to settlement and trade. In the decade from 1870 to 1880 the last
traces of the picturesque frontier period vanished from these prairie
lands which had become the home of an agricultural people.
400
500
United States
Afintusota...
North Dakota
Missouri
Nebraska
Kansas
_L
_L
_L
^1^
Fig. I. The production of wheat in
millions of bushels, in IQ02, in the
leading wheat- producing states.
The deficient rainfall over the Great Plains determined an industry
essentially pastoral and nomadic in character. While scattered bands
of Indians still pursued the rapidly dwindling|herds of buffalos, the
cattlemen invaded these hunting grounds and pastured their droves
of "long horns*' on the wiry buffalo grass. Then followed the years
of the cowboy, the range, and the round-up and the estabhshment of
ranch Ufe from end to end of the region. With cattle came sheep
and, as the railroads reached out, wool became an item of growing
importance.
The industries of the area embraced by the Louisiana Purchase are
essentially agricultural, although considerable mining is done in certain
localities, notably that of lead and zinc in the Mississippi Valley, and
United States.
Illinois
lotua
Missouri .
Nebraska .
Kansas . . .
i I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Fig. 2. The production of corn^^in
hundreds of millions of bushels,
in 1902, in the leading corn-
producing states.
^^^ mining operations of the Black Hills district of South Dakota,
^^op growing and stock raising and the industriesjdependent thereon
^'I'e the leading features of the region.
Some notable facts are available which indicate the vast importance
272 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Jane
of this area in relation to national growth. That the westward expan-
sion of population found an abundant opportunity in this fertile land
is well illustrated by the increase of farms in several states during
the decade from 1870 to 1880. Thus in Iowa the percentage of increase
of the total number of farms was 59.4% ; in Missouri, 45.3% ; in Dakota,
(then one State) 913.7% ; in Nebraska, 415.3% ; and in Kansas, 262.7%.*
o / 2 s 4 J 0 7 ^^ 9 fo
I I I I I I I I I ! I I |.| I I I ! ■
United States
Illinois
IovL>a
Missouri
Nebraska
Kansas
Fig. ^. r//^ Production of oats in hund-
reds of millions of bushels, in 1902^
in the leading oat-producing
states.
An equally significant fact is seen in the westward movement of
wheat cultivation, the center of which at present is in southwestern-
Iowa, having advanced to the Missouri River from a point just east^
of the Mississippi within the past twenty years. In 1850 the greatest
wheat-producing area was in the Genessee Valley, in New York State.
In the last decade (1890-1900) the movement has been up the Mis-
souri, under the influence of the rapidly increasing growth of the hard-
grained wheat production and the milling industries of the Dakotas
and Minnesota. The center of corn production to-day is in south-
western Illinois, just above the junction of the Missouri and Mississippi
rivers and not far from St. Louis. The center has shifted scarcely
at all in the last decade, owing undoubtedly to two facts — (1) the
unavailability of land for corn growing to the west of the 100th meri-
dian due to increasing aridity, and north of the parallel of 42® north,
due to increasingly low temperature, and (2) the centrallizing of the
live stock industries (fattening of cattle and hogs, meat-producing,
etc.) on the Missouri and at Chicago. This second factor is due largely
to transportation facilities. Although the corn center has not advanced
to within the hmits of the Louisiana Purchase its present position
close to the eastern border of that area is in large part the result of the
immense territory of grazing land to the west, the live stock of which
is shipped east to fatten on the farms of the corn belt.
In reviewing the present industrial features of the territory embraced
* Tenth Census,
1904 PRESENT INDUSTRIES WITHIN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 2 73
by the Louisiana Purchase the predominant industries will be consid-
ered from the standpoint of the several commodities which form their
basis. The commodities may be grouped under three main heads —
(1) Crops (including corn, wheat, and other cereals, forage crops,
cotton, and crops of minor importance); (2) Live Stock (including
cattle, hogs, and sheep, and the meat-packing industry' and wool);
(3) Mineral Resources and Mining Operaiions.
Crops. Iowa produced 14.4% of the total United States production
of com for the year 1899; Kansas produced 8.6%; Nebraska 7.9%;
and Missouri 7.8% of the total. All other corn-growing states, with
the exception of Ilhnois, rank below these four which are included
within the domain of the Louisiana Purchase. The yield per square
mile throughout the greater part of these states was over 3,200 bushels,
as high as in any part of the corn belt. A large proportion of the com
grown in this area is fed to stock, the amount varying with the greater
or less demand for meat products. Another considerable portion
finds its way to the distilleries at Peoria, 111. Still another portion
enters into starch and glucose manufacture, and a fourth considerable
portion into domestic economy. A comparatively small amount finds
its w^ay into the export trade of the country.
The wheat-growing area reaches much farther to the northwest
than that of corn, as a result of the lower temperature relations
of the former cereal. The Twelfth Census reports that four-fifths of
all the farms in Minnesota during 1899 produced wheat. South Dakota
(
)
10
1
20 ,fO 40 _U
1 1 1 1
United States
Iowa
Fir.
4
in
Illinois
Missouri
Xebraska
Ohio
The number of millions of hogs,
I go J, in the leading hog-
raising states.
came second with nearly the same proportion, and North Dakota
third with almost three-fourths. These three states are in the Spring
Wheat area. The Census of 1900 reports Minnesota as contributing
14.5% of the total wheat production of the country, over 5% more
than any other wheat-growing State. The great milling industry
of the upper Mississippi is a direct result of the expansion of the
2 74 '^^^ JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY June
wheat-growing area in the Northwest and the demands of the mills
even overreach the vast supply from the contiguous United States
territory and draw wheat from the harvests of Canada and from
Washington and Oregon.
Other cereals are grown in this eastern area of the Louisiana Pur-
chase, but to a small extent compared with corn and wheat. Wheat
creates an enormous traffic movement from its areas of production
United States
Montana
Wyonting —
New Mexico .
Idaho
Utah
10 20 ^^ 40 JO ttO
I I I I I I I I I I I I
Fig. 5. The number of sheep in millions,
in IQ02, in the leading sheep-
raising states.
to the mills and to the disbursing points of Duluth, Superior, and
Chicago, and forms a vcr>' large proportion of the whole export trade
of the country (breadstuffs, of which wheat and wheat flour form
the major portion, constitute 20% of the total export value of the
United States, being second only to cotton).
In the low-lying coastal lands of the state of Louisiana the sugar
cane has long been an important crop. I^ouisiana is practically the
only state producing the cane, its output of sugar for 1901-1902 amount-
ing to 275,000 long tons. The production of sugar beets has developed
as an important industr}^ in Nebraska and Colorado, where several
large factories are located. The more important centers of beet
sugar production, however, lie outside of the Louisiana Purchase area,
in California and in Michigan.
Cotton, the largest item in the export trade of the United States
(22% in the raw and unmanufactured state), is grown to a consider-
able extent within the southern area of the Louisiana Purchase. The
entire State of Louisiana, the greater part of Arkansas, Indian Terri-
tory, and a portion of Oklahoma are all cotton-producing areas of
more or less importance. Of the total increase of cotton acreage
in the last decade, Indian Territory and Oklahoma, together with
Texas, contributed 8S.796» each of the former two adding 371,987
and 239,569 acres respectively to the entire cotton-growing area of
the country'.'"
♦Twelfth (ViK<iis.
PRESENT INDUSTRIES WITHIN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
2/5
The hay crop of the country outside of New York State, which led
in the last decade, is contributed largely by Iowa, Kansas, and Mis-
souri. The two former states produced 4,649,378 and 4,337,342 tons
each; while Missouri and Nebraska each produced over 2,000,000 tons,
with Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Illinois as their only rivals above
this figure.
Live Stock, The dry character of the high '^plains" has precluded
crop growing on any large scale, save where irrigation has been estab-
lished, and has made this western area of the Louisiana Purchase
pre(?minently a group of ^^range states." Montana, Wyoming, and
Colorado are the great ranch states of the section that lies within the
limits of the Purchase. Notwithstanding the great ranges, the char-
acter of the pasturage is against fattening for market purposes. As a
consequence a large number of cattle are shipped into the western corn-
belt section along the Missouri River and, apart from Texas, which
is the greatest cattle state in the I'nion, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska
report the largest numbers, over five million, four million, and three
milhon head respectively. Iowa, also, stood second in the number of
dairy cows, being exceeded by New York.
On the other hand sheep thrive well on the dry pasturage of the
high "plains" and foothills. Montana and Wyoming led all other
states in the number of sheep, each contributing over 4,000,000 head.
United States
Texas
Iowa
Illinois
Missouri
Kansas
I I I
I I I I
Fig. 6. The number of millions of horses
and mules, in iQo^, in the leading
stock-raising states.
and Colorado over 2,00(),0()() head, out of a total of over 61,000,000
head for the entire country. Most of the wool produced in the United
States is used in domestic manufacture.
Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and Kansas, together with Indiana and
Illinois, raise nearly two-thirds of all the swine produced in the country,
Iowa ranking first as a hog-producing state with 15.5% of the entire
number.
The centralizing of cattle, hogs, and sheep in the western portion
J 76 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
of the corn belt, as a result of the enormous food supply raised there,
has given rise to an immense meat-packing industry. This industry,
outside of Chicago, is chiefly centered along the Missouri River at
8t. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, and St. Joseph. At these five centers
the rate of concentration of live stock for one week during the year 190O
reached the enormous figure of 844,000 head (cattle, sheep, and hogs).
Mineral Industries. Mining has been an important factor in the
industrial development of the Louisiana Purchase, notably in the^
Cordilleran Mountain region, in the Black HilLs, and in certain localitie?!^
in the Mississippi Valley. The smelting of metallic ores is a prominent-
feature throughout the mining districts.
Colorado is the only state that produces iron in any quantities,^
though Iowa adds a small percentage of brown hematite ore to ther-
total United States product. The iron ore mined in the vicinity o]
Leadville, Colo., on the western border of the I^rchase, contain:
varying amounts of manganese which is used in the manufacture-^
of spiegeleisen and as a flux in the silver smelters. The steel industry-
is being rapidly developed in Colorado with a consequent increasing
demand for the manganiferous ores.
Montana leads in copper, with the enormous total of 270,738,489
pounds (1000) representing 44.7% of the entire United States product.
Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and South Dakota are all gold and
silver producing states. Colorado's gold output increased $2^846,600
for the year 1000, while South Dakota increased its silver output for
0 /<> JO ,\) Jl* <lt (kt
J \ I ; I \ I I L I \ L
United Suites.
7VV.I5
/.nici
Kiiusos
Xcbr.iik'a
Illinois
Vie. 7. The number oj millions oj cattle,
in /^(\?, in the Icadinii cattle-
raising states.
the same year §390,600. Important lead and zinc centers occur in
southeastern Missouri, in the Joplin-Galena district of Missouri and
Kansas, and, locally, in the Dubucjue district of Iowa. Lithia ore is
mined in the Black Hills, South Dakota. The only United States
locality when* nickel and cobalt are at present mined is the Mine
Lamotte, Missouri. Some antimony ore is mined in South Dakota
(Black Hills) and tin -ore (cassiterite) is mined to a limited extent
in the same ren^ion.
1904
PRESENT INDUSTRIES WITHIN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE]
277
Vast areas of coal exist in parts of the Louisiana Purchase; a strip of
98,000 square miles extends, in detached fields, from Iowa to the Mexi-
can border. Petroleum occurs in Colorado and some asphaltum in
the bituminous limestones of Indian Territory. Missouri ranks high
as a producer of building stones, and Arkansas is a noted center for
the production of oil stones of fine grain.
United States
Wisconsin . . .
Michigan
Minnesota . ..
Pennsylvania
Washington
wo
— L_
200
_J_
^00
I
I
Fig. 8. 77/c value of the lumber product
in millions of dollars, in igoo, in the
leading lumber-producing states.
Concluding Remarks. From this very brief review of the leading
industrial features within the area of the Louisiana Purchase it is
evident that the region is preeminently the great food-producing sec-
i;ion of our national domain. No other area witliin our boundaries
could supply the live stock and the grain that this region supplies
to-day. Its effect on national growth and the development of the
people has been most remarkable. Without this contiguous western
area as an outlet to a growing population the conditions east of the
Mississippi must have remained for a long time cramped and undevel-
oped. If the area had continued in the possession of a foreign power,
our record as a people would have been written small upon the pages
of history, even though we had acquired the Pacific Slope. The astute-
ness and foresight of Jefferson and the statesmen of his time cannot be
overestimated. More than the mere question of wealth, the effect
of this land upon the character of the people has been far-reaching.
Within the past thirty years it has become the home of an industrial
population that has helped to weld the land into one great national
unit. As we stand to-day gazing out over the immense vistas of
waving corn and wheat and beyond to the vast cattle ranches, and
see the long trains moving the wealth of this land to the consuming
and disbursing cities; as we view the manifold inventions that gather
in the harvest of the prairies, and hear the hum of industry from hun-
dreds of towns with their thousands of pleasant homes, we catch the
sure note of progress — the sign of a virile people that has responded
to the opportunities of its environment.
278 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
THE VALUE AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGA-
TION IN LOUISIANA PURCHASE TRACT
HY GEORGK B. HOLLISTER
llydntgi'apher U. S. OeoJtipicnl Survey, n'oshinytou. />. C.
DRAW a line from the Canadian border to Texas along the one-
hundredth meridian and you will have approximately the
boundan' between the arid and humid regions of the United
States. This line will pass through North and South Dakota, Nebraska,
Kansas, Oklahoma, and strike the panhandle of Texas. Eastward the
rainfall amounts to twenty inches annually and over; westward to
twenty inches annually and less. Of course the location of this line is
not absolutely fixed, it swings back and forth with seasons of increased
or diminished ])recipitation. It is, indeed, rather a belt on which
there are years of rain and years of drought. The belt can hardly be
called arid, it is certainly not humid, so for convenience it is knowTi as
the semiarid tract.
This imaginary' division, however, is a real boundar}-. West of it
dry farming, that is farming without irrigation, as practised in humid
climates, can not be carried on, and nature has here set a barrier
more absolute than any sea or mountain. The cause of this peculiar
condition, as already indicated, is found in the difference in rainfall.
Twenty inclies annually is the least amount suitable for farming under
ordinary conditions. When the precipitation becomes less, artificial
means of increasing it must be resorted to and farming is conditioned
wholly by the amount of water which can be controlled from streams
and underground sources. Thus the territory' of the original Louisiana
Purchase is divided into two distinct regions agriculturally, one moist
and the other dr>'. On the one hand the rich prairies of Iowa, eastern
Kansas, Nebraska, and Minnesota offer the acme of fertility and pro-
duce with a minimum of labor the wonderful grain crops which have
added so much to the wealth of our country; on the other hand the
dry and parched stretches of the high plains in western Kansas, Neb-
raska, the Dakotas, and Montana, and the equally drj' but fertile valleys
of Colorado and Wyoming demand the utmost care and vigilance
and large outlays of money in engineering works to supply the natural
deficiency of rainfall. And yet, when the proper conditions are met
in the arid section, that is, when sufficient water is provided, the fruits
THE VALUE AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION
279
and vegetables, as well as the grains which reward the patient tiller
of the soil, are the wonder of the farmers of the East.
My purpose is to oiitUne briefly the more important aspects of the
value and development of irrigation in the arid and semiarid Louis-
iana Purchase tract and show how regions practically worthless so far
as farm values are concerned, without^water, have become in many
places veritable garden'^ spots by the intelligent application of the
wat€r other than that from direct rainfall.
To do this, attention will be called to a
number of problems which characterize the
irrigation movement in different sections of
this area, a region so diverse in physical
characteristics.
THE FLOWING WELLS OF THK DAKOTAS
Although the natural rainfall in North
and South Dakota comes perilously near
the twenty-inch mark and even falls beneath
it in the western portions, nature has pro-
vided for certain sections of this state a
seemingly inexhaustible supply of water as
a substitute. This water is contained in a
series of rock strata known as the Dakota
sandstones, which underlie the entire area
of these states. The Dakota sandstones are
a series of soft and porous strata which are
capable of containing a large percentage
of their weight in water. The great uplift
which produced the backbone of the Rocky Mountain chain and
also the peculiar crustal blister known as the Black Hills raised
this series with others and brought them to the surface high up on
the eastern flanks of the Rockies as well as on the sides of the Black
Hills uplift. The streams from these upland areas flow across the up-
turned edges of the Dakota sandstones and a very considerable portion
of their waters is absorbed by the porous rock. It passes by slow perco-
lation down under the Great Plains states, sinking with the strata
many hundred feet, and obtaining in this way an enormous head
or pressure. The rock is not accessible from all portions of the Plains
because the overlying material is too thick to be penetrated by wells
at economical cost, but through central North and South Dakota,
Fig. I. Town well, W'oonsocket,
South Dakota; 725 feet deep;
fields 1. 1 50 gallons per minute ;
is throwing a stream 97 feet,
under a pressure of 130 pounds
per square inch.
28o THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY June
especially along the greater river valleys where the streams have cut
into and carried away a portion of the surface, wells have been suc-
cessfully driven and reach the water-bearing beds at depths of from
one to two thousand feet. The residt of striking water is most
interesting. A true artesian flow is reached, and the wat^r, impelled
by the great head above referred to, is forced sometimes as high as
ninety feet or more into the air. So great and constant is the pressure
that the wells in the Dakotas have been used as a source of power
for manufacturing purposes, the generation of electricity, and for
numerous other uses of this nature. But especially important are these
wells for domestic purposes and irrigation and considerable areas are
annually cultivated by means of them. In 1899, over 5,000 acres
were irrigated from wells in these states.
While the artesian supply is indeed phenomenal, it reaches only
certain portions of the region and irrigation from the rivers is practised
along the valleys, chiefly on pasture and wild hay lands. By water
from all sources more than 4,800 acres were under irrigation in the
Dakotas when the census was taken, in 1899, which showed the remark-
able increase of 994 per cent in ten years for North Dakota and
177 per cent for South Dakota, while the value of the crops thus raised
amounted to almost $236,000.
THE HIGH PLAINS OF KANSAS
Kansas is a frontier state, agriculturally speaking, for, w^hile the
eastern portion enjoys a rainfall sufficient for plentiful crops, its pre-
cipitation decreases steadily toward the west until, somewhat more than
two-thirds of the distance to the Colorado line, the fatal twenty-inch
zone is reach(»d. To the west of this lies a region of magnificent fertility
known as the High Plains, with conditions ideal for farming in level
expanse of surface, deep loamy soil, and proximity to transcontinental
railroad lines. A rich carped of nutritious grass covers the land,
promising yet more luxuriant stands of wheat and corn, and this, with
other conditions found l)y earlier travelers and herdsmen, gave the
impression that the region only awaited settlement to yield the phe-
nomenal returns of the prairie lands lying nearer the Mississippi River.
No mistake could have been greater. In spite of the really unusual
soil conditions, the region was found to be as treacherous to farming
interests as many a desert valley in the admittedly arid states. Hence
it has follow(Ml that the High T^lains are associated with a most inter-
estin«r chapter in the economic development of the West, and formed
X904
THE VALUE AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION
281
the setting in the decade from about 1885 to 1895 of a veritable tragedy
of settlement. The great fertility and apparently perfect conditions
for farming tempted multitudes to settle and to endeavor to procure
a livelihood through agricultural pursuits. Towns sprang up and
communities were formed, and for a time there was partial prosperity.
This was because there happened to be an' unusual amount of rain-
fall. In many instances the profits were good and farmers enlarged
Fio.
A stnall reservoir in westertt Kansas, fed by windmill, which makes it possible for
large herds of cattle to live at threat distances from a natural water supply.
their acreage, built additional structures, and bought machinery
for which purpose many of them mortgaged their property. For several
years these conditions continued, the speculative side being fostered
not a little by unscrupulous agents of real estate and banking com-
panies who vied with each other in placing loans for money supplied
by eastern capitalists. It was but a few years, however, before the
period of excessive rainfall was followed by conditions more normal
to the locality and the sweeping hand of misfortune fell upon the region.
Many could not believe that the drought conditions would continue
and mortgaged their farms more heavily to tide over what they thought
would be a temporary dry spell, but, when year after year the crops
withered away and large sums of money were lost, the population
deserted the region as rapidly as it had come, leaving unharvested
crops in the field, deserted houses on the farms, and often entire
282 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Joae
towns depopulated. The High Plains to-day are dotted with the
remains of this exodus. The settlement as made has been likened
to an invasion; its sequel resembled a precipitate and disastrous retreat.
Since this time, an effort has been made to locate a water supply
sufficient for the region, but thus far it has not been found. The land
lies at too high an elevation above the river valleys for irrigation from
them, even if there were a sufficient supply to be obtained from this
source. On the other hand, no great imderground supply has been found,
so that it does not seem likely that any considerable area of the High
Plains can ever be utilized for farming purposes. There is to be found
a limited amount of water from shallow wells, and it may be possible
to impoimd for use some of the spring rains in the numerous sinks
and saucer-like depressions which pit the High Plains area.
But the prospects of western Kansas are not all dark. Considerable
water in the aggregate may be secured from the shallow wells for pur-
poses of stock and irrigation, which will make it possible to raise by in-
tensive farming on small holdings enough produce to support a family
and maintain a herd of cattle.
The future of the tract seems to lie in stock raising, unless crops
capable of thriving under dry weather conditions are found.
Irrigation by means of water taken from the streams of the state is
carried on to some extent. The Arkansas River has been the chief
source of water sui)ply for this ])urp<\so, and some of the early irriga-
ting systems (^f the country- drew their water from it. The physical
peculiarities of the state make it rather difficult and expensive to con-
duct water from the rivers to the bench lands. The streams, often
broad, have trenched their valleys far below the general level of the
surrounding country-, and. while large in the springtime, frequently
dwindle to insignificant proportions or disappear altogether in the
summer season. The census statistics, however, show that in 1899,
23,630 acres wore under irrigation, an increase in ten years of
13.5 per cent, with a crop valuation of 8226,453.
NEnnASK.\, THK LAND OF WINDMILLS
The conditions existing in Nebraska closely resemble those of Kansas.
In the east, the state is coini)aratively moist; in the west, it is dry;
in its northwestern portion is foimd a waste of barren sand hills
which almost completely defy cultivation on account of their shifting
character. Like Kansas, Nebraska is a typical Great Plains State,
a vast and n(»arly level region swept in the summer season by strong
X904
THE VALUE AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION
283
and steady winds. These winds have been taken advantage of by
the farmer and have become the source of not a little wealth by skillful
management. The windmill, a device used to some extent with success
in the East, is a necessity on the Plains. It is found in all the states
of this region, but, as its development in Nebraska has become spe-
cialized and somewhat typical, it is particularly called to the attention
in connection with this state. By it is made possible the profitable
raising of stock, as well as the successful cultivation through irriga-
tion, of many acres otherwise practically useless. By it, also, are fre-
quently insured comforts and conveniences of the farmer's house, in
Fig. 3. Raising su^ar beets by irrigation tn Nebraska. This now
important western crop has been developed during tlie last ten years.
the way of running water, found only in the city or the houses of the
wealthy. The windmills are of every variety, but they may be briefly
divided for our purposes into two distinct classes, the shop-made and
home-made mills. Of course, the shop-made mill is more efficacious
than the home-made, and the hundreds of them in use add greatly
to the water supply of the plains, but the home-made device is of
greater interest not only on account of its surprisingly high efficiency,
but also from its low cost of construction and the interesting ingenuity
employed in its manufacture. Frequently one runs across a mill
pumping water for the use of all the cattle on the farm, providing the
house with its supply, and furnishing a limited amount for irrigation
the entire cost of which, to the farmer, was probably not more than
three or four dollars, exclusive of the time it took to assemble the
parts. Perhaps the low cost of the home-made windmill, as found
on the Plains, is its greatest recommendation. It virtually has its birth
from the scrap heap which is found on every farm and is composed
284 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Jun^
of such odds and ends as the sides of boxes, the chains and sprockets
of old bicycles, discarded buggy axles, or other articles for which the
ingenuity of the farmer finds a place in the strange ensemble.
These windmills are found scattered over the Great Plains in several
distinct varieties. There are the Jumbo and the Baby Jumbo, which
resemble the paddle wheel of a Mississippi steamer, the lower blades
being protected from the wind by a box or otherwise. These mills
are usually set facing in one direction and take advantage only of
the prevailing wind. The Battle-ax is another variety of mill patterned
more after the shop-made devices, with boards nailed to the end of
revolving arms; and there are the Merry-go-rounds, Turbines, and
other varieties, each individual likely to be of weird and surpriising
constniction. But the remarkable fact which must not be lost sight
of is that these homely devices, though crude enough in themselves,
add a total benefit in the way of increased wat^r supply to the Great
Plains region far in excess of their cost, and form a positive means
of agricultural advancement.
As in Kansas, the rivers in Nebraska lie in deep trenched valleys,
making the inigation of the bench lands difficult and expensive. The
chief irrigated districts in Nebraska are located along the valley of the
North Platte to its junction with the main stream, and also in the
valley of the South Platte. A serious difficulty, however, to the in-
crease in irrigation, especially along the Soutli Platte, is that so much of
the water is used in Colorado for irrigation purposes before it reaches
the Nebraska line that, in the summer season, the stream in Nebraska
is practically dry. The census reports show that in 1899 about 148,000
acres were under cultivation by irrigation, a remarkable increase of
1,164 per cent over the number cultivated in 1889. The value of
the farm products raised by irrigation in 1899 was nearly $130,000.
COLORADO
The enormous mineral wealth of Colorado is the feature most prom-
inent in the popular estimation of the state, and yet there is a larger
acreage under cultivation by irrigation in Colorado than in any other
state in the I'nion, California not excepted. In 1899 over 1,600,000
acres were irrigated — nearly 200,000 more than in California. The
Colorado climate, however, favors the growth of cereals and forage
crops and particularly vegetables, while that of Cahfornia is peculiarly
adapted to the growth of high-priced citrus fruits, so that the total
value of the California irrigated product is somewhat greater than
THE VALUK AND DEVELOPMENT OP IRRIGATION
285
that of Colorado, Nuwhore in the eouritryj however, except in Maine,
are potatoes grown in such ahiuulance or of such superior size and
quality as in this state. The j>eaches of Canon City, raised by irri-
gation, are considered among the finest in flavor in the United States,
and the watermelons, and particularly the cuntalnufyes grown near
Rocky Ford, have a national repmtation.
In the year 1S50, Horace Greeley, while on his Umr in Coloradtj»
was greatly impressed by the idea that the lands lying to the east
-^-j
'--<sa*-
'€*:3
m
'm
Fh. 4 i'-!tt vj ii 40O'Urf*- irrit;ati:d jarm at Gardt^ City, KntiJ-m J tuii. i>t:tiitabU\ and aijiilfa
.ft ps irrtfo^rj jrcm the rcscrtyjtr in the fcrrctiround, SMPpUfd hy wutdmiils. By thtt cCfttstrMctUfU
(*! thi:. irri^yitittc systtm tiw vahtr of the Uwd was ratted jrom oftc to fifty dollars ptt aire.
of the Rocky Moontaiujs were susceptible of irrigation. .Vfter he had
returned to New York, he discussed the matter with pronunent citi-
zens and o!;ave the proposition great publicity tlu'ough the columns
of the '*New York Tribune/' The colonization plan there suggested
Fmally materialized in the Uninn Colony which settled in the Cache
la Poudre \*alley and founded Ihe town of (xreeley. A few settlers
were already located in this region, who found a precarious existence
in harv^esting wild hay and securing pasture in the moister lands of
the valley bi*ttonis. These people regarded with scorn the idea which
the new colonists entertained of cultivating the bench lantls located
at greater altitudes along the rivers by the use of water, but ditches
were const rufted and canal systems laid out, and, in a few years, the
286 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY June
faith of the far-sighted leader of the enterprise and the energy of the
settlers were rewarded by plentiful returns. To-day the Greeley dis-
trict, embracing a number of different irrigation systems, is one of
the most successful in the state and is noted all over the country for
the excellence and large amount of its agricultural produce. The
engineering difficulties to be overcome in building these works were
great. The settlers were obUged to go into the mountains, build large
reserv^oirs to impound the flood waters of the stream upon which
they had settled, and, as the resources of that stream became
exhausted, their engineers contrived means of diverting the waters
from streams of adjoining watersheds and carrying them across low
divides to supplement the flow of the original stream.
The products which were at first raised and the cultivation of which
is continued to the present day, with the addition of other crops which
have been found profitable, were the great forage crop, alfalfa, and pota-
toes. Alfalfa is generally considered one of the most valuable of
irrigated crops by virtue of its great nutritive quality as feed for cattle,
and because of its remarkable rapidity of growth. In the East, the
farmer is satisfied with one good crop of hay a season; sometimes he
gets two. But alfalfa under irrigation yields five crops during the
growing period, though usually not more than three in Colorado.
Potatoes are usually planted in Colorado after ploughing under
alfalfa. Two crops can often successfully be produced. Under irri-
gation, potatoes in the Greeley district grow to proportions unknown
in the East. An idea of the great value of the potato crop in this
one district may be had from the record of the year 1894, w^hen, in
one part of the district, over 600,000 sacks were produced, valued at
$330,000. After paying all expense of planting and harvesting, the
resulting profit was sufficient to pay the entire cost of the reservoir
under which the crop was raised. This was an unusually good year.
Another product successfully grown under irrigation in Colorado
is the sugar beet. In 1899 there were 1,094 acres planted in this crop
and over 6,600 tons sold at a value of $26,700. Beet raising is com-
paratively new in Colorado but figures for the present time, were
they available, would show a great increase in the industry.
The Greeley district, while the largest and probably the most success-
ful irrigated portion of Colorado, is but one of a number of similar
sections in that state, for much land favorably located along the upper
branches of the Platte and Arkansas rivers is being reclaimed in this
manner. The 1,160,000 acres under irrigation in 1899 was an increase
288 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Jane
of 80.9 per cent over that irrigated in 1889. The value of the crops
raised in 1899 was striking, being $15,100,690, and the cost of con-
struction of irrigation works, $11,758,000. These figures are especially
suggestive, showing that, in one year, the value of the irrigated crop
was about one and a half times greater than the entire cost of the
irrigating works which produced them.
W-YOMING, THE GREAT GRAZING STATE
Wyoming is another of the great irrigation states and ranks fifth
in the list, though its possibilities lie rather in the direction of grazing
and stock raising. The average altitude of the state is high, 5,000
feet or more, it is wind-swept, and the climate cool and dry; every-
thing must be grown by irrigation. In one respect, it bears a peculiar
relation to the other irrigation states, for within its boundaries
rise nearly all the great streams of the West from w^hich water is used
for reclamation. The headwaters of the Columbia, the Colorado,
and the Missouri are all found among its mountains, but the phy^sical
conditions are such that but comparatively little of this supply is avail-
able for use in the state.
Wyoming is prei'minently a grazing state, but the last census figures
show that 600,000 acres were under cultivation by irrigation in 1889,
an increase in ten years of 163 per cent, producing crops worth nearly
$2,900,000. In spite of the fact that live stock interests are so large,
irrigation is of growing interest, for it is coming to be recognized as
a necessary adjunct to the grazing interests. The public range, on
account of overgrazing, is rapidly deteriorating in quality so that
it is not possible for it to support as large a number of cattle as in for-
mer years. This fact is recognized, and it is further understood that
the remedy lies in the cultivation of the forage crops by irrigation to
supplement as nuich as possible the deficiency. This is most strik-
ingly illustrated by the fact that in 1899, of the 600,000 acres under
irrigation. 560,000 were devoted to hay, alfalfa, and other fodder crops.
THE PROMISE OF MONTANA
Montana stands third in irrigated area. Although needing less
assistance from irrigation than other states in the arid West, it seems
destined to surpass them all in the amount of land which will eventu-
ally come under the ditch. At the date of the last census, the state
had over 950,000 acres under irrigation, showing the notable increase
of 171 per cent in ten years. Montana contains vast areas of fertile
I904 THE VALUE AND DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION 289
land and is so situated with respect to the sources of a number of large
streams that its water supply is more plentiful than that of any of
the Western States. Economically, it has had a most interesting
history. During the period between 1870 and 1900, it witnessed a
remarkable change in agricultural values. In the former year, the
value of live stock in the state was at least three times that of all farm
land and buildings. In the latter, the live stock interests had gained
enormously and were nearly forty times as great as in 1870, but farm
values had also increased with such rapidity that they were worth
$10,000,000 more than the total live stock interests. At first farming
was incidental to stock raising, but. within the thirty years above men-
tioned, the conditions were completely reversed. This great increase in
farm wealth is due largely to the rapid settlement of the valleys and
the changed methods which followed the successful application of irri-
gation to the cultivation of forage and other crops. The interesting
statement has been made that, in the course of a few years, the value
of the agricultural products in Montana will be greater than those
of the mines.
GOVERNMENT RECLAMATION IN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE TRACT
It is too early to state how the future of irrigation in the Louisiana
Purchase tract will be affected by government irrigation. Under
the Irrigation Act of June 17, 1902, the engineers of the Reclamation
Service have been making a thorough investigation in this region
to discover irrigation possibilities.
In the region particularly under consideration a number of projects
have been found which seem to be feasible, but, until the surveys are
completed and a great variety of facts obtained not only regarding
the engineering features of the projects but also concerning; business
questions, such as the possibility of securing needed lands for reservoir
and other purposes, the organization of water users' associations and
other matters which require much time to work out, it will be impos-
sible to make any definite statements regarding them.
In a general way, however, it may be said that it appears to be possi-
ble to reclaim considerable land in Soutli Dakota from streams rising
in the Black Hills; in western Nebraska along the North Platte, in
Wyoming, in the valleys of the Shoshone and Snake rivers, and along
a number of streams in both northern and southern Montana.
If these projects are found to be feasible and are constructed, the
result will be several hundred thousand acres added to the cultivated
290 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY June
land in the section. The chances are that much of this land wiU
be reclaimed. What this will mean in the great increase of population
that is sure to follow, the increase in business and in land values, the
social and political changes that will take place, it is difficult now to
predict, but the reclamation of these desert lands by the Government
can not but have a profound influence not only on the development
of the West but also upon the destiny of the entire country.
GEOGRAPHIC INFLUENCES IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF ST. LOUIS
.BY KLLEN CHURCHILL SEMPLE
lA)uisL'iUe. Kentucky
THE development of St. Louis has been characterized by a sort
of staccato movement; it has been stimulated by a close succes-
sion of distinct economic impulses, each quite different in its
nature but each nearly related to the geographic environment of the
city. The word environment in this connection is a big term, as under-
stood by the anthropo-geographer; it includes not only the city's
location and immediate surroundings, but also remote features in
the topography, climate, and natural resources of the wide Missis-
sippi Valley. The long westward-reaching line of the Great Lakes
with their short portages to the Mississippi streams, the vast system
of navigable waterways occupying this central trough of North America,
the cold, bleak climate of our Northwest and upper Rockies thickening
the fur on the backs of their early four-footed inhabitants, the breach
in the western mountain wall just east of the old Mexican city of Santa
F6, the grazing lands of the arid plains, the mineral belt of the Ozark
Mountains and of the Appalachians at the sources of the Ohio, the
tobacco fields of Kentucky, and the seaport of New Orleans at the
terminus of the Mississippi highway, have all been so many conspicu-
ous factors in the environment of St. Louis, potent to modify its his-
tory. Now one, now the other, geographic influence has been in the
ascendant. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, it was the
Rocky Mountain sources of the western rivers with their wealth of
beaver skins, while in these recent years it has been the headstreams
of the (.)hio and Illinois rivers with their wealth of coal. Or the same
geographic factor has operated under different guises at different times.
The arid plains were, in early days, the feeding ground of the buffalo
X904 GEOGRAPHIC INFLUENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ST. LOUIS 29 1
whose skins and dried tongues were staples of the St. Loiub trade,
and these same plains, now divided up into ranches, supply the cattle
for the great meat-packing establishments there to-day.
The cities of any new or imdeveloped country are primarily commer-
<5ial centers, markets where the crude commodities of its natural
resources can be exchanged for the manufactured wares of some more
advanced industrial section. The rapidity of their growth depends
always, first, upon their command of an extensive system of inland
navigation, because rivers and lakes are the sole highways of a new
country; and second, upon the productivity of the country for which
they serve as a commercial outlet. When such cities have outgrown
the first or purely commercial phase and begin to add industries to
their other activities, they necessarily possess many quahfications of
successful manufacturing centers. The converging routes of commu-
nication which they command insure abundant raw materials and the
best faciUties for marketing their finished products. Moreover, the
capital and labor necessarj^ for large industrial enterprises are either
at hand or readily attracted. Hence the geographic influences favor-
able to the earlier or commercial stage of a city's development con-
tinue to operate advantageously in the later stage when industries are
<;ombined with commerce. We shall follow the working of such geo-
graphic factors in the history of St. Louis.
In the early winter of 1763 Pierre Laclede Liguest, with a party of
men and a goodly store of merchandise, came up the Mississippi from
New Orleans to the French settlements between the mouths of the
Ohio and lUinois rivers, to establish somewhere in that vicinity a trad-
ing post whence he might exercise his right, formally granted by the
French authorities in New Orleans, to the exclusive trade of the Mis-
souri and uppermost reaches of the Mississippi. But hearing that
France had ceded to Great Britain all this territory between the Ohio
and the Great Lakes, he located his station on the west bank of the
Mississippi where St. Louis now stands, at a point nearly opposite
the earUer settlement of Cahokia, which had been a gathering place
for the French traders of the Mississippi basin.
The fact that impresses the student of early American history is
the remarkable insight displayed by the pioneers of this western wil-
derness into the geographic conditions of the country and into the vast
possibiUties of certain favored points. Laclede had all the keen scent
of his breed; he ran down the one spot destined by nature for the
•development of a great commercial center. Twenty miles below the
292 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY June
mouth of the Missouri, where the vohune of the Mississippi is almost
doubled by the muddy tide of its great western tributary and where
therefore navigation was assured even for the growing river craft
of a remote future, Laclede built his little town — in this respect
**builded better than he knew." The particular site which he chose
w^as a Hmestone bank extending for about two miles along the river
some twenty feet above its flood wat^r, and rising by natural terraces
to yet higher ground in the rear. This was a rare advantage on the
Mississippi, because that great stream is generally bounded by high
perpendicular bluffs, inhospitable to commerce, as one sees them at
Vicksburg, Natchez, or Memphis; or by low alluvial plains, exposed
to inundation from the annual floods and at all times teeming with
malaria. Hence Hutchins, soon after St. Louis was founded, spoke
of it as "the most healthy and pleasurable situation of any known
in this part, of the country. '^ A few years later (1796) General Victor
Collot, a Frenchman traveling in the West, found the new settlement
to be endowed **with more facility, more safety, and more economy
for trade and navigation than any other given point in North America."
Its location for commanding the commerce of the country was indeed
unsurpassed. A central position in the highly fertile basin of the
Mississippi insured abundant raw products as the basis of its exchanges,
and an active selling market as the inevitable population should
respond to the call of these tempting valley lands. Here too was the
great river (Tossroads of the country, affording a navigable course from
the falls of St. Anthony to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the forks of the
Ohio at Pittsburg to the (Jrcat Falls of the Missouri at the first terrace
of the Hookies, two thousand miles from north to south and as far from
east to west. Short, easy portages or swamp-covered watersheds
connected the northeastern tributaries of the Ohio and Mississippi
with the (Ireat Lakes, and enabled St. Louis to lay tribute upon the
furs of the C^anadian North. At this central point of the Mississippi
Valley was the meeting of the waters. Besides the Missouri and Ohio,
the Illinois opened the way to the Chicago portage of Lake Michigan,
and the Tennessee and Cumberland served as primitive highways
from the southern Appalachians to the mouth of the Ohio. Here
were 15,410 miles of navigable waterway available for large river
craft, when steamboats had come into use; but the mileage was far
greater in the days of the voyageur's canoe and the keelboat of the
trader.
When St. Louis was founded, a tide of l^>ench immigrants from the
1904 GEOGRAPHIC INFLUENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ST. LOUIS 293
eastern side of the Mississippi, fleeing from British dominion there,
gave the little settlement its first marked forward impulse. By 1780
it was a town of over a hundred stone-built houses with a population
of eight hundred, almost all French. It drew to itself much of the fur
trade north of the Ohio, all that of the upper Mississippi and of the
Missouri. As settlement expanded from the east across the Mississippi
Valley, the fur trade migrated farther west and was confined for the
most part to the Missouri system ; but St. Louis derived continually
greater advantages from its water conmiunication, with the rapid
settling up of the valley and the increasing distances to be covered
in collecting raw products and distributing finished merchandise.
Through the Ohio it maintained trade connection with Philadelphia
and Baltimore; through the lower Mississippi with New Orleans; and
through the Illinois and Great Lakes with far-away Quebec.
In the territory east of the Mississippi, St. Louis had competitors
in the various Ohio River towns, but in the vast area of the Missouri
basin she ruled supreme. It was the fur trade of this country that
especially encouraged the development of the city from 1790 to 1840.
The hundreds of hunters, fur traders, Indian agents, and military
officers scattered over the wild trans-Mississippi country came down
from trapping camps or frontier posts in the mountains to St. Louis
every spring, when the melting of the snows swelled the volume of the
scanty western rivers and made them navigable. Their canoes and
pirogues, laden with rich skins, the harvest of their winter hunt, found
a ready sale in this bustling market of the West, and went to purchase
the comprehensive outfit for the next seas()n\s operations. This
included the more luxurious articles of food, like coffee (selling before
the purchase of Louisiana at two dollars a pound), clothes, ammuni-
tion, and cheap wares for barter with the Indians. The sale of these
supplies and the incoming peltries greatly augmented the commerce
of St. Louis. The skins brought in were beaver, otter, deer, bear,
fox, raccoon, wildcat, marten, and lynx; and these served as legal
tender in all commercial transactions.
The western fur trade required capital, so big companies were
organized in St. Louis — tlie Missouri Fur Company in 1808, the Rocky
Mountain Fur Company in 1822, and the Western Department of
John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company also in 1822, besides
numerous other smaller organizations. Under their control opera-
tions expanded. The Missouri River and its straight-flowing western
tributaries made many paths to the rich fur fields far in the heart
294 '^^^ JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY June
of the Rocky Mountains, and to the passes which led over the Con-
tinental Divide to the sources of the Pacific rivers. Hence at an
early date furs from traders' stations and trappers' camps on the head-
streams of the Columbia and the Colorado, on Utah and Great Salt
lakes, on the upper Missouri, Yellowstone, Big Horn, and Platte rivers
found their way to the Missouri, and came down this common high-
way of the Far West to the growing city just below its mouth.
Though the fur trade was a potent factor in St. Louis' development
till 1845 or even a little later, its glor>' had passed by 1834. But
this date had already seen the sturdy l^eginning of another commer-
cial movement along a different geographically determined line which
greatly stimulated the growth of the city. This was the Santa Fe
trade, which began about 1822 and initiated the next step in St. Louis*
growth. Far to the west of St. Louis and just beyond the eastern
range of the Rockies in the high valley of the Upper Rio Grande lay
the old Mexican city of Santa F^, a territorial capital in the days of
Spanish supremacy and an active trading point under the less arbi-
trary rule of independent Mexico. The commerce of the place was
considerable, for it supplied all the population up and down the Rio
Grande Valley and carried on a busy trade some three hundred and
fifty miles to the south with Chihuahua, an important town of north-
ern Mexico. It bought extensively of American merchandise from
the markets of St. Louis, which, because of a peculiarly favorable
geographical location, controlled the Sante F^ trade. St. Louis lay
on the direct hne of water communication from the manufacturing
eastern states, whose wares it got by the cheap steamer carriage on
the Ohio, and then forwarded again by river to the great elbow of the
Missouri. Here began the Santa Fe trail, a wagon track eight hundred
miles long, which followed the upper course of the Arkansas and
Cimarron rivers across the arid belt of the Great Plains, and rose by
imperceptible ascent to the gateway in the Rockies leading to Santa
F^. The outfitting point for this trade was naturally at Independ-
ence, where the ]Missouri boat had to be exchanged for the packhorses
and ox-wagons of the trail, but St. Louis supplied Independence with
merchandise and was the market for the furs, gold, and silver brought
in from New Mexico.
At the time the Santa F6 trade opened, the introduction of steam
navigation on the western rivers enabled St. Louis to reap the full
benefit of her peculiar location and to increase her commerce with
the growing demands of the West. By the methods of poling and
vyn GEOGRAPHIC INFLUENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ST. LOUIS 295
rowing and cordelling on the old flatboats and keelboats, freight
up-stream from New Orleans cost fifty cents a pound. The first steam-
boat reached St. Louis in 1817; twenty years afterwards freight charges
for the same distance had dropped to two cents a pound, while over
a hundred and fifty steamboats were entering the port of St. Louis
in a twelvemonth. As this city had been an important exchange
Fig. I. .4 typical Mississippi River steamboat. These light draft
vessels have a large carrying capacity, and it was through the
use of fleets of these vessels that commercial suprem-
acy of the Mississippi River came about.
point in the old keelboat days from 1780 to 1830, so its commercial
activity grew in the days of steamboat supremacy from 1830 to 1860.
Below St. Louis the depth of the Mississippi is six feet or more, above
it is only from three to five feet. This fact differentiated transporta-
tion on the upper and lower river and made St. Louis a point of reship-
ment. Thus it had a natural monopoly of the trade of the upper
Mississippi as well as of the Missouri.
As population poured into the central valley of the continent between
1840 and 1860, the lines of St. Louis commerce increased in number
and extent, and river transportation, not yet feeling the competition
of railroads, was at its height. In 1845 over two thousand steam-
boats, aggregating 358,045 tons, besides several hundred keel and
296 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY June
flat boats, drew up along the St. I^ouis whan-es in the course of a year.
Of these 250 came from New Orleans, bringing fine merchandise of
foreign or New England manufacture to exchange for the flour and
bacon of the more northerly states; 406 came from ports along the Ohio
or its tributaries, laden with agricultural products for the St. Liouis
market or with manufactured goods which had come in from the
Atlantic seaboard by the canals and the Great Lakes. Its increasing
commerce, due to the stimulating effect of st«am na\'igation on the
western rivers and to the rapid growth of settlement in the vast coun-
try tributary to it, is reflected in St. Louis' population, which rose
from six thousand in 1830 to over sixteen thousand in 1840 and over
one hundred and eighty-five thousand in 1860.
With the rapid decline of river transportation after 1865, follow-
ing the introduction of railroads, St. Louis had to adjust herself to
the new conditions. Though the geographical advantages which she
had enjoyed over other western cities now seemed annulled, and Chi-
cago was beginning to win supremacy in the Mississippi Valley, these
years saw the beginning of the industrial development of St. Louis.
Railroads came into the trans-Mississippi West, but they followed the
lines which the river trade had determined; and more than this, in
the arid belt of the plains, where shifting, shallow river beds had made
water transportation impossible, they supplanted the creeping pace
of packhorse and caravan by the express train, and with the settUng
of the far western states, gave St. Louis a larger and more active market
in the wide baok-countr}' reaching to the Rockies and beyond.
To-day twenty-three great railroads enter the city and two bridges over
the Mis>^issippi secure connection with eastern lines, so that few points
in the middle Wc^st possess superior facilities for rail transportation.
These advantafi^es, together with the Mississippi and Ohio \vateirways,
still the most economic means for bringing in raw materials of large
bulk, have stimulated the industrial development of St. Louis, while
extending the area of its commercial field.
St. Louis had no manufactures of a systematic character prior to
1860. Pork packing and flour milling, those first industries of an agri-
cultural community, were carried on with some activity in those early
days; their products, which went to feed the towns and plantations
on the lower Mississippi, were packed in barrels and kegs, which were
therefore turned out in considerable (juantities by the local cooper
shops. These industries were closely related to the city's location
in the fertile lands ni the middle West, in ck)se proximity to the mar-
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Louisville, th*^ r:vil of ^:. I • v/>. > :V.^' .,sn;x^s: >,s: ^x^a-^snv ^v.^^^vo*, *n
the world, bu: vHI r^>er::*y r.a> '.^.k-.v. :-.o tAp::,i* tuswv^^N ;x^^ owo*^
sive manuiact'^re. A :>-.v yt:ir- ncv\ '.v won or, ;V.o Tv^xvuvx^ INv,>\
bought up the chief :i.ii:;;fao: ir^i.u ;^'a:\:> ;r. l\^;i\ v*\;:o>. j^i\a \\\0\ 0\o
eye for economic pnxiucTivr. oh:\rao:orisTio o! all >\;o)\ Im< \nv\\i'\u;U
combinations, it is shiixiiii! iho iv!^.:er of its pi\vi\u'iuM\ t'i\m\ s\ \ ^Mn^
to Louisxille, nearer ti-e supply of :ho raw tnaiovial Thot^Mv^v \\\\'
next census report oi tobai-oo protluoiion in St. 1 o\u^ n\a\ -how j^
decline.
298
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
June
In another Ipiuling industry of the .Mitklle West, that of slaugh-
tenng and nietit packings St. Louis has na tielive share. The localiza-
tion of this industr>^ is determined in general by the presence of a
climate and soil especially adapted to the protluction of the corn and
hay necessary for feeding eattle, and by the factor n{ mere area or
abundant land, wliich can be found only outside of the older settled
regions with their denser populations. The industiy is most highly
developed, therefore, in the corn belt of the iMid<lle West, near the
cattle ranches of the Great Plains and the stock-raising section of the
u
... T^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l
^^^^^
^^^^^1
Ftii
Alotix the ivaUf jronl, St. Louis, as ti is fa^day.
upper ^lississippi A^dley, The meat products of Illinois^ Kansas^
Nebraska, Indiana, ami Missouri constituted nearly three-fourths
of the country's total in 1900. These figures indicate the broader
localization. Taken more narrowly, we find that this industry must
be centered in cities, because it is depemlcnt upon ample railroad
facilities for its refrigerator ears, and hence has reached its greatest
development in Chicago; but it is steadily migrating westward, follow-
ing the withdrawid of stot^k farms and ranches to the abunilant lands
of tiie trans-Mississippi auil Missouri country before the growing popu*
lation of the old West. St. Louis has taken advantage of this trend.
The products of its slaughter houses have increased in value almost
fifty per cent in the last decade and will probably rank yet higher
in 1910.
Proximity \i\ the great central curn area and to the barley fields
of Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and northern Illinois has l>een a potent
factor in the brewing industry- of Chicago, Milwaukee, and St, Louis,
1904 GEOGRAPHIC INFLUENCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF ST. LOUIS 299
while the steady demand from the large German population in each
of these cities has contributed also to the same end. The manufac-
ture of malt liquors is widely distributed in the United States, because
the transportation of the finished product, especially in bottles, is
relatively expensive, so that breweries are Ukely to spring up wher-
ever the demand is great; but pccuHar advantages stimulate produc-
tion on a large scale to supply something more than the local demand.
St. Louis ranks fifth among the brewing cities of the United States^
and sells its finest beers in a wide range of markets in the Mississippi
Valley.
The other active industries of St. Louis include the manufacture
of foundry and machine shop products, boots and shoes, flour and grist,
bread and other bakery products, paints and oils, and men's clothing.
All these tell of proximity to an abundant supply of the raw mate-
rials. For instance, the manufacture of paints and oils has thrived
because of the soft lead, barytes, and other minerals of choice quality^
found in the southwestern part of ^lissouri. Sometimes the demand
has been the stronger agent in determining the supply. Back in the
early decades of the nineteenth century, the Rocky Mountain trappers,
the Santa F6 traders, and, a little later, the throngs of settlers moving
westward over the Oregon trail to the Pacific, made a great demand
for patent medicines. St. Louis, as the center for this valuable west-
em trade, responded to the demand and manufactured medicines.
This industry naturally grew into the manufacture of chemicals and
drugs, and as such takes an important place among the activities of
the city.
St. Louis now ranks as the fourth city of the United States both
in population and in the value of its manufactured products, according
to the figures of the latest census; and yet these figures do not tell
the whole story, because St. Louis has overflowed across the Mis-
sissippi into Illinois and there developed the towns of East St. Louis^
Madison, and Granite City. Located just across from their mother
city at the eastern termini of the two great bridges over the dividing
stream, they occupy favorable sites for transportation and fuel, are
operated by St. Louis capital and enterprise, but escape St. Louis taxes.
The rapid growth which always accompanies marked industrial
development in a city is evidenced in St. Louis by the increase of
its population from 310,864 in 1870 to over 600,000 in 1903. This
advance in population and industries is intimately connected with
the rapid development of the extensive country to the west, souths
300 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY June
and southwest of St. Louis, where the city finds its natural markets.
The construction of the embryo state of Oklahoma and the opening
up of successive strips in Indian Territory have alone contributed
no little to the commercial activity of St. Louis. All this broad
area is engaged primarily in agriculture and stock raising, except for
the mining in certain favored localities; it therefore makes a steady
demand for manufactured wares of all kinds, and for these St. Ix)uis
is the nearest producing and selling point. Hence the city commands
this commercial field as Chicago does the Northwest, and its growth
and prosperity will therefore advance with that of the wide territory
which constitutes its market.
DENVER — THE QUEEN CITY OF THE PLAINS
BY C. E. CHADSEY
Su}>eiuaiendent of Sch<H}lii, Denver, Colorado
IT is said that there are few cities which impress the casual visitor
favorably. The uni)leaRant features of a city are generally among
its most prominent ones. The smoke, the filth, the tumble-down,
ramshackle buildings, generally prove to be the most forcible impres-
sions received by a stranger arriving in a city for the first time.
Seldom, if ever, is this true of the visitor to Denver. Things ordi-
narily seoni to conspire to produce favorable impressions of Colorado's
metropoUs. The wonderfully clear atmosphere, the panoramic view
of the rufi:ge(l, snow-capped Rockies, many of whose peaks, plainly
visible, are from seventy to one hundred miles distant, the varicolored
foothills risintr from the level prairie ten or twelve miles from the city,
give a setting unsurpassed and of untiring interest. (See Fig. 1.)
This favorable impression is increased w^hen the tourist inspects
more closely the city. Denver is so young, its growth has been
so rapid and its building ordinances forbidding the erection of frame
houses so sweeping that in spite of the large area included within the
limits of the city, one can find little of the slovenly or unsightly.
One accustomed to the spacious grounds and stately trees of some
eastern cities may wonder why when there was so little apparent need
for restricted grounds so few seem to have profited by the opportu-
nity, but the care taken almost uniformly by the householders of their
rather limited lawns results in a most pleasing general effect.
Denver lawns, like all Colorado lawns, exist only through careful
i9(H DENVER -THE QUEEN CITY OP THE PLAINS 3OI
irrigation, involving more attention than found necessary in eastern
cities blessed with more generous rainfall. This doubtless in part
accounts for the comparatively small number of spacious lawns found
surrounding the average Denver residence.
As compared with the average eastern city, Denver has little in
the way of history, but as an example of how in the territory added
to our country through the far-seeing statesmanship of Jeflferson prosper-
ous, solidly built cities have sprung up where fifty years ago only a few
trappers' cabins could be found in the entire territory, its history is
of surpassing interest.
For nearly half a century after the cession of the Louisiana Terri-
tory to the United States that portion known as the Pike's Peak
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Fio. 1. A panorama view of the city of Denver, showing the rugged snow-capped Rockies, over 75
miles distant.
country attracted little attention. Some fur companies were early
organized and their trappers began to establish stations in Colorado,
along the South Platte perhaps in the early twenties. In 1832 a
trading post was established near what is now Denver, and while this
was followed by other similar settlements in the neighborhood, it was
not until the discover\^ of gold in Colorado that immigration of any
consequence commenced. Many stories concerning the first discovery
of gold in .this territory arc in existence, and it is difficult to determine
the real origin of the movement westward. Hunters and trappers from
as early a date as 1832 had occasionally found gold in the sands of the
streams, and probably reports of these findings were circulated in the
eastern states for years before they gathered sufficient momentum
to secure any serious attention. Probably Colonel Gilpin's report
of his observations, made in 1849 through an address given in Inde-
pendence, Mo., furnished the first really reliable basis for the rumors
concerning the existence of gold. These reports, verified by various
returning adventurers during the succeeding years, produced the
traditional gold excitement as a result of which the city of Denver
was founded.
302 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Jane
The story of the early attempts to found a city in the vicinity of
Denver is of considerable interest. In the fall of 1858 a number of
families established a little settlement about six miles from the center
of the present city of Denver. About twenty houses were erected
and gold digging was attempted in the sands of the Platte at this point.
The town was named Montana, but was short-lived as the venture
proved unsuccessful and the entire settlement moved down the river
in the following spring. About the same time, farther down
stream within the limits of Denver, another town named Auraria was
established. This settlement proved quite successful and grew with
great rapidity. For some time it seemed to be destined to be the lead-
ing town of the Pike's Peak country. Here were established churches,
newspapers, lodges, and all the organizations ordinarily found in the
active western town. A short distance away a rival towii company
attempted to establish a town to be called St. Charles and prepared
articles of incorporation. This venture did not flourish and was soon
abandoned.
A little later a new town company was organized and established a
town on the site of St. Charles and in honor of the ex-governor of the
Kansas territory named it Denver. The date of organization is given
as November 17, 1858. (Sec Fig. 2).
For some time this town was a rival of Auraria, but the founders
of Denver were vigorous, energetic men and succeeded in more than
holding their own in spite of bitter animosity. The village prospered
and in April, 1860, the two towns were united under the name of Denver.
The first census of Denver taken in 1860 seemed to indicate a popu-
lation of 4,749. It is evident, however, that even at this early date,
knowledge of how to pad census returns was entirely equal to the task
of producing this remarka])le result.
The first railroad running into Denver was in operation in 1870; at
which time the city had a population of 4,759, an apparent increase
of only ten over the returns for 1860. Since 1870, however, the growth
of the city has been most remarkable. In 1900 the census showed
that Denver contained a population of 133,359. In 1902, as a result
of wiiat was known as the Rush Amendment to the Constitution of
Colorado, a number of suburban towns were annexed to Denver, and
the entire corporation, now known as the "City and County of Denver/'
contains a population considerably in excess of the above mentioned
figure. This amendment is popularly known as the "Home Rule
AnuMidment^' and Denver is, under its provisions, blessed with a degree
DENVER -THE QUE EX CITY OF THE PLAIN'S
O^O
of home rule possessed by perhaps no other city in the United States.
The remarkable growth of Denver has been due chiefly to the develop-
ment of the great mining camps of Colorado for which it is the natural
supply center. In addition, however, to these groat resources a very
rich agricultural and stock-raising region is found in the territory to
the north of the city which adds greatly to the resources of the state
and furnishes a stability to the city which a mining region alone
could not give.
As a result of Denver's early prominence as a commercial center
for the Pike's Peak country, it followed that when the railroads began
The s'att capital bt4ilJtfit: at Denver.
to form their network of communications through the Rockies, the
chief railroad center proved to be Denver. More than one western
city owes its prosperity as a railroad center to an apparently fortu-
itous combination of circumstances. In this case, however, the loca-
tion was eminently suitable for such a development and it is now well
established that Denver will remain the chief railroad center of the
Rocky Mountain Region.
The climate of Denver is one of its chief glories. Its winters are
mild and open. Little snow falls and there are few days during the
year when the sun doe^ not shine and outdoor life is not pleasant
and agreeable. The air is dry and possesses a tonic quality due to
the elevation above sea-level — about one mile. The rainfall is very
light, the annual precipitation being about fifteen inches.
As a natural result of these conditions Denver in common with all
CJolorado has come to be recognized as a highly desirable place "of
residence for those who suffer from mild pulmonary troubles. Thou-
304
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
June
sands of Denver's citizens originally came to Colorado in search of
health, and thousands more come each year for the same reason.
The mean annual temperature of Denver is about 50® Fahrenheit,
and the average number of clear and partly cloudy days is 309.
Although Denver owes its great growth to its favorable location as
a commercial center for the mining districts of the state, it has,
through its proximity to the coal fields, come to be quite a manufactur-
ing and smelting center. There are in operation in the city about
fifteen hundred manufacturing plants with an aimual output of over
forty-two million dollars. This statement often creates some surprise,
even among Denver residents, as few have been accustomed to think
of Denver as in any Avay a mamifacturing city. It is altogether
probable that the future growth of the city will depend to an increas-
ing extent upon the development of its manufacturing interests.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
AREA AND POPULATION OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES WITHIN
THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE.
STATK Area Pop. 1900 Chief City Pop. 1900
Arkansas 53,850 1,311,564 Little Rock 38,307
Colorado 103,645 539,700 Denver 133,859
Indian Territorv 31,000 302,060 Ardmore 5,681
Iowa 55,475 2,231,853 Des Moines 62,139
Kansas 81,700 1,740,495 KansaaCity 163,752
Louisiana 45,420 1,381,625 New Orleans 287,104
Minnesota* 79,205 1,751,394 Minneapolis 202,718
Missouri 68,735 3,106,665 St. Louis 575,238
Montana* 145,310 243,329 Butte 30,471
Nebraska 76,810 1,066,300 Omaha 102,555
North Dakota 70,195 319,146 Fargo 9,589
South Dakota 76,850 401,570 SioiLx Falls 10,266
Oklahoma* 38,830 398,831 Oklahoma City 10,037
Wyoming* 97,575 92,531 Cheyenne 14,087
♦Included in part in the Purchase.
RANK OF PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURES IN THE SEVERAL LOUISIANA
PURCHASE STATES, 1900.
Hank in Products.
Arkansas 3 in cotton ginning, 6 in lumber and timl)er products.
Colorado 4 in coke, 5 in copper smelting, 1 in lead smelting.
Iowa 3 in butter and cheese, 4 in food preparations, 8 in planing mill products.
Louisiana 3 in cotton seed oil.
Minnesota 1 in grist mill products, 3 in lumber and timber products, 3 in linseed oil
Missouri 4 in coffee ana spice washing, 5 in confectionery- and railway cars.
Montana 2 in copper and lead smelting.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
305
AGRICULTURE IN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE.
Rank in Total Value
Union of Crops
in 1900 in 1900
Arkansas 20 56,803,494
Colorado 34 16,857,533
Indian Territory . 32 16,691,142
Iowa 2 192,286.098
Kansas 5 112,684,696
Louisiana 27
Missouri 7
61.272,676
117,012,895
Minnesota 4 113.092,602
Montana 35
Nebraska 8
North Dakota ... 13
South Dakota ... 16
Oklahoma 24
Wyoming 48
10,516,381
92,056,580
53,928,010
44,069,331
26,612,442
3,119,023
Principal Crops with Rank in each in Union
Com 14; cotton 6; sugar 8.
Wheat 28; oats 30.
Com 25; cotton 10.
Com 2; oats 1; barley 3; hay 2; potatoes 5;
flaxseed 4.
Com 3; wheat 5; oats 12; hay 3; potatoes 10;
flaxseed 5.
Com 22 ; rice 1 ; cotton 7 ; sugar 1 .
Com 4; wheat 9; oats 11; hay 4; potatoes 12;
flaxseed 6.
Wheat 1; oats 4; com 21; bariey 2; hay 7;
potatoes 6; flaxseed 2.
Oats 28; wheat 36; hay 20.
Com 5; wheat 8; oats 5; hay 9; potatoes 11 .
Wheat 2; oats 14; flaxseed 1.
Wheat 3; com 24; barley 5; hay 13; flaxseed 2.
Wheat 16; com 23.
Oats 41 ; wheat 39; hay 35.
GRAZING IN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE TERRITORY, igoo.
Cattle Horses Mules Sheep Hogs
Arkansas 166,267 (8) 1,713,307
Colorado... 1,164,169 (15)
Indian Ter. 1,263,269 (13)
Iowa 4,077,351 (2) 1,268,046 (1) 9,723,791 (1)
Kansas. . . . 3,567,616 (3) 907,156 3,594,859 (6)
Louisiana 141,645(9)
Minnesota.. 1,305,331(12^ 1,440,806
Missouri... 2,345,272(6) 908,860(4) 242,095(2) 4,524,664(3)
Montana 4,215,214(1)
Nebraska. . 2,421,743 (4) 728,542 4,128,000 (4)
N.Dakota 331,323
S. Dakota . 1,203,659 433,644
Oklahoma. 1,409,627
Wyoming 3,327,185(3)
LOCALIZATION OF INDUSTRIES IN THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE.
CHIEF CITIES AND RANK IN INDUSTRY.
KMisas, slaughtering and meat packing (2) 76,829,139 — Kansas City, Kan. (2)
Nebraska,
Missouri,
Iowa
(3) 71,018,339— South Omaha (3).
(5) 42,229,127— St. Joseph (4), St. Lou-
(7) 25.296,518 ' is (6)
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PURCHASE.
Annual Reports U. S. Geological Survey.
Annual Reports U. S. Weather Bureau.
Brigham, Albert Perry, Geographic Influences in American History,
Boston: Ginn & Co.
Chittenden, Capt. Hiram M., American Fur Trade of the Far West.
New York: Harper & Brothers.
Gannett, Henry, United States, Stanford's Compendia, Chapters I, II,
IV, VII, XI. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co.
306 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Gilbert, Grove Karl, and Brighani, Albert Perr>', An Introduction to
Physical Geography, pp. 163-165. New York: D. Appleton & Co.
Hitchcock, Ripley, The Louisiana Purchase. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1903.
Hosmer, James Kendall, History of the Louisiana Purchase. New York:
D. Appleton & Co.
Inman, Col. Henry, The Old Santa Ft' Trail. Topeka, Kan.: Crane
& Co.
Inman, Col. Henn-, and Cody, William Frederick, The Great Salt
Lake Trail. Topeka. Kan.: Crane & Co.
Irving, \Va.shington, Astoria. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
Johnson, Willard I)., High Plains, Annual Report of U. .S. Geological
Survey, Washington, D. C.
Mill, Hugh Ro])ert, International Geography, pp. 750-760. New York:
D. Appleton & Co. "
Newell, Frederick H., Irrigation in thi United States, Chapters II, VI,
VIII, XII. New York: T. Y. Crowell & Co.
Ogg, The Opening of the Mississippi Valley.
Parkman, Francis, The Oregon Trail. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
Statesman's Year Book. New York: The Macmillan Co.
Semple, Ellen C.. American History and its Geographic Conditions.
Boston: Houghton. Mifflin & Co.
Thwaites. Reuben Gold. Rocky Mountain Exploration. New York:
D. Appleton & Co.. 1904. Exj)ansion of the Republic Series.
Trotter, Spencer, Geography of Commerce. Chaj)ters \-XI.
Current Articles on Commerce and Industry. —
APRIL
Bermuda Garden-Farming (Illus.), Country Life.
Camphor Trade of the World, Paint, Oil. and Drug Rev., April 6.
Chile and the Panama Canal (lllus.). Engineering Mag.
Japan, Rise of Modern (lllus.). World's Work.
Japan, Commercial, in 1904, Mo. Summary of Cojnjn. and Finance,
February.
Malting and Browing on Scientific Principles (lllus.), ^Sc/. J w., April 9.
Manchuria, Conditions in (lllus.). Consular Rep.
Marconi's Work in Europe (lllus.), World Tn-Day.
Mississippi : " The Great River.'' Part IV. (lllus.). World To-Day.
Negro Problem. Parts I.-\'., incl.. World To-Day.
Paper Manufacture, The Beginning? of, Success.
Russia. Conuiiercial, in 1904, Mo. Summary of Comm. and Finance
Febniarv.
1904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 3O7
Russia's Civilizing Work in Asia (Illus.), Rev. aj Revs.
Siberian Railway (Illus.) , Century.
Yellow-Pine Lumber Industry in the South (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
^lAY
Cattle-Raising: "The Fight for Free Grass '' (Illus.). Success.
Climatic Features of the Field of the Russo-Japanese War, Rev. of
Revs.
Clothing Manufacture (Illus.), Sci. Am., May 21.
Cotton: '' Making Cotton Pay'' (Illus.), World's Work.
Cotton-Oil Industry, Paint, Oil, and Drug Rev., May 18.
Cut-Glass Manufacture (Illus.), Sci. Am., April 30.
German Merchant Marine, Consular Rep.
Japan, Fifty Years of (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
Mississippi: "Rise and Fall of the Steamboat Business " (Illus.),
World To-Day .
Northwest, Boom in (Illus.), Sat. Eve. Post, May 21.
Porto Rico, Americanization of (Illus.), TFor/rf'.s Work.
Siberian Railway in War (Illus.), World To-Day.
Woman Unemancipated (Illus.), World To-Day.
EDITORIAL
THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE
'"TT^HE Great Louisiana Purchase Exposition now open at St. Louis
I has been the means of arousing a deep interest in the signifi-
cance of the Louisiana Purchase in the political and economic
history of our country. When this great region of possibilities was first
brought to public notice a century ago the geographic significance and
importance of the area were imperfectly realized, and since that
time few people have fully appreciated the part that geography has
played in determining the history and development of this vast domain.
This number of the Journal has been planned to present a brief
and concise summary of the past and j)resent geographic conditions
of the Louisiana Purchase tract, in order that teachers may have
at hand a good working reference volume, which shall be available
in their teaching of this important portion of our country, not only
during the present period of popular interest in the area, but also
after that interest has subsided.
The authors of the several papers here presented are recognized
308 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY June
authorities in the phases of geography and histor>' which they have
severally treated. Of course only the briefest outline of the vast geo-
graphic conditions presented on such an enonnous scale in this area
can be given in the limited space available. For a fuller and more com-
plete statement the interested reader should consult the several volumes
and monographs mentioned in the brief selected bibliography. Yet
the papers here presented have a distinct value above any larger trea-
tise, inasmuch as only the salient features pertinent to the require-
ments of teachers have been selected for treatment, and the needs
of teachers have been kept constantly in mind, not only in the planning
of the number as a whole, but also in the variety of the several papers.
It is hoped that this number may be of distinct value also to those
who are planning to visit St. Louis during the coming summer, and
particularly to those who, living amid the varied landscapes of the
Eastern States, have never seen the vast and impressive long distance
views to be gained in those regions of gentle relief which make up
the larger part of the Louisiana Purchase territory.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS
Lectures on Commerce Delivered Ijefore the College of Commerce and Adminis-
tration of the University of Chicago. Edited by Henr>' R.* Hatfield. Pp. viii,
388. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1903.
A series of lectures on Railways, Trade and Industry-, and Banking and Insur-
ance delivered by experts in the several fields. Full of infonnation on little under-
stood problems m conmiercial life. Helpful to teachers and the general reader.
Valuable for the school library, especially where commercial g(.K)graphy is empha-
sized.
Early Western Travels, 17 18-1846. A series of annotated reprints of some of
the lx»st contemporary volumes of travel during the periocl of early American
settlement. To l)e completed in 31 volumes. Vol. I, 1748-1764, pp. 328;
Vol. II, 1768-1782, pp. 329. Cleveland. Ohio; The Arthur H. Clark C\)., 1904.
The volumes of this series of reprints of early travels will be of great value
to all students of the early geography and history of the Western States. The first
volume consists of a scries of notes of expeditions into the west. The second volume
presents John Long's notes on his life among the Indians of the St. Lawrence Basin
and Northeni New York. Very interesting for the descriptions of Indian life and
customs and vahial)le for history and geography classes. Inviting reading for
any one who is hit crested in early conditions as contrasted with the present. Well
annotated and attractively printed.
Geology. Hy Thomas C. Chaml)erlin and Hollin I). Salisbury. Vol. I, Geologic
Proccss'cti and Their Result.s. Pp. xix, 654. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1904.
An inclusive and clearly written volume on the more familiar phases of geology.
E.bpecially valual>le 1o teachers of physical geograpliy or geology. Superbly illus-
trated and typograj)hically pleasing. To l)e reviewed later.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS ^Og
A Text-Book of the Physics of Affriculture. Bv F. U. King. Pp. xvi, 604. thinl
edition, 1903. Published by the author, \fadison, Wis.
Although primarily for the student or worker in agriculture, the book includes
much of value to the teacher of geography or nature study. The chapters on soils,
the uses of soils, soil moisture, relation of air to soil, on ground water, farm wells,
farm drainage, and the atmosphere are simple and extremely valuable.
The Louisiana Purchase and the exploration, eariv histor\', and building of the
West. By Ripley Hitchcock. Pp. xxi, 349. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1904.
A brief and interesting account of histor>' of exploration and development in
the Louisiana Purchase. The appendix contains a ver>' adequate series of statistics
and is accompanied by a useful index. The book is jMuticulariy timely and per-
tinent to the scope of this number of the Journal.
Around the World in the Sloop Spray. Bv Captain Joshua Slocum. Pp. xiv,
213. New York : Charles Scnbner's Sons, 1903.
An abridgment for school use of the author's well-kuo\%ai volume, describing his
trip around the world in a thirty-sLx foot sloop. Interesting for adults and children.
First hand in formation, clearly and forcibly expressed. An excellent geographical
reader describing the ways of people in distant lands.
NEWS NOTES
The Eighth International Geographic Congress. — Mention has
already been made in the Journal of the Eighth International
Geographic Congress which will convene in Washington on September
8th, where meetings will be held on September 8th, 9th, and 10th.
On September 12th the Congress will be the guests of the Geograph-
ical Society in Philadelphia. On September 13th and 14th sessions
will be held in New York under the auspices of the American Geo-
graphical Society and on September 15th an excursion on the Hudson
will be given by that society. September 16th will be passed at Niag-
ara. On September 17th the Congress will be the guests of the Geo-
graphic Society of Chicago. On September 19th and the following
days the Congress will take part in the sessions of the geographical
sections of the Congress of Science and Arts at the World's Fair, St.
Louis. After adjournment, about September 24th, an excursion is
planned to Mexico and the Grand Canyon of Arizona.
It is particularly desired that many American teachers of geogra-
phy should take part in the Congress. It is believed that the time
thus spent will be profitable, not only from the value of papers and
discussions during the sessions of the Congress, but in no less degree
from the advantage of personal intercourse with the geographers of
Europe and America, whom the Congress will bring together. One or
more sectional meetings will be devoted to the educational aspects
of geography; contributions on this branch of the subject are desired
Dodge's Geography
BY GRAJ)ES
By Richard Elwoud Dodge
Profgssor pf Geography, Ttachers Cottege, Cffiumbia Cntvtrstfy^ New York City .
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Pity si cat Geography for Bt^nners^' etc^
niuslrated with half-tone illustrations, text maps, diagrams, and maps in
colors. Each: Cloth, square 8 vo, (3x lo mches).
Book 1. Home Geography and World Relations - 35c.
Book IL Elements ol Continental Geography . . . 55c.
Book IIL Principles of Geography 00c.
Book IV. Comparative Geography of the Continents 00c.
RAND, McNALLY & CO., Chicago mnA New York *
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AN AGENCY THAT RECOMMENDS
'T^HIS is the day of Special Ttachers. Those who can teach any subject well, noticeably
J^ better than it is usually tau>^ht, are in demand at j^ood salaries. There is a call, not
only for teachers of Cicoj^raphy, but f(.r teachers of Physical Geography and Com-
mercial Ge<>),craphy as si>ecial subjects. If v«»u will write to us we .shall be ^lad to send
vou evidence that we have opportunity t«» place superior teachers by RECOHIiENDATION.
There is no other Ay^ency to which .so many ai)plications are made for teachers.
The School Bulletin Agency, c. w. Bardeen, Syracuse, N.Y.
Uhe IvOTAIvY^feSS?
Published. The
Editor ha^ taufrht T-wvlre Years and Superintended Eteven Years.
Carefully {.graded Selections. Lanxcua^^e Studies for Composition Work, News Items
(Kindlings) with l»ertinent Questions, Sondes with Music, P'ridav Afternoon Selection.s
Story Letters Written hv the Children, and Uncle Will's Corner and its Personality so
prized bv the Younjijer Readers.
Free" sample. Jietter still : Send ten cents for a five months' "Trial Trip" to
^he ROTARY, Lisbon, North Vakota.
An Important Book of Travel
AFRICA
FROM SOUTH TO NORTH
THROUGH MAROTSELAND
By MAJOR A. St. H. GIBBONS, F. R.G. S.
Author of '* Exploration and Hunting in Central Africa/'
^With Numerous Illustrations reproduced from Photo-
graphs, and Maps, ;.■ :: Octavo, 2 vols. $7.50 net.
Major Gibbons' dest'riptwn of hh fratteis through the 'mhoie iength of
tht African continent is amongst fh^ most va/nabi^ contributthns to
ikis class of litfratnre pubtisheti in recent years. Amongst other
important features in the 7L*ork is an account of the tracing of the
Zambesi I^ii.fer to its source, u^hich haft hitherto remained uHitiscoztered.
ORDER FORM
-igo^
To/OlfN LANE, Publisher,
6f Fifth Avenue, Kern \mk City,
Please semi me -AFRICA FROM SOUTH TO NORTH
THROUGH MAROTSELAND " for which I enclose $f.so
. Xame . .
Address
JOHN LANE,
Publisher, ^^vHue New York
You have solved the book problem
W r :*. t h a Vy^k -*> - yrr J n I n 'J : a n az^f'l :*>■ " I can •'pen d 'jr/.y *' • tr. - : h each aaocth «is book^
'J h«r pr'/bj<r:r. wa%'*o rnak«r ;*. ;<'^ far •rno'^j^h, Vour 6y»:en: ni* n:y r.tred* exAcily. Send
:r.t h ve r y I * r. ;•. f i'/'y k as i ".su'.-'i ir ' r-t ?j j y . "
Wt navt: '!i:vivr'i a i:n:'^ut.- -ybttm'of VvA price* whicE insures the cheapcrC ■cjk.fc
' f ;f»rnu3nely rr^'i*: y^MjV.s ev«,-r i-is-^td in Amer:i.a.
'I'hjt» n*:w -tyniem 'A t>^-Mi«.h:n;< i* more l"(f:caj :hA= :he system "f fixe^l prioeft for
r*rpr:n?s. <>th*:r T?.:n>c-» '>einif equai. it to!»ts le^s \r, produce a short bt^-k tiar a lonip
<'n<:. i{:ther?o the v:j:in;< price of the short bo<jk ha<» been a<» hicrh as that of the- Itnic.
An'l evi-n the jonj^es*. t-»'»"k ha-> not been s'^d to you at a io«». We ifive y:*!! the ben^B
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materials ar.d workmanship wh'ch ko toward the niak:n;< of the' book.
What do you mean
•Whenever
by the Unit Kooks? writes another t>K>k-buver.
Merely the!.e ihinf^s :
1. A verits of readabli.- V^oks old enoujfh to be considered permanent,
u new b'^fk comes out I read an «.ld one."
2. Such b'iok'. annotated in a helpful an<l common-sense manner.
■<, Then printed from new legible ty^H; on featherweight paper and bound in
paper, < lr/t}i, and leather.
4. Lightest l^Hfks made. Average cheap reprint weighs 2\ oz.; average Unit Book
weighs I'. It/..
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f: f'ublishf-d and w>ld on the unit plan, which means that for every printed p^a^
thi* purchav.'r pays i-jcth «/f a cent, one cent for each 2; pages (the uniti. four cents tor
each hundred pages. Cloth cover jo cents extra, leather cover 50 cents extra.
First 27 Books
HawT home's Marble Faun
Pu|Mrr, <*ic ; cloth, 51c.; leather, 71c.
Lincoln's Letters and Addresses
I'uper, i6c.; cloth, 4OC.; leather, f/jc.
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I'uper, jic; cloth, 51c.; leather, 71c.
Kenan's Life i}i Jesus
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Trolh^pe's Domestic Manners of
Americans
Trench's Study of Words
Philipi)ines in the 17th Century
Simm's Yemassee
National Documents
Knickerbocker's History of New
York
Democracy in America
Ilamerton's Intellectual Life
De (Juincey's Kssays
15. Lear*s Nonsense Books
16. Familiar Letters of James
Howell
17. Life of Ben venuto Cellini
18. Pater's Marius the Epicurean
I';. Boker's Francesca da Rimini
(with a com|)arative study of
other versions)
20. Rejected Addresses and other
prose parodies and burlesques
21. Goethe's Faust
22. The Old Red Sandstone, by
Hujrh Miller
23. The Journals of Lewis and
Clark
24. Pride and Prejudice, by Jane
Austen
25. Hertzka's Trip to Freeland
26. Horace in Latin and English
27. Swinburne's Poems
The Unit Books
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You Ought to Look Into This
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ftn- e iihIj l<'c1 tu u ■ ak e 1 1 h ■ r < » 1 1 > » * 1 n jf
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Oni? y^ar'n »auiK'rlptl4iD lu TiiK I.itti.k «'uKfi.vii'i.E i n lurwi' l'J'|iHiL*f? wi-ekly. NfHiitl'fiiiljf lUit^
trACt'ilK 13 %; utic S^tere>»Hi'i}(it' h lih ]iiuii]Jii[iiiii bood, »iAt1ik nntnlicd. lidnU riDfrAV^dn nttii^h iioiind^
luau^nt di*rk phaiiirii r. wiirih #1^^*': rim i^ ilui'i^u i-nrrrun^ ♦'^li'ripd ami iH-autlfuih riiJiilH d t^t^r«<cv
itc*<ip!c Tlcwa frnni 41tTerrfn tmrin of Uiti w.»rld, wt>rni tl'im h'T il4i£t-rM£l ii'i^ inal^lniz a tuf*! vnMm
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^%ifi'iii«4 make ^Ih3 m «*i.l p^r «ccli.
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THE UTTLE CHRONICLE PUBLISHING COMPANY
&CHILLCR BUILDINO, CHIGACQ, ILLINOtS
ON THE
PLATFORIM
,-f Quarteriy Mnga^mt of X^ti^
Ri- atim^ ^ . A' tx it a ti* ut$, A/i c r-
Uinfter S/otit^s, Pravrkai Ativitr
and Suggestions ..........
50 cc at5 a 1 car, ISccfltSiia rber.
THE 1>est recent utierantc in whnt
tbi» Lutlt^ mH^KCAxinp sinpplirH the
prof^tikmaL or amateur, and it
cnmcs just when ft is niosit needed :
lanuarv\ ApriL Juilv, and Octribcr. U
U editu'd br Willikm E. Witt, A.
M.p fh. D.. who HpecialJiy knuw^ thu
requirements of popular speakers iintl
who is him&elf one ai the most iii»ur<ht
lecturers and ftfter-dinner talktrs in
ChicagO'
THE SCHOOL WEEKLY
40 Randolph Street
THE 6LUG FAMILY
By WILLI.VM E. WATT, A. M.. Fh- D.
A FLAY or THE SORT TO CRAW A
CROWO AND GIVE SATISFACTiO?H
171011 » w;hts>| entertalnTiH^nt not h lag ^an
T euual tidii. fur U ^^Mf^wj^ fi[i tliR wiir^^r
fHiutIv lu ii'luhjii wn wt'l] yoii wii<iild eIiIeiIii
tlie auih^^r had ttieni in mind. It belpii
I he ipauin'^r i*t ke<'|Hi |{i>ml m-IkhiK The hwl
«-'ii» of ihe r»roide wht* try to Inlfrfert- with
file tftwkl work 1*1 tlic* iM'buo) are no well pre-
peiHi^ here Miiit tfsi-re wfll he leum i rouble fyr
yesiru aficr It tiiw Ih-i'ii iETvGii. Tlie lucldfUU^
the JoKPii, tl]i- fuDtiy tmntiTfi, Aiid tlie lati|^&ire
eomi Pried wHh tbe Olufsvsrip tnkeiL from life.
ThP lOHtftncri" where Mr«» Gluic Ir rffeired Co
(ho t ummfti^e «a Rep^Jm to K"r toer ifttie
bui'V trounera mended lia|tp4'n»*d tn t'hlru^u.
Mr. (;Eutf> I iMtdeiiLUHilotiof M^e teacher In the
Iire^enre or hli* unn why Ilea Teiipstedly tJLthtm
ttud I he [eiirNrranxl iN^expoiied on th*' sihihIj*
II real ha |ipi*i tl n jT, And r he re a r* o i h« ra f alteo
(rtmi r€»l life- ihi- erF*r* t?l apecchaad the
hlunderp III i-ljua are real utien.
Thli» play niaf J*e K'ven wJtli fpwerrebeftr*-
iil« [iijiti any ofMer fiili ini.nl ok'" ''mcTi**1ii-
meot. Tin* r«'bi*ar*JUK nmy lu* (arrled on l>y
neviTuI teacher* wiprklxiK wtUi liiil.hT4ii«li«
veparaiidv. Three fmit'Fal rL'UcarvaIn will
fiiiltltt*. 1 welve lo M sty four ]»erfoniLer««
younic or old.
THE SCHOOL WEEKLY
40 Randolph St. Chtoago, III.
Some Geographical Publications
Made Out West
But Good Everywhere
Npiv Pnrifir 5^rViAn1 (It^ntrravkhjr ^y harr waoner. This n«w Oooin«ptay
new iraCUlC OCUOOI IreOgrapiiy ha* many attractive features that win appeal
to the teachers in (.'allfornla. It supplicH many of the features that are lacking in other geographleii.
Itglyes directions for drawlnK the map of the State of California (contributed by I>. It. Augaburgi.
In the story of California, it kIvcs a brief historical sketch: describes in a definite manner the
monntains, the lakeH« the rivpr HyntemH* the climate, the nolU the prodacts^ the
indnstrled, the commerce* the edncation. the animal and plant life« the coanttefi and
ciileii. There are also six pages on the etymology of geographical names of the West, Including
Keveral pages on the Spanish and Indian names of California. Krery statement la thoroughly
up-to-date. It has been written and prepared upon the census statistics of 19UU.
There are also special maps of the islands of the Pacific and also information on the commerce
and industries of the new racillc. It is Indorsed by the leading educators. Price, net, Sl>##f
postpaid.
Qfnriae nf Our MnfViAr PaH-Vi By HAROLD W. FAIRBANKS, Ph. D. Tlie
OlOneS OI UUr mOUier r^ana PaclAc coast is particularly rich In Illustrative
material for the study of inorganic nature, but up to this time little has been put in such abape as
to be available for the use of schools. In the mountainous regions especially, where mining Is
nnch an important industry, and physical nature seems to work more energetically, it Is particu-
larly desirable that the children should go out from school with some living knowledge of their
surroundings. It has been my purpose In the preparation of the following chapters to present in a
simple manner some elementary conceptions In geology, mineralogy, and physical geography.—
ExTBACT FROM Pbkpa(;b. Prlce, net, 50 Cents, postpaid.
Just published in our Western Educational Help Series, Ideographical Handbook of
Local Geography. Price, net, 25 Cents.
Send for complete catalogue of our Western Publications.
THE WHITAKER d RAY CO., Publishers
SAN FRANCISCO. CAL.
^
^.f
ReiiiirrgtOn
PournZorn&^}ithe Eal
In eveFy^clime/and* ^v^
V evfery nation it lis the ^ ^J^^^
Stanaard Typewriter^
Reniing:tan
Typewriter Company
327 Broadway
"K/^
New York
New ElemeniaTy Agriculture
By Dr. Chai. A\ Bestey^ Prof Lawrence
E r utter ^ and Pri?/, O. U, Su^eney
of the
Umiversitv of Nebraska
Alt tftm«fl£af^ imxt^hooh far thv mrotfith Bftrf cfgiAM
grzidmt or tf\w High SohiMt.
A STRONS EKOaRSEIIENT
Some time a^o I rpceivcii a copy of
youjr delightful liitle book on Element'
ary Agriculture, I am detighu-d with
' the step you h&v^ taken. 1 have biten
urRirigf the necessity o£ this for some
lime. The beginnmg- should be made
in the common school, or, probably, it
should btffifi farther back than that — in
the normal schorl, with the fittihR- arjd
prepBrlng- of teachera, so that when
they take up the common school work
they can introduce this deliKhiful and
beneficial study. Every child would be
benefited by a. courae of Study in this
btKik and instruction regar diner it in iho
class ruum. H03). J AMES %VlLBo|f,
U. S. Secretary 0/ Agriculture.
Published in Oclober, iqp^j but already
in u^c in 1 1+ different schools.
THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISH IHG 0OMPABY,
Biraks
Flexible Blndloir. I5e,
A real grem. Tetcheri fall In love with It
»n6 ppupllM wml to read 11 through 0* eooii hjj
they beitlu It Appropriate for School Mid
Home.
It, J« Tlie mory of tlie eiiwrieace of Delmft
»E)«( llnnild vlio went lu ttipir ifmiidfatlicr'ft
LoMfH^tia ttir Jiummer Httidylu*? and oli»«nlDK
tlie biTil^.
CONTENTS are:
BmoTKH AT TirEiR TitAitK*: Mftunn —
a waH 1 0 w« Bai keLin ftkor — ( ; r! m aoii & tm h.
Weaver— Oriole ^ Fuller -(ioiai1ni-b, Ci&rpeD-
ter- iVchMlfferkef, Talk.r— TiillurMnl.
HmriHi* AM>TnEinyosii*< r In tin? LJard**(J
llotjtn. In tin- VYwrtl-TJinirth. |ii thu Fir- in
HluisWrtl^ In the Sky .^ Lurk, Jd the iJotne —
Caaary, In the <inhvo - MtjckltiKhtrd.
HiniHK* OS Till liVt?«J: HunnninfrblTil,
TiiK l^lRDlJI^' FfcRKWEtr.; Jailc tjjiinTrow
aad Jeacty Wren, tiood-Bjii.
The Imok Ih Tery prettily Jlluotrated by
Hfriha L, Turhpit. the artlut of hunlKinnet
!lai> 1 cj^ . Th caul huT la T da h, K 1 »on . uf Ph 1 1 b-
rleltuMEa^fumieriya proanlaeut Klndei^urtui^r
Of IluthN;bot!i, I'a
William G. Smith & Company
Mrnneapolia, Minnesota
Royer's
Higher Mental Arithmetic
The most dilTicult, weM-jL^raded and
tliouffhl-provoking text i a its line
Ontw 2& c^nts
80g\ e/ Modfft Soiutions or Kep
ia it 5& evnts
A NEW CORRELATED
GEOGRAPHY
ContatnB over 4,e>ijo fact si terselv sitated.
It Is up-to-dale and needa but to be seen
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By S, V, Gti-LAK, is a volume of ts^>
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COLUMBIA
UNIVERSITY
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SUMMER SESSION, 1904
Wedntjdapt Juisf 6 to
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113 COURSES
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Kng] iHb an d t ej I "my i - 1 if j 1 1 i|r> . r>-^|>eo t Iv rl \ 1 5
Mt. I', K. KindiiM, SliTierliiTiinlent tsf S^ubiMitH
Hi ItidliaaiioikH {111 PliJui^biilnu i ; ami Prtrfeh^ur
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Journal of Pedagogy
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
XVI DECEMBER 1908
EDITORIAL — College Work in High Schools — Advantages of an Advanced High
School Course — The Aim of Physical Training — The English Question — Ath-
letics a Part of the Secondary School Course —Department of Superintendence.
THE FATIGUE PROBLEM, THADDEUS L. BoLTON.
THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS, W. A. CLARK.
UNSOUNDNESS OF THE CULTURE EPOCHS THEORY OF EDUCATION,
Frederick E. Bolton.
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A SUMMEK. SCHOOL OF
GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY
At CORNELL UJVIVERSITY
JULY 7th TO JtUGUST 19th, 1904
COURSES OF INSTRUCTION
PhyHlcal Geoffraphy of the liands, Lerturen, Professor R. 8. Tarr (Professor of
Dynuuilc Geology and I'hypfcal Geoirraphy. Cornell rnlverslty;; Lnborntom^ Assistant Prtudpal
Carnry dthaca lllfrh School) and Mr. (i. I>. Iltibliard ( Asslstaut In Physical Goo^rapbr, Cornell
Unlvprniiy;; Fifld Work, Professor Tarr. Mr. Carney, Mr. Whlttieck, ancl Mr. IIubbaM:
Elementary Meteoro1offy« lectures and Ltibomittry , Assltitant Princlnal Carney.
IlyuamicalGeoloffy, Ltfctureti, Professor A. P. BrlKliam (Professor of GeoloRT andNatoral
Histoid, Colgate Unlverultyj; Laborntonj, Mr. F. V. Emerson (Assistant In Gcoion', Cornell
University); Field Work, Professor Drlgliam, Mr. Carney, Mr. Emerson, and Mr. Hubbard.
The Geoffraphy of the 1'nited HtateH. l*rofessor Brlffham.
The Geofrraphy of Europe, I*rofcssor Tarr.
Geoffraphic IntlucnceH and Relations* Mr. K. 11. Whltbeck (Supervisor State Normal
and Model ^cnouls, Trenton, N . .) .;
The Geoffraphy of Tropical C-onntrien. Mr. Hubbard.
Oooaaaercial Geoffraphy* IjectureHamilLctboratory and Field ITorX:, Mr. Philip Emerson
(CoblH't Sehool, Lynn, ^lass.;
ilooae Geoffraphy. I*rofes8or Charles A. McMurr>' (Director of I»ractice Department,
Northern Illinois Normal School, DeKalb. 111.)
Type StudlcN In Geoffraphy for l-rammar Gradeii* Professor McMurry.
AlmH and ProhleioH in Geoffraphy, Mr. Whitbeck.
Round Tahic Conference. For consideration of topics of (geographic Interest; all the
teachers and such students as desire to attend.
Advanced Coume in Dynamical Geoloffy and Physical Geoffraphy, Professors
Tarr and Brlgbain, with asHistanls.
Flve-Hay Field ExcurHion to the seashore, the Appalachians, and the coal mines of
Pennsylvania, conducted by Profrssor Tarr and other members of the faculty.
The Reffular Hummer HeHsion also includes courses in Nature Study. Education^
History, Economics, Botany. Zoology, and other subjects with a bearing on geographic work.
For further information write THE KEGISTKAIi. Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.. for
special circular of School of Geography.
1
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r>6^ JOURNAL^/
GEOGRAPHY
jfn IttMUtrated Magarine DeVoted to the Interests of Teachers of
Ceographp in Elementarp, Secondary, and in Normal Schools
THE JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY is an illustrated maga-
zine devoted to the advancement of Geographic education.
It is the only journal in America devoted particularly to the
cause of teachers of geography, and there are but two other simi-
lar journals in the world.
The JOURNAL, in succession to the JOURNAL OF
SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY and the BULLETIN OF THE
AMERICAN BUREAU OF GEOGRAPHY, is now closing its
seventh year, and is endorsed through usage, not only by teachers
of geography, but by some of the most eminent geographers of
the world. It has subscribers in all parts of the world and many
of its articles are reprinted in geographic and educational journals.
Thus its usefulness has spread beyond the expectation of the
founders.
The JOURNAL stands for progress in geography teaching
and welcomes all contributions towards that end. It supports no
particular method or theory, and its field includes all grades of
work. Teachers, from the Elementary school to the University,
find the JOURNAL almost indispensable, if they would keep in
touch with that which is best in geography teaching.
Included in the JOURNAL are articles dealing with geograph-
ical facts and the teaching of geography ; notes summarizing the
best and most helpful advances in geography reported in current
literature ; brief notes on recent publications in the bcH)k and map
world, longer and frank reviews, from the standpoint of usage, of
the most important publications ; and news notes including recent
events of interest and forthcoming educational meetings at which
papers on the teaching of geography will be presented. All geo-
graphical publications are noted as soon as received, so that
teachers can keep in touch with the latest literature. Each num-
ber also contains an editorial on some important and pertinent
phase of geography teaching.
A special feature is the reprinting, in part or as a whole, of
articles of teaching value that appear in the many reports of the
United States Government and are not readily accessible to
teachers. Numerous illustrations, diagrams, and maps are in-
serted, and wherever possible, diagrams are used that can be
readily transferred to the blackboard or made into lantern slides
by the teacher.
/ufr a partial list of articles that have appeared and will appear during
the school year of iqoj-iqixf. see next page.
Read
This
H^re fs a h'si t^f arittivs i/iai art ut&n f& appear m THE
JO URN A L OF GEOGRA PH i : IViU tkest kelp yon m ikt
geQgrnphhitl xvork of your einss /
The Functioas of Geography in the Elementsnr SchooL
Geography in the United States.
The Delta of the MissUsippi River.
A Noteworthy Cave in the Coastal Piain of Georgia.
Weather Lore^
The Scope and Content of Geog^raphy. Two articles.
Map Drawing.
Studying the Sun, Moon^ and Stars.
Transportation, A series of iirtides.
River Study.
Geographical Education.
The Geography of the Louisiana Purchase* A serios of
ten articius.
Practical Exercises in Physiography.
The Geography and History of Chattanooga and Vicinity.
Geography in the Civil War.
The Conduct of EiECursions in Elementary Geography
Work.
The Growth of Wheat in the United States.
The Geography of the Fall Line.
Geographic Influences of Government*
Anthropogeography.
Mathematical Geography, A scries.
Geographical Course of Study in the Following Normal
Schools :
Terre Haute, Indiana.
Los Angeles^ California.
DswegOj New York,
Westfield, Massachusetts.
SiihA% yiN' for this jiftattai, dtttf jr*'^ ihe use ttf these ariidei. Talk Tktt
Jjnntdf of tlt.i*t^^riSpUy A* y^^ttr tfttckitif^ frtertds.
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Ro^m 569, 16Q Adams Stfvtt, Chicago* flK
neJOURNALof
GEOGRAPHY
Volume III,
SEPTEMBER, 1904
Number 7
3tn iUnmivateb tttonttilu ntagaflne toettateb to th^
tnetttarB, ttjecottbar^ij attlr normal 0jci}ooi0
Edited by RICHARD E. DODGE, Professor of Geog|
rapliy, Teachers College, Columbia University^ New Yorl
City, and EDWARD M. LEHNERTS. Professor o
Geography^ State Normal School, Winona, Minnesota
^0nU%tt& for §*vtemUcr
The First American Geography . CLIFTOH JOHNSOIT 311
The School Exctirsioa and the School Museum as Aids in the Teachieg of
Geography .,.,.,,, D. C, RIDGELEY $22
The Human Response to the Physical Environment
J. PAUL GOODE 333
Geographical Notes ^
"SenMibk' Temperatures,'* 343 — Pi^bUc Sc-hor.i!*! in Russia, i^a -- Cost of Cun struct i cm of
the Trans-Si buHttn Railwuy, 348 — Advisfibli; Umissians frnm ibe Klemiifltnry Ctirrieu-
lum, 149-- Currunt ArtlclfJ^ un Commerrd iind Industry, j^i} — Kcitnnmit.' Tmpartancc of
the Coff4.'e Industry. 351 —The Climatt of ttie Arffenlinc KcpubliCi 553 — Map Drawltig
in Hiitory, 353 — Cotnmerdal Jiii,t*in in h/tuj, iS4.
Editorial:
The EmphA«ts of DetAils in School Ocogruphy. j^.
Tlie IndiaD.'^ of thy Paintt'd
ReTiewi:
GeoUigy. Chainbi^rUn unJ Saliiibur;% WA. L i j J*. Tr.K 556
Deiier t Region. J a nies, j jfi .
Recent Publicationfi ,,.,., - 3S7
News Note . , . 358
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Copyright y jqo^ by R. M. Lehnerts,
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
PUBLISHED MONTHLV, EXCEPT JULY AND AUGUST
An ittttstratwd Magasinw DtVoted to thw Interwsts of Teachers of Ceographp in
Etementarp, Secondarp, and ^format Schools
Successor to the Journal of ScJwol CeojErraphy, Vol. V., and the Bulletin of the
American Bureau of Gcog^raphyy Vol. II.
EDITORS
RICHARD E. DODGE,
Professor of Geography^ Teachers Collegey Columbia University^ New York City,
EDWARD M. LEHNERTS
Professor of Geography^ State Normal School ^ Winona^ Minnesota,
ASSOC] ATE EDITORS
CYRUS C. ADAMS Geogrraphical Editor^ N. Y, Sun
OTIS W. CALDWELL . Professor of Botany, State Normal School, Charles ton. III
JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIK, Prof of Geography, State Normal School, LosAng^les^ Cal.
HENRY C. COWLES . . . Associate in Botany, University of Chicago, Chicago^ 111,
W^ILLIAM M. DAVIS. Professor of Geology, Jlarz'arct University, Cambridgre, Mass,
N. M. FENNEMAN . . Professor of Geology, Uniiwrsity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis,
J. PAUL GOODIC, Assistant Professor of Geography, University ofChicagCj Chicago, JIL
GEORGE B. HOLLISTER, Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
M. S. W. JKFFKRi^OK, Professor of Geography, State Normal School, Ypsilanti,Mich.
EMORY R. JOHNSOX, Asst. Prof of Transportation and Commerce, Univ. of Penna,
EDW. D. JONES, Asst. Prof of Commerce and Industry, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor
VERNON L. KELLOGG, Prof. ofEntotnology, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ., Palo Alto, CaL
CHARLES F. KING Master of Dearborn School, Boston, Mass,
S. J. Maclean, Asst. Prof of Economics, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ., Palo Alto, Cal,
FOREST RAY MOULTON, Assistant Professor of Astronomy, University of Chicago
JACQL'ES W. REDWAY Author, Mount Vernon, N. Y,
ELLEN C. SEMPLE Writer in Anthropogeography, Louisville, Ky,
FREDERICK STARR, Associate Prof of Anthropology, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, III.
RALPH S. TARR, Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y,
SPENCER TROTTER ...... Professor of Biology, Srvarthmore College, Pa,
ROBERT DkC. ward . . Assistant Professor of Climatology, Harvard University
ASSOCIATE EDITORS FOR GREAT BRITAIN AND CANADA
A. J. HI^RBERTSON, Lecturer in Regional Geography, Oxford University, England
JOHN A. DRESSER Prince Albert School, St. Henry de Montreal^ Quebec
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The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. SEPTEMBER, 1904 No. 7
XII
THE FIRST AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY*
BY CLIFTON JOHNSON
IN colonial days geography was spoken of as **a diversion for a
wint<5r's evening/' and acquaintance with it was considered an
accomplishment rather than a necessity. Some rudimentar}''
instruction in the science was occasionally given at the more advanced
schools, but the topic was not taken up in the elementary schools
until after the Revolution. A knowledge of it was first made a condi-
tion for entering Harvard in 1815, and a dozen years more elapsed
before Massachusetts named it among the required studies in the
public schools. To begin with, it was not introduced as a separate
study, but the books were used as readers. The same was true of the
early school histories. However, geography presently won a place
of its own and kept it in spite of the protests that the scholars' atten-
tion was thereby being taken away from ** cyphering.''
The pioneer of American authors of school geographies was
Jedidiah Morse. On the title page of most editions of his books his
name was appended with *'D. D. Minister of the Congregation in
Charlestown, Massachusetts." He was born in 1761, graduated from
Yale in 1783, and the year following published at New Haven his first
geography. Later he put forth several other geographies, large and
small, became a compiler of gazetteers, wrote various important his-
torical and religious works, was one of the founders of Andover Theo-
logical Seminary, and for more than thirty years served as pastor of
the First Church in Charlestown. He won fame not only in his own
country but was recognized abroad as a man of distinguished attain-
ments, and a number of his books were translated into French and
German. His Geography Made Easy, a small leather-bound 12mo
• Reprinted by permission from Old^Time Schools and SchooUBooks, published
by The Macmillan Company, New York.
^ J 2 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
of about 400 pages, was for many years by far the most popular text-
book dealing with this sul:)ject. My copy, dated 1800, is dedicated
TO THE
Young Masters and Misses
Throughout the L'nited States
Two maps of double-page size are the only illustrations — one a map
of the world, the other of North America.
The earlier pages treat of the ''Doctrine of the Sphere. Of Astro-
nomical Geography Of Olobes and their Tse/' etc. But soon we
■yHDIDIAH MORSE
come to the Histortj oj the Disrorcrj/ of Amerini, and then to a General
Description of Afmrico. In the latter chapter is much that is inter-
esting and pictures(juo. It includes, as do all the early geographies,
a good many imaginative travellers' tales j)icked uj) from newspapers
and other chance sources without any pains being taken to verify
thcMu or to inrjuin^ as to the relia))ility of their authors. In fact, it
sonu^times seems as if the moie fal)ulous the story the better its chance
lo be recorded in th(^ school text-l)ooks. We get very entertaining
glimpses of th(^ Hmitations of geographical knowledge at the time in
the following extracts from Morse:
THE FIRST AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY
313
GEOGRAPHY MADE EASY.
-4 Heading from the edition of iSoo
The AndeSj in South America, stretch along the Pacific Ocean
from the Isthmus of Darien to the Straits of Magellan. The height
of Chimborazo, the most elevated point in this vast chain of moun-
tains, is 20,280 feet, above 5000 feet higher than any other mountain
in the known world.
North America has no remarkably high mountains. The most
considerable are those known under the general name of the Allegany
Maunimns. These stretch along in many broken ridges under dif-
ferent names from Hudson's River to Georgia. The Andes and the
Allegany Mountains are probably the same range interrupted by the
Gulf of Mexico.
Who were the first people of America? And whence did they
come? The Abbe Clavigero gives his opinion in the following con-
clusions:—
'*The Americans desce!ide<l from different nations, or from different
families dispersed after the confusion of tongues. No person will
doubt the tnith of this, who has any knowledge of the nudtitude
and great diversity of the American languages. In Mexico alone
thirty-five have already been discovered."
But how did the inhabitants and animals originally pass to America?
The quadrupeds and reptiles of the new world f)assed there by
land. This fact is manifest from the improbability and inconsistency
of all other opinions.
This necessarily supf)oses an ancient union between the equinoxial
countries of America and those of Africa, and a connexion of the
northern countries of America with Europe on the E. and Asia on the
W. The beasts of cold climes passed over the northern isthmuses,
which probably connected Europe, America, and Asia : and the animals
and reptiles peculiar to hot countries passed over the isthmus that
probably connected S. America with Africa. N'arious reasons induce
us to believe that there was formerly a tract of land which imited
the most eastern part of Brazil to tlie most western part of Africa;
and that all the space of land may have been sunk by violent earth-
quakes, leaving only some traces of it in that chain of islands of which
314 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
Cape de Verd Ascension, and St. Matthew's Island make a part. In
like manner, it is probable, the northwestern part of America was
imited to the northeastern part of Asia, and the northeastern parts
of America to the northwestern parts of Europe, by Greenland, Ice-
land, etc.
QUADRUPEDE ANIMALS vnihhi the United States:
Mammoth. This name has been given to an unknown animal,
whose bones are found in the northern parts of both the old and new
world. From the form of their teeth, they are supposed to have
been carniverous. Like the elephant they were armed with tusks
of ivory; but they obviously differed from the elephant in size; their
bones prove them to have been 0 or 6 times as large.
A late governor of N'irginia, having asked some delegates of the
Dela wares what they knew respecting this animal; the chief speaker
informed him that it was a tradition handed down from their fathers,
"That in ancient times a herd of them came to the Big-bone licks,
and began an universal destruction of the bears, deer, elks, buffaloes,
and other animals which had been created for the use of the Indians:
that the Great Man, above, looking down, and seeing this, was so
enraged that he seized his lightning, descended to the earth, seated
himself upon a neighboring mountain, on a rock, on which his seat
and the print of his feet are still to be seen, and hurled his bolts among
them till the whole were slaughtered, except the big bull, who, pre-
senting his forehead to the shafts, shook them off as they fell; but at
length, missing one, it wounded him in the .side; whereupon, spring-
ing round, he bounded over the Ohio, the Wabash, the Illinois, and
finally over the great lakes, where he is living at this day."
Sapajon, Sagoiv. There are various species of animals said to
inhabit the country on the lower part of the Mississippi, called Sapa-
jons and Sagoins. The former are capable of supporting themselves
by their tails; the latter are not. They have a general resemblance
to monkeys, but are not sufficiently known to be particularly described.
The sapajon and sagoin are not as mythical as might be fancied
from what the book says of them. They l)oth belong to the monkey
tribe, but dwell in South America instead of on the lower Missis-
sippi. Another curious item is this: —
Grey scjuirrels sometimes migrate in considerable numbers. If
in their course they meet with a river, eacli of them takes a shingle,
piece of bark, or the Hke, and carries it to the water; thus ecjuipped
they embark, and erect their tails to the gentle breeze, which soon
wafts them over in safety; but a sudden flaw of wind sometimes pro-
duces a destructive shipwreck.
Fifty "<piadrupe(le" animals are described in all, and then we
have a section devoted to "Jiirds." Next "Amphibious Reptiles"
are considered, after that '^ Serpents," and finally "Fishes.'' Here
are .sample ])aragraphs: —
igo4 THE FIRST AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY 3I5
The Wakon Bird, which probably is of the same species with the
Bird of Paradise, receives its name from the ideas the Indians have
of its superior excellence; the Wakon Bird being in their language
the Bird of the Great Spirit. Its tail is composed of four or five
feathers, wliich are three times as long as its body, and which are
beautifully shaded with green and purple. It carries this fine length
of plumage in the same manner as the peacock does his, but it is not
known whether, like him, it ever raises it to an erect position.
The Whitsaw is of the cuckow kind, being a solitar}' bird, and
scarcely ever seen. In the summer months it is heard in the groves,
where it makes a noise like the filing of a saw.
Of the Frog kind arc many species. Pond frog, green fountain
frog, tree frog, bull frog. Besides these are the dusky J3rown, spotted
frog of Carolina; their voice resembles the grunting of swine. The
bell frog, so called, because their voice is fancied to be exactly like
that of a loud cow bell. A beautiful green frog whose noise is like
the barking of little dogs, or the yelping of puppies. A less green
frog, whose notes resemble those of young chickens. Little gray
speckled frog, who make a noise like the striking of two pebbles to-
gether under the. surface of the water. There is yet an extremely
diminutive species of frogs, called by some. Savanna crickets, whose
notes are not unlike the chattering of young birds or crickets. They
are found in great multitudes after plentiful rains.
The Alligator is a very large, ugly, terrible creature, of prodigious
strength, activity, and swiftness in the water. They are from 12 to
23 feet in length; their bodies are as large as that of a horse. The
head of a full-grown alligator is about three feet long, and the mouth
opens nearly the same length. The upper jaw only, moves, and this
they raise so as to form a right angle with the lower one. They open
their mouths while they lie basking in the sun, on the banks of rivers
and creeks, and when filled with flies, musketoes and other insects,
they suddenly let fall their upper jaw with surprising noise, and thus
secure their prey.
The Rattle Snake may be ranked among the largest serpents in
America. If pursued and overtaken, they instantly throw themselves
into the spiral coil; their whole body swells through rage, their eyes
are red as burning coals, and their brandishing forked tongues, of
the colour of the hottest flame, menaces a horrid death.
The Joint Snake, if we may credit Carver's account of it. is a great
curiosity. Its skin is as hard as parchment, and as smooth as glass.
It is beautifully streaked with black and white. It is so stiff, and
has so few joints, and those so unyielding, that it can hardly bend
itself into the form of a hooj). When it is struck, it breaks like a pipe-
stem; and you may, with a whip, break it from the tail to the bowels
into pieces not an inch long, and not produce the least tincture of
blood.
Other snakes mentioned are the ** Water Viper, with a sharp thorn
tail, Hog nose Snake, Coach Whip Snake, which the Indians imagine
3 1 6 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
is able to cut a man in two with a jerk of its tail. Ribbon Snake, Glass
Snake, and Two-headed Snake/'
In the list of fishes are noted the ''Skip jack, Minow-, Shiner,
Dab, Hard Head and Mummychog/' Of the Lamprey it is affirmed
thate
After the spawning season is over, and the young fry have gone
down to the sea, the old fishes attach themselves to the roots and
limbs of trees, which have fallen or run into the water, and there
perish. A mortification begins at the tail, and proceeds upwards to
the vital part. Fish of this kind have been found at Plymouth, in
New^ Hampshire, in different stages of putrification.
When the general characteristics of the United States have been
dealt with. New England is taken up. and we are informed that in
this portion of the republic —
Learning is more generally diffused than in any other part of the
globe; arising from the excellent establishment of schools in almost
everj' tow^nship and smaller district.
A very valuable source of information to the people is the News-
papers, of which not less than thirty thousand are printed everj' week,
in New England.
Apples are common, and cider constitutes the principal drink of
the inhabitants.
Eacli state is described in detail, inoluding such topics as ** Religion,
Military Strength, Literature, Curiosities, Constitution, and Histor>'.''
Hridges are constantly referred to — even those over the smaller rivers.
We learn, for instance, that across the Piscatacjua in New Hampshire '
a few miles above Portsmouth "has been erected the most respectable
bridge in the I'nited States, 2G00 feet in length," at a cost of nearly
seventy thousand dollars, hi Massachusetts ten bridges are listed
that "merit notice,'^ and, it is added. "These bridges are all supported
by a toll."
Harvard rnivc^rsity, the book says, "consists of four elegant
edifices," and we are told that "In Williamstown is another literary
institution started in 1790, partly by lottery and partly l)y the liberal
donation of gentlemen of the town." P»oston had seven schools sup-
ported wholly at the public expense, "and in them the children of
vrcrj/ class of citizens freely associate." Three of these were *' Eng-
lish grammar schools in which the children of both sexes, from seven
to fourtecMi years of ag(* are instructed in spelling, accenting, and
reading the English language with propriety; also in English grammar
and coni])osition together with the rudiments of geography." In
thr(»(» schools "the same children are taught writing and arithmetic.
/
}CH THE FIRST AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY 3^7
?he schools are attended alternately, and each of them is furnished
rith an Usher or Assistant. The masters of these schools have each
, salary of 666 2-8 dollars per annum payable quarterly/' Lastly
here was the '* Latin grammar school'* to which '*none are admitted
ill ten years of age/'
The inhabitants of Boston at this time numbered 24.937. As
isual in speaking of important places a list is given of the ^'pubhc
mildings." There were *'18 houses for public worship, the state
louse, court house, gaol, Faneuil Hall, a theatre, an alms house,
,nd powder magazine." The principal manufactures of the town
ir'ere **rum, beer, paper hangings, loaf sugar, cordage, sail cloth,
permaceti and tallow candles, and glass."
The final states to be c()nsidere<l in the New England section acp
'Rhode Island and Providence Plantations," and Connecticut,
^erhaps the most interesting bit in this portion is the statement that
o Hartford, at the head of ship navigation on the Connecticut River,
V8is brought in boats the produce of the country for two hundred
niles above. Railroads were as yet undreamed of. and right through
he book' navigable streams and canals are treated as of far more
mportance than they would be at present.
Morse in his first edition devoted a paragraph to the ''Connecticut
nhabitants." Whether he abandoned it because it gave offence, I
lo not know. It says: —
The people of this state are generally industrious sagacious hus-
)andmen ; generous and hospitable to strangers, and good neighbours,
iut they are characterized for being intemperately fond of law suits
ind little petty arbitrations. The ladies are modest, handsome, and
igreeable, fond of imitating new and extravagant fashions, neat and
;hearful, and possessed of a large share of delicacy, tenderness and
lensibility. The above character may with justice be given to the
adies of the four New- England Stjites.
Now we come to ''The Skcond (Jr-and Division of ///r United
States." It comprised New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, and ''Territory N. W. of the Ohio." Special attention
8 paid to the climate of this tract, which the book says has
>ut one steady trait, and that is, it is uniformly variable. The changes
)f weather are great, and fretiuently sudden. On the whole, it appears
:hat the climate is a compound of most of the climates of the world,
it has the moisture of Ireland in spring; the heat of Africa in summer;
:he temperature of Italy in June; the sky of Egypt in autumn; the
mow and cold of Norway in winter; the tempests (in a certain degree)
o
1 8 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
of the West Indies, in every season; and the variable winds and
weather of Great Britain, in every month in the year.
From this account of the climate, it is easy to ascertain what
degrees of health, and what diseases prevail. As the inhabitants
have the climate, so they have the accute diseases of all the countries
that have been mentioned.
Concerning New York City, the book says: —
A want of good water has been a great inconvenience to the citizens;
there being but few wells in the city. Most of the people are supplied
every day with fresh water conveyed to their doors in casks, from a
pump at the head of Queen-street, which receives it from a spring
almost a mile from the centre of the city. This well is about 20 feet
deep, and 4 feet diameter. The average (quantity drawn daily from
tins remarka})le well, is 110 hogsheads of 130 gallons each. In some
hot summer days, 216 hogsheads have been drawn from it, and what
is very singular, there is never more or less than about three feet of
water in the well. The water is sold commonly at three pence a hogs-
head at the pump. The Manhattan Company was incorjjorated in
1798, for the purpose of conveying good water into the city, and their
works are now nearly completed.
New York then had a population of sixty thousand, which included
about three thousand slaves.
In describing the "Territory X. W. of the Ohio" a list is given of
its forts *' established for the ])r()te(*ti()n of the frontiers/' and we
are told that
both the high and low lands j)roduce vast quantities of natural grapes,
of which the settlers universally make a sufficiency, for their own
consumption, of rich red wine. It is asserted that age will render
this wine preferable to most of the European wines. Cotton is the
natural ])n)(luction of this coinitry, and it grows in great perfection.
Helow are fragments of inforniation about the Southern States,
'^Thv TiiiKD anti much the InrtjcM (iuand Division of the United
Statks."
The city <^f \VAsniN<;T<)N stands at the junction of the rivers
Patomak and the Eastern Hranch. The situation of this metropolis
is upon the great post road, ecpii-distant from the northern and
soutliern extremities of the Tnion. The jniblic offices were removed
to this city in the summer of ISOO, and here in future Congress will
hr)l(l their sessions.
In the fhit country near the sea-coast of North Carolina, the inhab-
itants, (lining the summer and autumn, are subject to intermittent
fevers, which often prove fatal. The countenances of the inhabitants
(luring these seasons, have i^enerally a pale yellowish cast, occasioned
by the prevalence of bilious symptoms.
I904 THE FIRST AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY 3 I 9
A few years since, Tennessee abounded with large herds of wild
cattle, improperly called Buffaloes; but the improvident or ill-disposed
among the first settlers, have destroyed multitudes of them, out of
mere wantonness. They are still to bo found on some of the south
branches of Cumberland river. Elk or moose are seen in many places,
chiefly among the mountains. The deer are become comparatively
scarce; so that no person makes a business of hunting them for their
skins only. Enough of bears and wolves yet remain.
In Maryland, N'irginia, and North-Carolina the inhabitants are
excessively fond of the diversion of horse racing. Every spring and
fall they have stated races for three or four days, which collect the
» porting gentlemen from every part of the country from 100 to 200
iniles. Every poor peasant has an horse or two and all the family in
ruins, with scarcely any covering or provisions; while the nag, with
t:. wo or three Negroes rubbing him, is pampered with luxuries to the
extreme of high living.
This last item is from the edition of 1784. 1 make one more quota-
tiion from that edition under the heading, ''Spanish Dominions in
oN. America,'' — that is, Florida and Mexico, — and then resume con-
sideration of the later book.
In California, there falls in the morning a great quantity of dew,
"vvhich, settling on the rose-leaves becomes hard like manna, having
i^ll the sweetness of refined sugar, without its whiteness.
The greatest curiosity in the city of Mexico, is their floating gar-
^iens. When the Mexicans, about the year 1325, were subdued by
^he Colhuan and Tepanecan nations, and confined to the small islands
<:>f the lake, having no land to cultivate, they were taught by necessity
\^o form movable gardens, which floated on the lake. Their con-
struction is very simple. They take willows and the roots of marsh
iDlants, and other materials which are light, and twist them together,
si,nd so firmly unite them as to form a sort of platform, which is capable
of supporting the earth of the garden. Upon this foundation they
lay bushes and over them spread the mud which they draw up from
the bottom of the lake. Their figure is ([uadrangular; their length
and breadth various, but generally about 8 rods long and 3 wide;
and their elevation from the surface of the water is less than a foot.
These were the first fiekls that the Mexicans owned, after the founda-
tion of Mexico; there they first cultivated the maize, great pepper
and other plants necessary for their support. From the industry of
the people these fields soon became numerous. At present they
cultivate flowers and every sort of garden herbs upon them. In the
largest gardens there is commonly a fit tie tree and a little hut, to
shelter the cultivator, and defend him from the rain or the sun. When
the owner of a garden wishes to change his situation, to get out of a
bad neighborhood, or to come near to his family he gets into his
little boat, and by his own strength alone, if the garden is small, or
with the assistance of others if it be large, conducts it wherever he
n1P5lAPS
320 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
Among the islands off the coast of South America that are de-
scribed is "Juan Fernandes 300 miles west of Chili," famous for its
connection with Defoe^s Robinson Crusoe. The book tells how
Alexander Selkirk dwelt there and how he was finally rescued, con-
cluding with: —
During his abode on this island he had killed 500 goats, which he
caught by running them down ; and he marked as many more on the
ear, which he let go. Some of these were caught 30 years after, their
venerable aspect and majestic beards discovering strong symptoms
of antiquity.
Selkirk upon his return to England, was advised to publish an
account of his life and adventures. He is said to have put his paf)ers
into the hands of Daniel Defoe, to prepare them for publication.
But that writer, by the help of those papers, and a lively fancy trans-
formed Alexander Selkirk into Robinson (^rusoe, and returned Sel-
kirk his papers again; so that the latter derived no advantage from
them.
Part I of the geography closes with '*New Discoveries,*' which it
declares ''have been numerous and important. '* Here is one: —
The Northern Archipelago.] This consists of several groups of
islands situated between the eastern coast of Kamtschatka and the
western coast of America.
The most perfect eciuality reigns among these islanders. They
feed their children when very young, with the coarsest flesh, and
for the most part raw. If an infant cries, the mother immediately
carries it to the sea side, and. whether it be sunmier or winter, holds
it naked in the water \nitil it is (juiet. This custom is so far from
doing the children any harm that it hardens them against the cold,
' and they go barefooted tlirough the winter \\ith()Ut the least incon-
venience. The least affliction prompts them to suicide; the appre-
hension of even an uncertain evil, often leads them to despair; and
they put an end to their days with great apparent in.sensibility.
A little farther on we find this about the people of the Friendly
Islands: —
Their great men are fond of a singular kind of luxury, which is,
to have women sit beside them all night, and beat on different parts
of their body until they go to sleep; after which, they relax a little
of their lal)our, unless tliey appear likely to wake; in which case they
redouble their exertions, until ihev are again fast asleep.
Part IT is devoted to the eastern hemisphere. I quote two para-
graphs about Lapland:---
The enij)loynient of the women consists in making nets for the
fishery, in drying fish and meat, in milking the reindeer, in making
y
,904 THE FIRST AMERICAN GEOGRAPHY 32 I
cheese, and in tanning hides; but it is understood to be the business
of the men to look after the kitchen, in which, it is said, the women
never interfere.
When a Laplander intends to marry a female, he, or his friends,
court her father with brandy; when with some difficulty he gains
admittance to his fair one, he offers her a beaver's tcmgue, or some
other eatable, which she rejects before company, but accepts of in
private.
The father evidently enjoyed his part of the courting and was
loath to end his free supply of licpior. "This prolongs the courtship
sometimes for three years," says the book.
I expected when 1 turned to the pages devoted to Asia that 1
would find rats named as an article of Chinese diet, but the rat myth
seems to have been of later growth. None of the geographies refer
to it until Peter Parley in 1«S30 shows a picture of a pedler '* selling
rats and puppies for pies." In spite of this lack Morse's information
about the Chinese is by no means uninteresting, as will be seen by the
cullings w'hich follow: —
The Chinese have particular ideas of beauty. They pluck up the
hairs of the lower part of their faces by the roots with tweezers,
leaving a few straggling ones by way of beard. Their complexion
towards the north, is fair, towards the south, swarthy; and the fatter
a man is they think him the handsomer.
Language.] The Chinese language contains only 330 words, all
of one syllable: but then each word is pronounced with such various
modulations, and each with a different meaning, that it becomes
more copious than could be easily imagined, and enables them to
express themselves very well, on the common occasions of life.
The Chinese pretend, as a nation, to an anticjuity beyond all
measure of credibility; and their annals have been carried beyond
the period to which the scripture chronology assigns the creation of
the world. Poan Kou is said by them to have been the first man;
and the interval of time betwixt him and the death of the celebrated
Confucius, which was in the vear before Christ, 479, has been reckoned
from 276,000 to 96,961.740 years.
The descriptions of Africa in Morse's book lack definiteness, except
as regards Egypt and the north coast. The rest of the continent,
"from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope," is handled
in a single lump. Of the inland countries Abyssinia receives most
attention, and we are told that —
The religion of the Abyssinians is a mixture of Christianity,
Judaism, and Paganism; the two latter of which are by far the most
predominant. There are here more churches than in any other
country, and though it is very mountainous, and consequently the
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
view much obstructed, it is very seldom you see less than 5 or 6
churches. Ever>' great man when he dies, thinks he has atoned for
all his wickedness, if he leaves a fund to build a church, or has one
built in his life-time.
The churches are full of pictures slovenly painted on parchment,
and nailed upon the walls. There is no choice in their saints, they
are both of the Old and New Testament, and those that might be
dispensed with from both. There is St. Pontius Pilate and his wife;
there is St. Baalam and his ass; Sampson and his jaw bone, and .so
of the rest.
It makes the beginning of the nineteenth centur>' seem very bar-
baric when we read a few pages farther on that —
In the Guinea or western coast, the English exchange their woolen
and linen manufactures, their hard ware and spirituous liquors, for
the persons of the natives. Among the Negroes, a man's wealth
consists in the number of his family, whom he sells like so many cattle,
and often at an inferior price.
One page near the close of the volume estimates the number of
inhabitants in the world and forecasts the probable population of
the United States a century later. It supposes that the number will
double every twenty years, and that therefore in 1904 we should be
a nation of 160 millions.
In this forecast and in some other respects our author fails to hit
the mark, but whatever the book's shortcomings, it was not dull, and
it did admirable s(»rvice in introducing an important study into the
old-time schools.
(To be folloircd by '^ Ldtcr G(0(fraphics^' bj/ the sa7nc axUhor.)
THE SCHOOL EXCURSION AND THE SCHOOL
MUSEUM AS AIDS IN THE TEACHING
OF GEOGRAPHY*
BY D. i\ RIDGELEY
Profeaaor of Geography, Illinois State Normal University, Normal, III.
IT is my purpose to consider the advisability of using some of the
helps in the presentation of the subject of geography which will
require the teacher and pupil to go beyond the confines of the
schoolroom to obtain them. These helps are not intended to supplant
the tinie-lioiiored text-hooks and wall maps, but to put new and fuller
meaning into them, to make the book and the map the servant, not the
master of teacher and pupil.
* Ueprinted, by permission, from Normal School Quarterly, July, 1904.
/
*904 THE SCHOOL EXCURSION AND THE SCHOOL MUSEUM 32 ^
Geography is one of the foremost subjects in the curricuhim in
the study of concrete material. Its subject-matter is objective. It
considers the earth in its relation to man. It includes a study of the
practical things of everyday life at home and abroad.
To give to the pupil the necessary first-hand knowledge in the study
of geography requires that the pupil and the thing to be studied be
brought together face to face and at short range. This can be done
in one of two ways: by taking the pupil to the thing, or by bringing
t lie thing to the pupil. The first is the most effective way of studying
t lie various topics of home geography and leads to the intelligent and
frequent use of the school excursion. The second is the most effective
A.%-'ay of giving first-hand knowledii:e concerning the geography of
^•^gions beyond the home locality and leads to the building and con-
stant use of the school museum.
I wish to speak of each of these aids in the teaching of geography
xr^ot from the theoretical standpoint, but as 1 have made use of them
i 11 classroom practice. AFy experience with the school excursion has
V:>een with classes from the third year through the remaining years of
"tihe grammar school in a public school of a thousand pupils in the city
^^f Chicago and in the lower grades of the Training School of Normal,
^Iso in the high schools of Chicago and in two of the state normal
Schools of Illinois. Classes have ranged in numbers from half a dozen
"^o eighty. My use of the school museum has extended over the same
x^ange of the curriculum with the addition of the first and second grades.
THK SCHOOL KXCURSION
The school excursion is an expedition made by tiie i)U|)ils of a class
\inder the immediate direction of the teacher for the study of some
particular topic in the school work. The pupils are responsible to the
teacher for attention, interest, and good behavior to the same extent
as in a class exfercise in the schoolroom.
Successful school excursions depend upon the hearty cooperation
of school officials, princijnil, teacher, pupils, and parents. All must
believe that it is a good thing and work harmoniously and earnestly
to make it as successful as other school exercises. The school board
and 8Uf)erintendent nuist recognize the value of such work: they and
the principal must willingly permit the use of school time to the extent
of a half day at most for the work. The teacher must be as enthusi-
astic in this work as in any other if she expects to reap educational
results. She must have studied the field of investigation previous to
the time of the class exercise and carefully planned the steps of the
324 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Septembe
lesson. To fail to <lo so moans great loss in the net results of the lesson -
The pupils must feel that an outdoor lesson is of as great importaneeE''
and value as any other school exercise. Its importance is evident tr :■
the puj)ils when it is clearly brought before them that the board oE^
education, superintendent, and princi|)al have permitted school time^
to l)e used for the lesson.
Much l)etter spirit is manifest and nuich better results obtained
when attendance of each pupil on any particular excursion, esjjerialh*^
if at considerable distaiu'e from school, is left to the voluntary' decisioit,
of the parent. The excursi<ui is not as effective as it should be if Xh^
discussion of n^sults in class does not nuike every one who did not go
wish that he ha<l gone.
In Chicago the rules of the board of education re(|uire that no excur-
sion l)e undertaken without the consent of the superintendent or dis-
trict su]>erintendent of schools, and that no pu])il shall be permitted
to go on any (>xcin'sion without the written consent of the parent or
guardian.
Many of the teaching force of the Chicago schools read this rule of
the board and say that then* are too many restrictions and too much
red ta|)e to do anything in the line of excursions. I was inclined to
the same o|>inion until 1 learned by trial that each requirement instead
of being a hindrance was a very decided help in arranging for and
carrying out each excursion.
If the i)Upils said t<» tiieir parents tliat Mr. C'ooley. our superintend-
ent, nr Mr. ban<\ onr district superintendent, had grante<l permission
to hnveaii outdoor lesson in geography, it imuK (Uately lent dignity to
the event. It was not so likely t(^ be con^idcTed a plan of the teacher
and |)U]>il< to iiave a |ncnic.
The written consent of tiie |)areni saves the teacher from any
criticisin of having taken tiie i)Ui)i] off on a usc^Iess trip which did not
in any way meet with tlie ]>arent's ai)proval. In order to save trouble
to the parents, the pui>il< carrfully copied a letter of request j)laced on
the blackboanl by the t earlier, carri(Ml it home and were remarkably
>nccf>-i"ul in obtaininir ^iirnature ancl ne«M»<sary car fare.
( Mie liuii'lr-.-d an<l ninety-tive pupils out of a mendjership of 200
in fourth :ind fifth yrar work W(^n' taken in sections of twenty-five to
fifty to Thr Des Piainc^s River, seven miles away. The five renuuninar
]HH)il> wen- ill Mr had work at hr)ni(' imniciliately after school. All of the
forty-riiriiT pnj)iK nf rlir -fvrnih year, save one who had nuide the trip
])revioiivly. w.MU 10 the- sitH'kyard> and ."^wift's Packing House. Ninety
per cent or more (»f i^ach class in th(^ iiigh school went on the excursions.
1904 THE SCHOOL EXCURSION AND THE SCHOOL MUSEUM 325
I feel that all excursions taken in connection with the various
classes from the third year through the normal school have been more
effective as lessons in geography than the same time spent in class-
room instruction. Each excursion furnishes the best possible material
for class-room instruction for several days or a week after the trip.
The region visited need not be peculiar or striking to the ordinary
observer. The almost featureless region of Chicago and vicinity is
i^ch in topographic forms in miniature. So is almost every locality.
I will now indicate some of the particular trips taken by classes of
various grades and the scope of the work considered in some of these
classes.
In excursions of the third year, classes were taken to examine the
laying of the cement walks about the school building. They observed
"the material and its use, also the work of different men engaged.
In another instance wliilo studying the building of homes third-year
pupils made trips to a house in process of construction, examined the
:ffoundation of brick and mortar, learned that mortar is made of sand
»nd lime, examined the studding, weather-boarding, rafters, roof,
arrangement of rooms as indicated by stu(hling, and went to the gravel
pit to see how sand is screened and removed from the pit. P]n route
"they noted a valley with its divides, slopes, and stream.
While standing at the bottom of the valley by the stream this
ciuestion was asked: ''How many slo])es has this valley?'' About
half of the class said. ''Three*': the others, '*Two." One who said
"Three" was asked to explain. She said, "It has two slopes this
way," bringing her hands together to indicate the side slopes, "and
it must slope that way,'' pointing down stream, "or the water could
not run off." All others grasi)ed the point made by their little teacher
within a minute. In the presence of the reality faulty thinking
righted itself.
An excursion to the brick mills was also made by pupils of the third
J^ear. The process of brickmaking from the beginning was observed.
^ot only were the brick mills studied, but their association with the
Coal mine and gas works was thought out and stated by the pupils.
1*hey saw (1) that the brick mill is located where it is, so that it can
^a.sily get the clay which has been brought from the mine for making
^lie brick and the coal for burning them; (2) that the gas works are
'^.^ar the coal mine to save cost of transporting coal; and (3) that the
^oke made by manufacturing the gas is used in the early stages of burn-
*^t^g the brick in the kilns. A better illustration of associated industries
"^^v-ould be hard to find.
2
326 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
Fourth-year pupils in Chicago were taken on various trips, among
others to the Des Plaines River, the Drainage Canal, and through the
business district to visit a big store, the Art Institute, Public Librarj'.
site of old Fort Dearborn, Water Street and other places of interest.
In the upper grades excursions were made to river, canal, stone
quarry, and stockyards.
In the high school, excursions were made especially for the study
of physical geography, and included visits to several localities for land
forms, the Weather Bureau station for study of meteorological instru-
ments and their use. and the Public Library for its architecture and
the various kinds of building stones used in its construction.
A single trip to the Hawthorne stone quarry and the Drainage
('anal near by brought out many points very strikingly ; among them
the following: rock strata, relation of Hmestone to coral and other
animals, relation of Niagara Hmestone to the ('hicago region, relation
of mantle rock to bed rock, dip and strike of rock strata, underground
water, making of soil by weathering, bed rock scored and striated by
glacial action, character of glacial soil, development of miniature
valleys in clay banks at the margin of the quarry showing growth of
valleys headward, tril)utaries, lakes, waterfalls, deltas, flood-plains,
river t(»rraces, struggle of streams for territory, and other ])hases of
stream action. At the Drainage Canal the groat embankments on
each side are of glacial drift thrown out of the canal. Here could be
seen, in miniature, mountain ranges, mountain peaks made by erosion,
mountain valleys and j)asses, alluvial cones and their relation to moun-
tain valleys. The pupils obtained a conception of the magnitude of
the Drainage Canal and an understanding of its purposes and its geo-
grapliic location.
In the Normal Sciiool chu^ses at Normal we have visited Mackinaw
Dells for stream work. Sugar Creek and its branches for stream wn)rk,
drainage basin and divides, the brick niills for a study of different kinds
of rock and the use of clay rock taken from the mines near by. and
Miller Park for a study of a dam and a reservoir.
1 )uring the summer sessicm of 1903 in the Normal School at DeKalb,
Illinois, the classes visited a creamery to see butter-making and pas-
teurizing of milk; (lurler's dairy farm to learn how milk could be so
carefully handled as to ituike it unnecessary to sterilize it. at the .same
time making it so valuable that it sells in Chicago for twice as much
per cjuan as ordinary milk.
The longest trip n\i\(\r, by the students at DcJvalb was one of twenty
hours to Chicago. The party nund)ered fifty. The special purpose
1904 THE SCHOOL KXCURSIOX AND THE SCHOOL MUSKVM ^2,
was a \4sit to the stockj-ards ami Swift's Packing Houso. All olst*
was incidental. The students asked that they l>e taken to as many
places as possible so that they might know how to n^ach them for fur-
ther study when in the city alone. To indicate the extent to which
their request was complied with I will give a brief itinerary of the day's
journey.
We left DeKalb early on a Saturday morning in a special car attachotl
to the regular train. The ride of two hours was spent in a study of the
topography of that region from the car windows. The succession of
till plains, belts of morainic hills, and stream valleys merging into the
Chicago Lake Plain to the east were objects of especial geographic?
interest. A walk of several blocks along South Water Street busy wit h
its early Saturday trade gave us a vivid idea of the labor involved in
provisioning a great city.
A ride of forty minutes on the Ilalsted Street car took us past
the court house and the new post-office building, across the South
Branch of the Chicago River with its many shij)s, along a !H»twork (jf
railroad tracks, and landed us at the entrance to the* Union Stockyards.
We were met at the entrance to Swift's Packing House by iUnn*
guides furnished by the firm for our party. We spent two hours in
visiting the various departments of the packing house. We saw the
dressing of hogs and cattle, and the great cookers containing thouMands
of dressed hogs and beeves. We saw the careful iriHfM'ction, seh'clion,
stamping, and wrapping of Swift's premium hams and l)acon. We
saw the sausage chopped and stuffed by machinery, \\w canned meats
deftly wrapped, labeled, and packed rearly for shipment. We visited
the rooms where great vats were filled with various mixturen t<» be
boiled, cooled, and cut into cakes oi soap. The butterine factory was
* marvel of care and cleanliness to those who had supfMmiHJ it
othen^'ise.
After dinner our next ride brought us to .bu'kMori Park and th<*
^ield Columbian Museum. A little more than an hour intvc the mem
l>ers of the party an opportunity to vivit the lake ^hore and to make a
hurried sur\'ey of the exhibit of the nm^-emn, A ride of ei|(hl. inil«*s
^>rought us to the Art In.*titute and thirty minuteM were nljowed for
^"alking through it.« galleries. A \valk throuj^h the various* depart
*^cnts of the Public Library jrave inten-wtinj/ ghrnfire-* of thi.*. luttif
^ificent structure.
It was now five-thirty and all v.^n- hNfi^'ry Aft^-r hineh anoth'-r
*^cle brought us to Lincoln Park ^tt*l ve t#;#,k a h«irrie/| s-.»uvey of the
^c>olof^cal garden, driv^-r,. and -tatM^-rt.
328 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
I have had no more enjoyable experience in excursion work than-
with a class of teachers in active service in the city of Chicago during:
the si)ring of 1903. I was invited to meet a group of teachers for a
lesson in geography once a week after school. At one of these meetings
I asked whether any would Hke to go on Saturday excursions. A
number wished to do so and an invitation to meet on a certain street
crossing on the following Saturday brought out a dozen teachers to
visit the stockyards. Two weeks later twenty-seven visited the
Weather Bureau station in the Auditorium tower. Professor Cox
took us into his inner room and showed us how he makes weather.
In May twenty-five teachers went forty miles to visit Dunham's
Horse Farm — two thousand seven hundred acres and five hundred
horses. We were met at the station, driven to the farmhouse, and
entertained at dinner. This was followed by as fine an exhibition of
horses as the original of Rosa Bonheur's famous Horse Fair. We were
then driven over the two thousand seven hundred acre farm with its
fine grounds, woods, deer park, great fields of corn, oats, and hay,
making our final stop at the railway station. All this was due to the
courtesy and generosity of the owners of the farm.
One Saturday in June sixty teachers made a trip along the Drainage
Canal by special electric car to Romeo, four miles on canal by boat,
visited the controlling works at Lockport, took dinner at Joliet, visited
the Des Phiines River to get relation of dam to power house, saw how
the Illinois and Michigan Canal crosses the river, examined the lock
in the canal by which boats pass the dam, and visited a stone quarr}'.
The number of pupils, students, and teachers taken on these trips
wouM reach several tliousand. Xo accident or unfortunate event
occurred to detract from tlie value of any of the excursions. The
testimony of i)U|>ils, students, and teachers has been strongly in favor
of such a method of instruction. It is the common method of the Ger-
man schoolmaster in teaching ge()gra})hy, and can, I believe, be made
of great use in our own schools of country, town, and city.
The following brief list suggests some of tlie possible school excur-
sions: school yard an«l madsith* after a rain, creek or river with its
basin aiul divides, |)ond or lake. clitT, hills, grove or woods, wheat field,
corn tiehl. grist-mill, grain elevator, market gardens, saw-mill, lumber
yard. })Ianing mill, brick-yanl. park, courthouse, tower of schoolhouse,
gravt^l pit, slom* (|u:irry. blacksmith shop, carpenter shop, tin shop,
fruit >torr, (Icpartnieiit <{on\ foundry, coal mine, telegraph office,
t^iectric Ii«':Iit works, water works, gas works, dairJ^ commission houses.
i9«V THE SCHOOL EXCURSION AND THE SCHOOL MUSEUM 329
THE SCHOOL MUSEUM
While lessons concerning the local j)hysical features, local indus-
tries and home products can be treated first hand by means of the
excursion, it is not possible to study by the same means the rubber
industry of the Amazon basin, the cocoanut of the islands of the sea,
the cork oak of Spain, the cotton fields of the South, the manufactories
of New England, and a long list of the topics which lie within the field
of geography.
If the pupil is to obtain first-hand knowledge about things foreign
to his own neighborhood, the thing must be brought to the pupil.
This can be accomplished by means of the school museum.
I shall consider the school museum as I have considered the school
excursion, from the standpoint of its actual use in the schoolroom.
This brings me to speak of the organization and work of the Chicago
X^ureau of Geography, which at the opening of the school year in
^^eptember, 1903, was furnishing sixty schools with small traveling
x:inuseums, each carried in a single box, usually an egg-crate box, con-
^«.ining specimens, pictures, and printed articles concerning some one
X^articular topic in the course of study in geography.
The Bureau of Geography was organized by forty principals of the
^^hicago schools for the purpose of collecting, installing, and circulat-
i xig illustrative material among the schools. Each school represented
t:>aid an annual fee of $10, which was later reduced to $5. This
ixioney has been spent almost entirely for material with which to install
^he collections. The raw material has been donated largely by the
I*"ield Columbian Museum, wholesale firms, and large business houses
i n Chicago and elsewhere. The labor of arranging the collections has
l^een mainly volunteer work. Mr. Richard Waterman, who first out-
lined the plan of the Bureau, has done most of the work in the prepara-
t^ion of the material for the collections.
In September, 1903, the Bureau had 110 traveling museums, rc])-
T^esenting forty-five different subjects. Some of the? most valued
museums have been duplicated Sf) that all si^hools may have the use of
one during the year.
Each museum or collection consists of three things:
1. A series of specimens as nearly r«;mpleto as could be obtained
to show the product in its various stages of manufacture from raw
material to finished i)r()duct. lOacli specimen is carefully installed,
numbered, labeled, and catalogued. Whenever the size and shape of
the specimen permits, it is placed in a wide-mouthed bottle of standanl
size and corked. These bottles are placed in a strong pasteboard box
530
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
made to order, and partitioned into twelve compartments, each of
which holds a bottle. If the specimen is larger it is placed in a paste-
board box without partitions.
2. Pictures on strong cardboard, ten inches by twelve inches.
The pictures representing a single topic are placed in a pasteboard box
made to hold cards of this size. They accompany the specimens.
3. Printed articles which will aid in the interpretation of the
specimens. These may be books, parts of books divided and bound
with manila sheets into pamphlets, government reports on a particular
subject, selected material from government re[)orts copied by type-
writer and bound in manila covers, magazine articles separated and
bound, text-books and geographical readers cut up and arranged by
topics and the material on each topic bound separately. All the
printed matter on the same subject is brought together and placed in
a strong pasteboard box of convenient size.
These boxes of specimens, pictures and printed articles, accom-
panied by a complete typewritten catalogue of the collections, are
placed inside a wooden box, the ''egg crate/* and carried from school
to school during the year. A school may keep a collection for one or
two weeks. At the end of this time the collection is exchanged for
another.
Two objections are strongly urged by some principals and teachers
against the use of the same collections by many different schools. In
the first place it is not possible to iiave each collection at the time when
the topic is being treated in the regular (u)urse of study. In the second
place, it is urged that it would be better for each school to build its own
museum. 1 believe that tliose who offer these objections to the travel-
ing school nuisenni would not do so after using thirty or forty of its
collections during a single year.
If the collection is studied before the topic has been reached in the
regular course of study, consider how valuable it is for the cla;$s to have
obtained the first-hand knowledge that comes from a study of things
at short range as the basis of tlie interpretation of the text when the
topic is]'treated more fully later in the year. If the collection chances
along while^^working on the to|)ic, well and good. The study of school-
book and museum go hand in hand, each to reinforce the knowledge
and inten^retation of the other. If the topic has been previously
studied, what couM afford so good a review as an examination of one
of th(\se collections?
To illustrate: A collection consists of raw cotton, ginned cotton,
cotton in various stages of spinning, cotton fabrics (ginghams, calicoes,
X004 THE SCHOOL EXCURSION AND THE SCHOOL MUSEUM 33 I
finer cotton cloth, canvas), whole cotton-soecl, crushed cotton-seecl,
eotton-seed oil, and cotton-soed cake. These specimens are accom-
panied by numerous pictures of the cotton plantation, cotton shippinfu
and manufacture, in addition to much reading matter not only for the
t eacher, but within the ability of the pupils.
If such material is used for a single class period weeks before cotton
is studied in the course, the time is well spent as a preparation for
future study. If such a collection can be examined months after the
elass have studied cotton and passed examinations on the same, how
<iuickly will some vague and indefinite idea come out clearly and dis-
tinctly, ever to be remembered with a joy unknown to the pupil who
gleans ideas for the purpose of making practical use of them on exami-
nation day only!
The financial means and the labor necessary to build and maintain
SL satisfactory museum an* not at the command of each school,
^laterial to be used by a system of schools can be much more readily
obtained by re(|uest than for a single school. As soon as the authori-
ties of the Field Columbian Museum and tlie heads of large business
liouses understood that the material desired is to be made available
to thousands of pupils they respond most heartily and generously.
TThey could not do so for 250 individual schools belonging to the same
system. Cooperation is as valuable in the building and use of the
school museum as in other lines of human activity.
It is important that this nuiterial be properly used. These collec-
tions may be exhibited to the class by the principal of the school, by
the teacher, or by pupils of the upper grades. The one giving the
lesson must be thoroughly familiar with the collection, and should have
the exercise carefully planned in order to make the presentation effec-
tive.
I recall an exercise of this kind in which a seventh-year teacher
selected three bo3's to describe the cork collection. They prepared
their parts well. They liked to do the talking because they had some-
thing to say. The lesson was appropriate to the work of the sixth and
seventh years. The teachers an<l pupils of lower grailes learned that
the boys were giving an interesting and instructive exhibition of cork
and its manufactured products, and recjuested that it be given in other
classes. The collection was carried to every room in the building,
about 800 children receiving the instruction. I saw the boys giving
the exercise in a second -year room. Each told in clear and simple
language his part of the history of cork. Then each one took a num-
ber of the specimens and passing along the aisle showed and explained
332 THB JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
them to interested groups of children. On the following day there was
laid on my desk a written exercise from these second-year children on
the subject of cork. They gave in their own way more information
about cork than would usually be given in a sixth-year class wholly
dependent on books for their knowledge of the subject.
The traveling school nuiseum has, I believe, done more to give the
teachers and pupils of Chicago good working material than can pos-
sibly be given by an equal expenditure for books. The work has been
of such benefit to the schools using the collections that recentl}', on the
recommendation of the superintendent of schools, the board of educa-
tion has assumed the financial responsibility for the extension of the
work to all the schools. The work is now under the supervision of the
head of the department of geography in the Chicago Normal School
and an assistant has been employed to devote his entire time to the
building, circulation, and care of the collections.
Work along similar lines may be done by cooperation among the
teachers of a city, county, township, or village. A movement of this
kind has been inaugurated by the teachers of St. Clair County, Illinois.
At a meeting of the St. Clair County Teachers* Association in February,
1904, a committee who had given the matter careful consideration
recommended to the association that the teachers of the county under-
take to develop a Circulating (ieographical Museum for use among the
country, village, and city schools of the county. The recommenda-
tion was favorably received and on motion of the county superintend-
ent the sum of .?">() was voted fn^m funds of the association to start the
work. Nearly all of this money will ])e used in buying boxes, bottles,
picture mounting-cards, and other supplies necessary- for properly
installing tlie collections. Kacli school of the county has been asked
to contribute a snuill sum of money annually for the extension of the
work. The work of arranging the colh^ctions for use in the class room
is being done by the teachers of the* county who volunteer their serv-
ices, and by a student from St. Clair Coiinty in the Illinois State Normal
I'niversity. This student works under the direction of the writer.
He gives three hours daily to the work and is paid a small sum for his
services.
Tli(^ following list is given as suggestive of possible collections:
Wheat, corn, rice, nuts, spices, cocoanuts, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar,
by-products of the ])acking house, cotton, llax, manila hemp, rubber,
tanning materials, leather, wool, silk, sponge, furs, woods, pai>er, cork,
iron. coj>|)er. gold, silver, coal and coke, petroleum, asphalt. Collec-
tions may also l)e made* to illustratt* a single country or region; e, ^.,
X9«H THE HUMAN RESPONSE TO THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 333
Mexico, Central America, Peru, Hawaii, India, South Africa, and the
Philippines.
Correspondence concerning ways and means of introducing the
excursion and the museum more largely into the regular work of the
school is invited.
If desired we will build a sample traveling museum for the cost of
material and labor. Such a collection will serve as a test of its value,
be suggestive of method of arrangement, and aid in determining
whether to develop the museum on a larger scale.
THE HUMAN RESPONSE TO THE PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT*
BY J. PAUL GOODE
Aaaiatani Profeasor of Geography in the University of Chicago
WE think of man as living in an en\aronment, the elements of
which are largely the subject-matter of physical geography;
and we are coming to realize that the true and complete
geography is a study, not of physiography and the climate merely,
but of the interaction between man and the physical part of his
environment.
The term "environment" is so loosely usod, and is made to include
so much, that we nmst do some careful defining, to be sure of our
ground, before taking up a discussion of our subject. Tlie general
conception of environment is the not-mr which acts and reacts upon
me. But this whole universe of forces and influences outside of myself
is made up in part of the material world and its forces and in part
of the spiritual world and its creations, which are rjuite as vital in
determining my career as are many of the material considerations.
So our environment is to be analyzed in a dual way, as ( 1) physical
and (2) social, or sociological, as Herbert Spencer had it. Over a
century" ago Monteh«(iuieu. in his Spirit of the J.nws, was fairly con-
vinced of this analysis, though he wrote before there was a science of
geology, or physiograj)hy, or meteorology to furnish data or establisli
laws. And again about fifty years later Buckle, in his Ifistorjf of
Civilization, made a wonderful statement of the significance* of the
♦ Read before t ho Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers,
Chicago, >i'oveml)er 27, 1903, and reprinted by permission from The Elementary
School Teacher, Jamiar>', 1904.
234 '^^^ JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
purely physical elements in our social evolution, so good a presenta-
tion as to have been scarcely ecjualed since. And even in his time
the modern science of geology was scarcely out of its swaddling-
clothes, and the sciences of meteorology and geography were not
yet born.
Now that the tributary fields have been well worked, observations
by millions made and recorded, and laws enunciated, we are able to
arrive at a more complete and satisfactory analysis of our envin)n-
ment and make ourselves ready to recognize the effect of the fun-
damental physical elements.
Let me take up each of the phases of our environment and see its
content and its bearing.
The physical cnn'ronmi^it has as its elements:
1 . Climatic conditions — as hot or cold, ari<l or humid.
2. Land relief, or topography.
(a) l^arriers — as mountain, or desert, or water.
(6) Character of surface* — whether fiat plain, or dissected plateau,
or mountainous.
3. Soil — of increasing significance as time goes by.
4. Materials and forces available in a given region.
((/) Inorganic — as metals and minerals.
(b) Organic — plant and aninuil resources.
5. C()m})etition in th(» realm — whether human or by the lower
animals.
Th(» soridl cnrirofnncnt has for its soiirces and influences:
1 . I^vchic elements.
The consciousness of kind ((liddings), giving rise to sympathy
and c(M>peration in every stage of evolution from the
lowest animal to the highest conventions of modern society.
Thr law of imitation (Tarde) is cjuite as sweeping in its applica-
tion.
'J. Kcononiic Halations.
The pursuit of wealth the keynote of social impulse — Karl Marx.
and later exploited by Dr. Patten. Herbert Spencer works
al(»!ig tile same lines in liis interpretation of our society as
a progress fn)ni militarism to industrialism.
Trourrss uinirr thesi* influences is at first unconscious — as truly
cosiiiic as ihr .Mfla|)t.Mtioii of a plant to a new environment. And in
nil our social organization, even in the liighest phases, the purely
cosniir, or unconscious. res})onse to the forces in the environment
\h (»lTe<-tivr in larger measure than most people would willingly admit.
i9(H THE HUMAN RESPONSE TO THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 335
We have but to look about us and see the measure of heedless un-
thought with which we have exterminated certain noble animal
species, as the bison and the seal; or see the ravenous haste with
which we have wasted a continent's resource of forest, and the utterly
reckless way in which we are ravishing the stored sunshine of past
ages in our coal resource, to see that in very large measure we are as
senseless and unconscious as the beasts of the field.
But though at first our evolution has been unconscious, and wholly
the result of a chance geographic environment, sooner or later evolu-
tion becomes conscious and self-directed, and our noblest ideal for
society is that it should become so in constantly larger measure.
I-iCSter F. Ward in his Dynamic Sociology, V. H. (■liddings in his Prin-
ciplea of Sociology, and Jienjamin Kidd in his Social EvohiUon, all
make much of this idea.
All these elements of environment express themselves in social
institutions and conventions, which analyze themselves into a half-
score of categories:
1 . The organization of the family and the status of woman.
2. The idea of ownership in property.
3. Domestication of animals.
4. Agriculture.
5. Dress and adornment.
6. Shelter — leading to styles of architecture.
7. The use of metals.
8. The industrial arts — as in pottery, basketry, weaving, and the
long list of mechanical inventions.
9. Forms of government — as military and industrial or economic.
10. Social forms and customs; beliefs; as superstitions, religions.
All these social conventions are in a large measure psychic, but
all are secondary, or even tertiary. They are developed after they
are initiated. All analyses of them come back to initiation. And
the last analysis arrives at a purely psychological reaction — a nervous
response to an external stimulus; that is, to living tissue, acting on
a physical environment. And so conditions favoring or inhibiting
origins in all these lines are found in the ^Meal'' (borrowing a term
from whist) of the elements in the physical environment. The
game that may be played, whether aggressive and brilliant or
passive and inert, depends very largely upon the cards held. And
in the distribution of the elements of the physical environment, and
the emphasis laid on each, every realm and age deals out a different
combination.
-^5 'T^E JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
The origins of social institutions, just as truly as the origins of
changes in the living body of the plant or animal, are found in the
conditions imposed by the physical environment, and progress depends
upon a siirphis. This thought is most significant and far-reaching,
and has been excellently presented by Dr. Simon N. Patten in his
latest work, Heredity and Soeml Progress. The principle of the surplus
must be kept in mind at every step in an analysis of the influence of
the physical environment. It is operative in the most primal phase
of living tissue, and it applies at every stage in evohition up to the
highest and most spiritual social institution. It will not be out of
l)lace to state briefly some of its principles:
1. A surplus of tissue in the cell gives opportunity for the occu-
pation of more space. Hence a breaking up into multicellular struc-
ture and the diflferentiation of outer from inner tissue, and by an exten-
sion along this line of development, giving- rise, in due time, to organs.
2. In the same way a sur[)lus of energy in the individual man
gives us the genius in one ])hase of development, and the liberal and
iconoclast in another.
3. A surplus of energy in a social class impels to conquest, giving
added powxr and leisure to the conqueror, making culture possible.*
I may add that a surplus of wants go hand in hand with a surplus
of wealth and leisure, to make progress continuous. Contentment
is a mild name for decay. A })rotestant is a man with a conviction,
plus a good })ackbone and a stiff upper lip. For such a man laws
are made — to be broken. Initiative corners from such men, and
progress consists often in getting out of the rut.
The physical environment, then, is important in giving the con-
ditions for initlMtivo and in furnishing the opportunity for a surplus;
hence making for or against ])rogress.
Tile highest j)oint of view in geograpiiy is this very study of the
physical environment in its influence on man's development, as fur-
nishing the conditions in res})()nse to which changes may or must occur
(1) in the physical organism of man and (2) in his social organization.
l^ut changes in man's Imdy are almost immeasurably slow. Xot-
witlistanding the fact that oiu* anthrojM»i(l ancestors began to abandon
quadrupedal locomotion, it may be, over four million years ago. we
are not yet wholly adapted in our bodies to an upright posture, as
Brinton and others have shown. And the anatomists and physiolo-
gists enumerate 107 vestigial organs in our bodies — organs which are
more or less useless now. l:)ut whicii functioned once, some of them
* Scf Vkhlkn, Thatry of the F.cisure Clans.
«904 THE HUMAN RESPONSE TO THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 337
dating back to an ancestor far less advanced than the Pithecanthropus
etrectus of l)u Bois. We are familiar in our everyday life with many
of these relics, such as the nictitating membrane of the eye and the
^vermiform appendix. It seems, as David Starr Jordan so wittily
remarks, that the human body can never quite forget its past, but
xTiiist carry around in itself perpetually the record of every stage in
its physical evolution.
Our bodily response to the physical environment, then, is in many
^vays almost immeasurably slow. We may not yet name definitely
"the combinations in physical environment which give us color of skin,
liead form, peculiarities of hair structure, or cast of features. Yet
^ve may definit<»ly say what conditions stunt the stature and inhibit
taction. The intelligent farmer or breeder is well assured of the prin-
<?iples along these lines, and the giant Norman Percheron horses are
^he demonstration of the law of surplus in the physical environment;
«nd just as truly the stunted pony of Shetland and the cayuse of
3Iontana answer for the lack of surplus. Professor Rij)ley, in his
-Racial Geography of Europe^ makes a beautiful application of these
principles in the discussion of the influences of the thin soil and the
lard conditions in the Auvergne. The response is found direct in
"the stunted, backward population, the miserable relic of a people
pushed to the wall, in ages past, by more powerful tribes that came
and evicted them from the rich and favored lower lands. And,
again, that hard conditions dwarf stature may be shown in the study
of the Jews. Down-trodden, persecuted, and narrowed in opportuni-
ties all over Europe, they have found in free and enlightened England
an opportunity to take advantage of a surplus; and in the rich end
of London, in^the few generations they have been there, their average
stature has been increased over an inch and a half. Edwin Mark-
ham's biting poem on **The Man with the Hoe" focuses our attention
on the power of hard conditions to stunt and warp both body and
mind.
Now, while the rate of change in man's body is for the most ])art
so slow that, under the merely cosmic response to the physical environ-
ment, we must look for results to the effect of hundreds or thousands
of years of its influence, on the other hand, changes in man\s social
organization are taking place under our very eyes. And though some
of the social institutions are of as slow growth as many of the changes
in man's body, yet tlie conditions of social organization are often
found vitally fixed in the vn^eynble of the elements of the physical
environment of a particular region. A people mo\dng from a given
338 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
region in which a good measure of adaptation to the physical environ-
ment has been attained may find itself under the necessity of changing
radically many of the social conventions to which it was accustomed,
in order to survive. Of this we have record in almost numberless
cases where frontiers have been passed by members of an old and
static social order.
Such social adjustments, then, are relatively rapid, and there
tends to be established a somewhat definite social order in a given
type of geographic realm, which imposes itself upon almost any human
stock which conies to occupy the region. Out of a dozen such types
of geographic regions which might be studied, let us choose one and
run rapidly over it, indicating briefly, as we may, the ways in which
the physical environment reacts upon man, to limit, direct, and give
character to his social status. In such a study of a type region the
problem is to see how the elements of the physical environment deter-
mine social origins and shape their development. Let us take as a
type region the arid area, and show the persistence of its influence
in all the phases of social organization.
THK ARID AREA
1 . The FainiUj and the Status of Woman. — An arid plain in primitive
socictv invites the chase. The animals of the realm are, in the first
instance, of necessity herbivores. The scant grass and browse of
such a plain calls for nimble deer, fleet of foot and ranging widely.
To follow such a food supply, the family of the hunter must be ready
to move raj)idly and on short notice. This need reduces the famil}'
to its lowest terms — father, mother, child — and makes nomads of
them of necessity. This life makes man the breadwinner, and woman
becomes a slave and chattel. Among the Amerind we have this
shown in the Sioux, Apache, and other tribes of the great plains.
In such a region, if the animals iiro of such a nature as to be more
useful living than tl(»ad. we come naturally to —
2. The Domestication of Animals.- With flocks and herds the food
supply is less precarious, and the capacity of the region is greater.
The family unit becomes larger. Sons and grandsons may stay in
the family group. This provides a larger measure of social culture;
but the family is still under the whip of uncertain forage and of migra-
tions to pastures new. So social relations remain the same. We
have the patriarch, and women are still inferior.
\^. Agrlculturr. — With game scarce, the food supply is sought in
plant life, and progress goes hand in han<l with a domestication of
I904 THE HUMAN RESPONSE TO THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 339
plants. This locates the family along a river where wat^r makes
agriculture possible. In such a case women are, as a rule, the leaders,
and become breadwinners eciually \rith the men, or even superior
to them. This means independence and power, and sooner or later
social equality. With animals domesticated for draft, and milk as
well, or meat, the food supply is made immensely more ample and
more secure, and the home becomes static. The population becomes
denser, and social customs, laws, and regulations become necessary.
Here is the give-and-take of man to man which rubs off rough corners
a,nd brings in time refinement and culture. In America the Pueblos
illustrate these influences. In Kgypt, Assyria, India, and China the
earliest steps in civilization passed through these phases of develop-
rxient ages ago.
4. The Idea of Ownership of Property. — ( )n the arid plain individual
lz>roperty in land is unknown. It is so the world around. The own-
ership in the Russian steppe region, and many other similar regions
in Asia, resides in the village or the community. Our plains tribes
tiave the very greatest difficulty in acquiring a notion of ownership
X n the land. It is as foreign to them as the ownership of air or sun-
^ahine to us. But where soil was from the start the source of bread,
1 And is owned and the thought is easy. It is well known that the
^Drivate ownership of land is one of the foundation stones of our par-
"t^icular phase of civilization.
5. Dress and Personal Adornment. — The sub-arid plain and the
"l^Dursuit of the deer restrict the material of dress almost wholly to skins.
""-This is in itself a strong demand for simplicity of dress, and holds the
^:lress ideal rather strictly to the law of utility. With the advent of
^a pastoral life, particularly with the possession of sheep, goat«, or
^samels, the availability of wool invites weaving, thus adding
extensively to the variety and quality of the materials for dress.
This is in itself a large invitation for advance in the arts of civilization.
"When agriculture comes in such a region, plant fibers increase tlie
"variety and the invitation for develo[)ment. If the region is cold,
«it least for a good part of the year, this is a condition which holds an
"iron hand on the character of dress, and does not permit a wide depart-
\ire from the fundamental law of utility. The trousers and the close-
'fitting garment owe their origin to such a physical condition. If the
region is hot much of the year, the need of clothing is by so much
Teduced, and the institution of [dress is more largely based on the pur-
pose of adornment. The flowing robe, the skirt, and the shawl have
their origin here.
340 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY September
In our western civilization we have inherited from both these
sources. The conservative and leisure classes retain the display gar-
ments, and the workers keep style in dress much more close to the
needs of the case. The court, the^church, and female society still carry
the garb of leisure and of low-latitude arid lands, even into geographic
environments where the retention of the style is a serious handicap
and the occasion of much suffering. Here is a case of maladjustment
to physical environment that flaunts itself in the face of the law of
the survival of the fittest — a case where a social surplus is frittered
away in useless friction with the physical environment, and energy
is lost which might, if applied wisely, lift society and further civiliza-
tion.
6. Shelter — Architecture. — The need of rapid transit in following
the deer reacts strongly upon the size and quality of the residence.
Necessity requires a small shelter, and of Hght material, which can
be quickly taken down and moved, and as quickly set up as need
arises. The materials convenient for such purposes are poles and
skins. So the tepee is a perfectly natural response to the conditions.
All our tribes on the great plains had made almost a perfect adjust-
ment along these hues when Europeans came. In the pastoral phase,
woven stuff adds to variety of building materials, hence of the
capacity of the abode, and so invites progress. The Tatar and Kurd
have solved this problem.
When agriculture is established, the need for moving the abode
does not arise. The dwelling becomes static, and so may be made
of a larger variety of materials. The size is not limited nor the weight,
so wood may enter more largely into construction, and as in arid lands
even wood may not be plenty, sods or stones or baked clay become the
building materials. So a massive construction is established because
of the nature of the most convenient materials. The sun's heat is
the discomfort most necessary to counteract; hence the walls grow
thick. There is little rain to be shed; so the roofs become flat, and
a type of architecture is evolved. The Pueblos show us a primitive
phase, the Kgj^ptians a well-differentiated style, and the Greeks a
style which is perfection. But each one of them carries in every linea-
ment the record of a climatic condition of origin. Contrast these
styles of architecture of the arid lands with the Gothic, which is an
evolution of the tcpoe adapted to a humid clime.
7. (\sc of Metals. — The presence or absence of metals in a realm
has a powerful bearing on the social and economic possibilities of a
|)eople. The race very probably came to the use of the metals through
I904 THE HUMAN RESPONSE TO THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 34 I
finding native copper. Tliere was a copper age, which grew grad-
ually into a bronze age, and much later, w4th the accumulation of
wisdom in metallurgy, iron came into use. But no people could
come into the use of metal without having the metals to call on.
They could have developed never so wisely in all lines, but without
copper or iron they would have so serious a handicap as to make a high
grade of culture out of the cjuestion. There are many coral isles in the
I^acific with (juitc as high a culture as we could ask without the pos-
session of the metals. Even after a high civilization is established
"tlie presence of coal and iron confers so powerful an advantage as to
make their possessors great, willy nilly. Our Pueblos had the handi-
cap of having no metals — a very serious bar against progress.
8. Industrial Arts and Mechanical Invention. — Here again we are
f CDFced to see that the nature of the materials at hand shapes the pos-
sibilities in the way of progress in the long list of inventions. The
origin of pottery seems closely connected with a life in arid conditions.
Abater is a prime necessity. It must be kept on hand. The skins
ol animals are convenient, but they are short-lived, and there are
other obvious disadvantages. A basket lined with clay will hold
'^V'ater, and such a dish burned is pottery. In any case the inven-
tions which may be made depend upon the particular combination
of the elements of the physical environments. The savage in Eng-
X^nd would make his bow of a single jnece of yew. The Eskimo,
X coking yew, must use his wit, and get a compoiuid bow of bone and
^inew — a work of high art.
9. Forms of Government. — The form of government grows out of
"tlie family organization and the way in which the daily bread is won.
C~3n the arid plain the strong hunter or the powerful warrior is chief.
The w^hole life is one of the chase and the conquest of a weaker foe.
Tt is not a long step from the hunting of the buffalo to the hunting of
«tn enemy in the adjoining tribe. The arid realm breeds warriors and
I'obbers — and might is right. In a pastoral society the family is the
state, in origin, and the father is the head of the government. Con-
clitions are only slightly changed. Women are slaves and inferiors,
and any evolution in government from such a foundation will end in
the establishment of a hierarchy of rank, with the strongest in the
highest places. It is not different in any way from the rule of the
barnyard among horned cattle. It is not a question of wisdom or
right, but a question of brawn. Such a basis leads to the establish-
ment of aristocracy, which, long planted and gone to seed, gives us
the caste system in India. The cidnn" nation of all such government
OA2 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
is the absolute monarchy, which is, in every instance, in last analysis,
a military despotism.
Agriculture and the industrial arts tend to equality among work-
ers, male and female. The tendency is to make the wise man the
leader. The whole trend of such a foundation is toward democracy.
Our western civilization is in constant swing between these two great
tendencies, the one of which we inherit from the arid Orient, the other
from the agricultural lands of western Europe. And again, the
Pueblos show us a primitive form of government, with the agricul-
tural influence uppermost.
10. Religion — Social Customs, — The military organization domi-
nates in religious establishment. In a military society the religious
ideals are cast in the same mold. There is the same hierarchy, and
every individual is given his station, with emphasis on obedience to
the higher power. The supreme deity is the great war leader — the
God of Hosts. We borrow this phase of our religion from the arid
plains of the Orient. Even our hell and heaven are creations from
the experiences born of a life in the hot desert and the delightful oasis.
But the practice of agriculture focuses the attention, not on a
mighty conqueror, but upon the clouds. The crops depend upon the
sun and the rain, and life and happiness depend upon the crops.
Interest is focused on the return of the sun and the coming of the
rain or the flood. This l)uil(ls up a very diff'erent religion, which
looks for the powers above us, in the sun and in the sky, and leads
easily to the conce})tioii of the luiknown god who rules the winds and
brings the rains, and who lives in the sky. And these are elements
found in the religion of every agricultural j)eople settled in arid lands:
Pueblo, Inca. Persian. Aralnan. Hei)rew.
KKSr.MK
Human development, physical and social, is. at the start, uncon-
scious, a direct response to the conditions of the physical environment
— a cosmic process. Hut the psychic, social element enters, and the
exjx^ience of the race is gradually caj)itaUzed in the form of social
institutions and conventions. These become forces competent to
shape further progress, ])ut they are clearly secondary, depending
for initiation and for direction uj)on the conditions of the physical
environment. Progress in social evolution is a record of a changing
ratio between the influence of the physical environment and this
growing social environment. This changing ratio shows a growing
independence of the physical environment on the part of man, even
>
1904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 343
a domination over it. It may be represented graphically by a paral-
lelogram, the length of which, AB, stands for the lapse of ages
occupied by human evolution, and this may be four or five million
B'
J
Social
environment
Physical
environment
^
B
^^'ears, if we may dare try to convert geological ages to years. The
^Vertical ordinates AA\ BB\ represent in the terminal epochs the
JSum total of the forces in our environment, both physical and social,
^^nd may be most easily thought of in percentage, up to 100, at the
"fcop line. With the Homo alalus the social environment was at a
x-ninimum, almost zero; the physical environment essentially 100
X3er cent. On the invention of language (o) a sudden access of social
^^Dower makes a large conquest over the physical control. With the
<:^iscovery of fire (6) another conquest over nature changes the ratio,
:»*educing the control of the physical environment. Agriculture (c),
<i3omestication of beasts of burden (f/), and every useful discovery
•<z:>r invention, mechanical or social, have changed the ratio, giving us
-^^dded dominion over the elements of our physical environment.
I^But we can never reduce this environment to zero. Jie we never so
^^vise and ingenious, we shall always be directed, and the course of
-^iijur evohition will be conditioned by its elements. These forces may
TtDc unseen, but they are nevertheless potent, and they are eternal.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
''Sensible Temperatures."— On hot summer days people in our
I arge cities constantly complain that the temperatures recorded at the
1 ocal Weather Bureau stations are much too low, and hence do not
^**eally represent the heat which people feel. In cold winter weather
"there is a similar objection, to the effect that the *^ official" tempera-
"tLures are too high. This complaint arises from the fact that the public
generally does not yet understand that **air temperature, '' as recorded
\yy a standard thermometer, at some distance above the ground, in a
shelter, protected from rain and sunshine and radiation from surroimd-
ing objects, does not and caiuiot indicate the temperature that we
344 '^^^ JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
actually feel. The latter, which has been called ''sensible tempera-
ture," and which, for want of a better term, we shall also thus designate,
depends upon a great variety of factors which either do not enter into
the so-called ''air temperature" at all, or else are of secondary impor-
tance. For example, other meteorological conditions, such as the
humidity of the air, the wind, the exposure to direct insolation and to
reflected heat, and other more or less accidental physical conditions,
such as the state of the human body, whether in good health or bad;
the clothing, both as to kind and as to amount f the kind and the con-
ditions of occupation; the nourishment of the body; even the mental
condition of the individual — these and other factors enter into the
account.
The human body is not like a thermometer in having no tempera-
ture of its own. It is a heat engine, which has a high internal tempera-
ture to keep up. This temperature is maintained by a slow internal
combustion, in which the food plays the part of the fuel in the steam
engine, and heat is constantly being lost from the skin as well as from
the lungs, in the process of respiration and in warming the food taken
into the stomach. Helmholtz believed that over three-quarters of the
total loss takes place from the skin, and about 20 per cent from the
lungs. The loss from the lungs varies with the temperature and with
the relative humidity of the air; the higher the temperature and the
relative humidity, the loss is the loss. The loss of water from the
lungs is not directly noticeable. Wo estimate the moisture of the
atmosphere oliiofiy by the loss of water from the skin, which amounts
to about twice as much as that from the lungs.
The loss of hoat from tho oxtorual surface of the body, as has been
clearly sot forth i)y \'an I^c^hlxM* (of whoso discussion the next few
paragraphs aro ]ar«i:oly a summary), is accom])lishod by means of three
familiar physical prorossos — coiiduction, radiation, evaporation. The
amount of hoat lost by condnotiou iloponds on tho difTerence of tem-
perature l)ot\vooii tin* body and tho surrounding air, and upon the con-
ductivity of tho air. Other thinirs boing equal, the colder the air the
groator tho cooling by conduction ; tho warmer tho air, the less. Hence
conduction may \)v oxpoctcMl to bo at a maximum in winter. Secondly,
when tlioro is a wind, moro hoat is lost by conduction. Every one
knows that sovoro cold which may !)(» easily endured when the air is
calm may bocomo unhoaral)lo when thoro is oven a slight movement
of tho air. The s])ringing u]) of a broozo on a bright, cold winter day
may change tho t(»m])oratur(^ which wo fool from an agreeable one to
one which is docidodly chilly, although tho ordinary thermometer
1904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 345
shows no change at all. The difference between calm cold and windy
cold is very strikingly brought out in the reports from arctic and
antarctic exploring expeditions. Temperatures of 20°, 30°, even 40°,
below zero are described as being comfortable when there is no wind.
Nansen, for example, says on one occasion, *' The temperature to-day
is 42^ Fahr. below zero, but there is no wind, and we have not
had such pleasant weather for walking for a long time; it feels almost
mild when the air is still.*' Similar statements may be found in
-abundance in the writings of other arctic explorers, it being frequently
Jnoted that the heavy clothing was too warm at these very low tem-
peratures. In the polar regions, then, the feeling of cold and the read-
ing of the thermometer are not in any closer agreement than they are
1-i.ere. Naturally, high temperatures are more comfortable with some
Asvind. Thirdly, the moisture of the air is an important consideration
in this matter, for damp air is a better conductor than dry air. Hence,
in winter, damp cold is so much harder to bear than dry cold. Hence,
^•he damp northeast winds on the New England coast in winter often
^^el colder than dry northwest winds which have a lower temperature,
4a.lthough the velocity may be the same in the two cases. Obviously,
tiowever, evaporation enters in to complicate this (|uestion of conduc-
"tion somewhat.
The amount of heat lost by the body through radiation depends on
^the temperature and the radiating powers of surrounding objects, such
^^s walls, pavements, vegetation, furniture, etc. It is conceivable that
<z>ne should be so placed that the temperature of all surrounding objects,
^c^nd of the air as well, should be just the same as the body temperature.
In such a case the body would lose nothing by radiation. Nor would
it lose anything by conduction. The only loss would be by evapora-
t::.ion, unless the air were saturated, in which case the conditions would
be unbearable for any length of time. When radiation is checked, as
by the presence of many persons crowded together, or by the proximity
of hot walls, pavements, etc., the body may suffer serious consequences,
as in the case of prostration by the heat and sunstroke, which, as is
well known, usually attack people who are exposed under rather
special conditions, as, e. g., laborers on sewers and railways, masons
and painters close to the walls of buildings, etc. When troops are on
the march it has been shown that the men who suffer most are in the
middle of the column, where they can lose least heat by radiation.
It is difficult to consider the adjustment of the body to the tem-
perature conditions of the air without taking account of evaporation,
which is of very great importance, and is almost always in operation
346 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
to a greater or less degree. The human body in health has not a dry
surface, like the dry-bulb thermometer, but is more or less moist
because of the exudation of perspiration through the pores of the skin.
When this moisture evaporates, the skin cools through the loss of heat
which is required in the process of evaporation. Cramer has shown
that the amount of water lost through perspiration during a hot sum-
mer day, if a man is kept at hard work, may reach between 7 per cent
and 8 per cent of the weight of his body. Other things being equal,
there is more evaporation the warmer, the drier, and the less quiet the
air. The hotter the air, the greater its capacity for water vapor; the
drier the air, the more water can still be evaporated into it ; the more
wind, the greater the opportunity for evaporation into the fresh supply
of air which is constantly brought to the body. If the air be com-
pletely saturated at the body temperature, there can be no evapora-
tion; but if the air be saturated below the body temperature, the body
warms the air nearest it; in so doing the capacity of the air for water
vapor is increased, and evaporation may then begin again. Even if
the temperature of the air be 98.6, unless the air be saturated, the body
can cool by evaporation. It has been shown that when the air is very
dry, human beings can endure extraordinarily high temperature, as in
the case of a man who stayed twenty minutes in dry air at 212°. Hot
air in motion is much cooler than hot dry air at rest, and hot moist air is
oppressive because there is little ()i)portunity for evaporation. Accord-
ing to Blanford, the moist heat felt during a voyage across the Red
Sea in August or Sei)tember, with an air temperature of 90°, is much
more oppressive than is the heat in the up{)er provinces of India during
the blowing of the "hot winds." which are dry, when the temperature
is 112° to 11S°. The excessive dryness of these winds is made use of
to keep the air of dwellings cooler by means of wet ''tatties'' hung over
doors and windows. The more moist the air and the nearer its tem-
perature to that of the body, the less difference does wind make. Dry
air is in many respects an advantage at all seasons; in winter because
it makes the loss of heat by conduction less, and in summer because
it increases the loss of heat by evaporation.
Evidently., too, conduction enters into this question, for when the
air is moist, evaporation is lessened, but conduction (unless the air be
at the body tem])erature) increases. On the whole, conduction is
at a niaxinunii in winter and evaporation in summer. The very dry
air of our furnace-heated houses in winter must be kept at a high
teni])erature if we wish to l)e conifortai)le in it. We lessen the loss of
heat from the Ixxly by conduction when we raise the temperature, but
S904 (^.EOGRAPHICAL NOTES 34/
the loss by evaporation must be very great, because of the dryness of
the air. If our houses were provided with a more moist heat we could
be comfortable indoors with considerably lower temperature, because
evaporation would be so much decreased. This has been experiment-
ally determined by Dr. Henry J. Barnes of Boston, who found that
when the air in his office had a relative humidity of 27 per cent the
temperature had to be 70° or 71°, but when, by means of a '^ humidi-
fier,'' which evaporated four and one-half quarts of water daily, he
had brought the air to a relative humidity of 53 per cent, a tempera-
ture of 65° was comfortable. The temperatures in our houses are
comfortable at about 70° because the air is calm. If the air were in
motion we should be uncomfortably cool, because of the increased
evaporation.
The temperature which we feel does not depend solely on the tem-
perature, the moisture, and the movement of the air. It is also
influenced by the physical condition in which the body finds itself, for
the body is not a passive object. When in health it adjusts itself to
surrounding conditions by its own action. At low temperatures it
seeks to check the loss of heat from its surface by contracting the pores,
keeping the skin dry, and diminishing the amount of heat near the
surface of the body. At high temperatures, on the other hand, the
pores are opened, perspiration is a])undant, and the skin is cooled by
evaporation. Furthermore, the relations of the body to the meteoro-
logical conditions of the atni()S})here are affected to a very marked
degree by the clothing. Many interesting experimental studies have
shown that the differences between the temperature on the surface of
the clothing and the air temperature decrease with an increasing
number of articles of clothing between the skin and the outside air.
The successive air strata between the different layers of clothing serve
to modify the effect of the temperature and humidity of the air.
Thus, clothing whose thickness, weight, and texture may be varied at
will, keeps the body from losing heat too rapidly to the surrounding
air. Rubner has found that the temperature on the skin uf a man
dressed in the usual number of articles of winter clothing was about
the same when the air temj^erature was 50° and when it was 79°. In
this connection the behavior of different kinds of clothing materials
in relation to moisture is naturalh' of considerable importance. Kvi-
dently, also, the questions whether the individual is taking exercise,
how violent the exercise, and under what conditions with reference to
surrounding objects, are all to be considered as C(^ntrolling factors, for,
obviously, on a cold day, two persons will experience very different
348 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
temperatures if one of them is sitting still and the other is digging a
trench.
The factor of exposure to radiation, whether directly from the sun,
or from the sky, the surface of the earth, or other objects, also enters
into the problem. Unlike a thermometer, which is in a shelter, pro-
tected from direct and reflected radiation so far as possible, human
beings when out of doors are exposed to these radiations, and their
feeling of heat is affected thereby. It has long been known that the
energy of direct insolation is of great importance as a climatic factor,
independently of the temperature of the air. In times of calm the air
temperature may even be quite unimportant. Thus, on calm, clear,
winter days, for example, if one sits in the sun, he may feel warm and
comfortable while the air temperature is really very low. It is this
climatic factor of direct solar radiation which is of great value in giving
certain high mountain stations, in the Alps and elsewhere, their repu-
tation as winter resorts. At Davos Platz, for example, and, simi-
larly, in some of our own health resorts in Colorado, invalids may sit
out in the sun and be comfortable on the coldest winter days. Reflected
heat, as from water, or from a desert surface, or from a white wall,
also affects one's feelings of heat or cold. — Bulletin, Avierican Geo-
graphical Society J March, 1904.
Public Schools in Russia. — According to the latest statistics there
are 84,544 public schools in the Empire of Russia, out of which num-
ber 40,131 are under the jurisdiction of the .Ministry of Public Educa-
tion, 42,588 under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod, and the remain-
der under other departments. Of the pupils, 73,167 were adults,
3,291,694 boys, and 1,203,902 girls. The teachers number 172,000.
The maintenance of all these schools costs more than $25,000,000.
The average school tax for city schools is $9.50, and for village schools
$5 per pupil. — Consulni^ Reports, March, 1904.
Cost of Construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. — The construc-
tion of the great Trans-Siberian Railway, comprising a length of 9,042
versts (5,995 miles), has cost 940,259,401 rubles ($484,554,415), or an
average of 103,987 rubles ($53,553) per verst ($81,326.84 per mile).
The loss endured through the disorders in China is estimated at 10.-
000,000 rubles ($5,150,000). The .Ministry of Ways and Means of
Communication has found it necessary to enlarge the rolling stock of
the fourth-class service to 7,000 cars, to be used for transportation of
laborers, emigrants, and recruits. — Consular Reports y March, 1904.
1904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 349
Advisable Omissions from the Elementary Curriculum. — In geog-
raphy the following subject-matter might well go:
All explanation of the cause of seasons, except the mere fact*of the
changing direction of the sun's rays. There is no social demand for
such matter (except possibly teachers* examinations), and it is beyond
the grammar school pupil's comprehension, calling into use our second
standard.
The caiLse of the tides ^ leaving the fact only.
Quite probably one of our two treatments of AsiOy Africa^ AuMraliay
and South America. French and German children study their native
country verj^ thoroughly, and P^urope fairly well. They attempt
comparatively little with the remainder of the world. We would be
Unwilling to adopt their plan. But why could we not have one good
treatment of these four continents — with more interesting detail than
We ordinarily present in either our small or our large geography — and
"fclien expect the supplementary reading to continue this geographical
Icnowledge? It should be remembered that while we have a large
amount of supplementary reading, its content is not usually pre-
scribed. But it should be. This plan might save one year of geogra-
X^hy work. — F. M. McMurry in ''School and Home Education/^ May,
X^04.
C^urrent Articles on Commerce and Industry:
JUNE
Abyssinia, Consular Rep.
Asiatic Trade of our Pacific States, Century.
Banana: Land where it is King (lllus.), World To-Day.
Cossacks: Russians Unique Troopers (lllus.). Rev. of Revs.-
Gophers: The Master Plowman of the West (lllus.), Century.
Japan during the War (lllus.), World To-Day.
Milk, The Making of Clean (lllus.), Country Life.
Mississippi River in War (lllus.). World To-Day.
Russia, Industrial Life in, World^s Work.
Russia, Petroleum Industry of. Consular Rep.
Standard Oil Co., McClure's Mag.
Trust, How it Meets Competition (lllus.). System.
Turbine: A New Era of Steam (lllus.), Rev. of Revs.
JULY
Advertising, Adventures in, Sat. Evening Post, July 16.
Canada's Commercial and Industrial Expansion (lllus.), Rev. of Revs.
350 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
Cereal Foods, Preparation of, Set. Am., July 9.
Ceylon Tea, Cornm. Bull, and N. W. Trade, July 9.
Conanierce, Foreign, of the U. S., Mo. Summary of Comm. and Fin.
Cotton-Picking Machines Needed, Sci. Am.y July 30.
Cowboy, The Truth About the (Illus.), World To-Day,
Furniture, Better, Increasing, World's Work.
Greek Currants, Comm. Bull, and N. W. Trade, July 9.
Laces of France, Hist, of Manufacture of, Comm. Bull, and N, W.
Trade, July 23.
Manchuria (Illus.), Century.
Merchant Princes of Old New York, Sat. Evening Post, July 30.
Panama, Solving the Health Problem (Illus.), Rev. of Revs,
Russia of To-Day (Illus.), World To-Day.
Sheep-Ranching in the Northwest (Illus.), Country Life.
South Africa After the War (Illus.), Sat. Evening Post, July 9, 23.
Transportation: Reciprocal Demurrage, Miss. Valley Lumberman,
July 29.
AUGUST
Adulteration of Foods, Comm. Bull, and N. W. Trade, Aug. 6.
British Business Methods, Weakness of, Sat. Evening Post, Aug.
6, 27.
Cheese Making in the Mohawk Valley (Illus.), Country Life.
Cocoanuts, Copra and Cocoanut Oil, Crop Reporter.
Colorado, Industrial Conditions in, TJw Mfgr., Aug. 15.
Cork Makinir, Paint, Oil, and Drug Rcr., Aug. 3.
(ireat Lakes, Traffic on (Illus.), World To-Day.
Herring Weirs of the Maine Coast (Illus.), Country Life.
Hop ricking in Central New York (Illus.), Country Life.
Japan, Agriculture in, Xat'l Geog. Mag.
Lighting, History of Artificial, Sci. Am., Aug. 27.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition (Special Number), World's Work.
Luxury, Sat. Evening Post, Aug. 20.
Merchant Princes of Old New ^'ork. Sat. Evening Post, Aug. 20.
Newfoundland and its Fisheries (Illus.), World To-Day.
Peru: Its Resources, etc.. .V(//7 Gcog. Mag.
Reindeer Industry in Alaska (Illus.), *SV/. Am., Aug. 20.
Sheep-Herder versus Cow-Puncher (Illus.), World To-Day.
South Africa after the War (Illus.), Sat. Evening Post, Aug.' 27.
Turpentine, American, Paint, Oil, and Drug Rev., Aug. 24.
1904
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 35 I
SEPTExMBER
Coffee and Coffee Culture (Illus.), ScL Am,, Sept. 17.
Cooperation, Sat. Evening Post, Sept. 10.
Cooperation of Employees in the Management of a Business (Illus.),
Bookkeeper.
Cowboy of To-Day (Illus.), World's Work.
German Supremacy in the Chemical Industry, Paint, Oil, and
Drug Rev., Sept. 7.
Hawaii, Forests of, Miss. Valley Lumberman, Sept. 9.
Holland, How the Dutch have Taken (Illus.), Rev. of Revs.
Ireland, The New (Illus.), World's Work.
Iron Mines that Give us Leadership (Illus.), World's Work.
Japan, Fisheries of, Nafl Geog. Mag.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition (Special Number), World To-Day.
Luxury: Food and Drink, Sat. Evening Post, Sept. 17.
Dress, Sat. Evening Post, Sept. 3.
Merchant: Stephen Girard, Sat. Evening Post, Sept. 24.
Mexico, Winter Expedition into (Illus.), Nat'l Geog. Mag.
Plants, Hunters of New (Illus.), Sat. Evening Post, Sept. 3.
Rice Industry of the V. S., Comm. Bull, and N. W. Trade, Sept. 3.
South, The Newer, in A^ijriculture, Sat. Evening Post, Sept. 24.
Steel Manufacture, Developments in, The Mjgr., Sept. 15.
Standard Oil Co.: The Price of Oil, McClure's Mag.
Union Stock Yards of Chieap;o (Illus.), System.
Wall Paper, The Manufacture of (Illus.), Sei. Am., Sept. 24.
E. D.J.
Economic Importance of the Coffee Industry. — The following article
appeared in El Ca fetal. New York, August, 1903:
The cultivation of coffee is a branch of tropical agriculture of greater
importance and extent than the general public and the planters them-
selves can imagine. From the results of a careful compilation of statis-
tics recently collated and published from various governmental and
private sources for the period from 1900 to 1902, the following data are
calculated :
The total number of coffee plantations in the world, large and
small, but which can })roporly be classified as such in the full meaning
of the word, reaches 49,000, distrii)uted among the three coffee-producing
continents — America, Asia, and Africa.
Their total annual production of coffee amounts to more than
21,500,000 bags, of an average weight of 134 pounds each, or 2,881,-
000,000 pounds.
352 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
This production represents a total value of more than $255,000,000
annually contributed by the coffee industry to the world's trade and
commerce. Such a grand total is realized by the annual net product
of more than 1,800,000,000 coffee trees in full bearing.
The land used for coffee growing, exclusive of the area used for the
production of other fruit in connection with coffee, exceeds 3,600,000
acres. The value of the property, including buildings, machinery, and
other utensils, is more than $1,350,000,000, based on the low values
that have prevailed from 1900 to 1902.
The average total number of persons engaged during the year in
planting, tending, harvesting, curing, and handling the crop, including
office force, reaches 2,220,000 men, women, and children.
The total amount paid annually in wages and salaries to laborers
and the office force, exclusive of interest on capital, taxes, etc., exceeds
$135,000,000.
Upon these data the following interesting average calculations are
based:
The average area of each plantation exclusively devoted to cultiva-
tion of coffee is 73^ acres.
The number of coffee trees in full bearing is 36,735 for each planta-
tion.
The average yield of raw coffee (en ore) is 1| pounds per tree.
The average number of trees planted per acre is 500.
The average production of each plantation is 58,796 pounds of coffee.
The production per acre is 800J pounds.
The average number of per year laborers and other persons employed
on each plantation is 45, or one for every If acres under cultivation,
or one person for 818 coffee trees, equivalent to one person for each
1,309^ pounds of coffee prochiced and prepared.
The average annual salary paid to each employee is $61.36.
The average cost of labor in the cultivation, production, and prepara-
tion of coffee is 4.7 cents per pound.
The average value of each coffee plantation, including the value of
buildings, machinery, and other utensils, is $27,551, or $375 per acre.
The average return for each plantation through the sale of its
entire product of coffee is $5,204, or at the rate of 8 |J cents per pound
of coffee. — Consular Reports, January, 1904.
The Climate of the Argentine Republic. — The Republic may
be divided into three general climatic provinces, on the basis of the
temperature and rainfall, the Littoral, the Mediterranean, and the
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 353
Andine, the axes of greatest elongation being north and south, and
each of these three main divisions being subdivisible into northern,
central, and southern sections, whose differences depend chiefly on
latitude and altitude. With the great extent of the Argentine, embrac-
ing as it does 33 degrees of latitude, the differences between north and
south are necessarily very great; but there are also extraordinary
changes in temperature and rainfall in going from east to west across the
country, narrow as it is. Thus, taking the zone of a degree and a half
of latitude, which lies north of the Tropic of Capricorn, we find, on the
eastern frontier, a mean annual temperature of 73.4°. Crossing the
isotherms at right angles, a temperature of less than 57.2° is found at
"the western limits. As to rainfall, in this same distance of about 500
miles "the aspect of the country changes from the lowlands of the
Chaco, covered with a tropical vegetation, to the arid tablelands of
Salta and Jujuy, which in turn merge into the Cordilleras, with their
liighest peaks under the mantle of perpetual snow.''
The famous Argentine **zonda'' is described as being so dry that
people sprinkle their floors and walls to cool the air while it blows. A
section is devoted to the temperature of evaporation, which has been
called "sensible temperature,'' and we have never seen a publication
which contained tables and charts of sensible temperatures, by months,
lor a number of stations. Perhaps the most striking feature on any of
the charts in the volume is the rapid decrease of pressure south of the
45th parallel, shown on the isobaric maps, the successive isobars running
across the countr>% almost due east and west, close together. This is
the natural consequence of the southward extension of South America
into the region of permanent low pressure in the Antarctic. The
highest relative humidity is found in the north and in the extreme
south. In the Andine provinces it frequently hapj)ens that the relative
humidity does not exceed 2 or 3 per cent. In fact, according to the
ordinar\^ psychrometer tables, some observations in this district give
a relative humidity of 0 per cent. As this is impossible, it is clear the
reduction formuhe are not applicable to such cases of extreme dryness.
Map Drawing in History. — Geography should never be neglected
in teaching history. Too often it is taken for granted that the pupil
knows the geography of the places. If you are teaching history with-
out map drawing try your pupils and see if they are not thinking of
something far away, they know not where. Ask them the relation
of one point to another and you will find that they know but little
about it. This is one of the reasons that pupils forget their history.
254 ^^^ JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
They have nothing but memory. If they have something to relate
the incident to it is not hard for them to remember. Test your pupils
on the grants of the London and Plymouth Companies. See if they
know anything about the location.
Map drawing assists in the arrangement of the thought material.
If maps are made of the campaigns of the wars, and careful drill is
given, there will be no trouble in having the pupils remember the order
of the events. They will remember them by the location of the places
on the map. If pupils are taught "Washington's Retreat Through
New Jersey" step by step they will always remember it. One step
will suggest another.
Some object to this because the pupils cannot draw. If they can-
not draw they should learn. Or, it is a good plan to use outline maps
in this case. Emphasis should be placed on history and not on draw-
ing. It is often said that pu|)ils must see before they know, and this
is most generally true. To get this fixed from the standpoint of the
eyes they must do more than look at a map : they must get it fixed on
their minds, and to do this there is no better way than to have them
reproduce the relations of the places on an outline map. — The Intelli'
gence, March 15, 1904.
"Commercial Japan in 1904," a monograph just issued by the
Bureau of Statistics, shows that the trade relations between the United
States and Japan in recent years have grown with greater rapidity
than between Japan and any other nation. Japan sends us mainly
what is not grown in this country — raw silk, tea, rice, matting, bam-
boo, and lac(|uero(l ware, etc.- -while we in return ship her annually
great quantities of raw cotton, oil. iron and steel manufactures, bread-
stulTs and provisions, tobacco. sci(MitiHc instruments, etc.
EDITORIAL
THE EMPHASIS OF DETAILS IN SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY
EFFICIKXT work in school geography cannot be measured in
^ pages ot' a text -book memorized, in names of capes or towns
glibly recited and accurately located on a map or an atlas, for
pn])ils and adults may l)e tlioroughly conversant with more geographi-
cal fads than are necrssary in everyday life and yet know little about
geography. Ah hough hx-ation work is an important phase of geog-
raphy leaciiing and has been somewhat neglected in recent years.
EDITORIAL 355
geography consists of something more than location and is no longer
<iescribed as merely the science of distribution.
Pupils must gain from their geography study enough knowledge
of places and of the distribution of geographical features to enable
them to understand the affairs of ordinary everyday life. It is far
more important, however, that they should gain a knowledge of the
reasons for geographical phenomena than that they should merely
have an extensive information about the distribution of phenomena,
a large part of which is valueless information because of little personal
use and because it has been gained at the expense of larger, broader,
and more useful principles which can be applied daily in the interpreta-
tion of the world's work and life.
Teachers are therefore everywhere confronted with the serious
problem of selecting from the great nuiss of possible details the small
selected group of the greatest value in making geography real, helpful,
and disciplinary.
To teach the general features of a s])ecial topic like a continent or
the wind systems of the world without illustrating by details, is to
leave the impressions gained incomplete and with confused outlines.
To give too many details is to surround the salient points with a mist
of illustrations and instances so that the valuable truths are lost
sight of.
The choosing of details for emphasis is much like focusing a field
glass. There is one point whore everything is clear, liefore that
point is reached the truth desired may be seen emerging from a misty
environment. To pass the point of accurate focus is to see the truth
fading away again in a seeming chaos of irrelevant details.
A teacher who teaches all the ocean currents or all the technical
steps in a complicated industrial j)rocess is producing confusion and
wasting time and energy, while, on the other hand, an equally fatal
error may be made by neglecting all the details.
Only experience will show a teacher how many details nuist be
included in reference to a given topic, but she can rest assured that
t«xt-books of geography usually contain many more facts than the
children should be called upon to learn and that to teach all the details
of a given subject is to leave many valuable larger subjects untouched.
A choice must be made and it shoidd be made carefully with the
thought in mind that information about a little of eve^ry thing may
mean no real knowledge about anything.
2^6 THIC JOURNAL OF GKOGRAPHY September
REVIEWS
Geology. By Thomas C. Chamberlin and Rollin D. Salisbur\\ Volume I, Geoloj^c
Processes and Their liesults. Pp. S, xx, and 654; plates, 24, wth 471 figures in
the text. New York: Henr>' Holt & Co., 1904.
Chamberlin and Salisbur>-'s Geology is the newest addition to the well-known
American Science Series, Advanced Course, and will take rank at once as a standard
authority in the science of geolo^'. The authors are both eminent teachers, and con-
tributors of the highest rank in geology and physiography.
The present volume treats of processes of earth structure and sculpture. The
scope of treatment is indicated by the chapter headings: astronomic geology; geog-
nosy; the atmosphere as a geological agent; the work of running water; the work of
ground water; the work of snow and ice; the work of the ocean; the origin and descent
of rocks; structural geology; the movements and deformations of the earth's body;
extrusive processes (vulcanism); the geologic functions of life.
Tlie style is clear and direct. In the preparation of the work it was the purpose
of the authors, as stated in the preface, '* to ])resent an outline of the salient features
of geolog>% as now developed, encumbered as little as possible by technicalities and
details whose bearing on the general theme are unimportant." And **where prac-
ticable, the text has been so shaped that the student may follow the steps that have
led to the present conclusions. To this end there has b(»en a frankness of statement
relative to the Innitations of knowledge, and the uncertainty of many conclusions."
This is a ver\' strong feature, from the point of view of a text-book.
In the realm of hyjK)theses the search for truth is made more sure, if ever\' pos-
sible hypothesis which will tit the facts be framed and studied. "Hypothetical and
unsolved problems have been treated, so far as practical)le, on the multiple basis;
that is, alternative hypotheses and alternative interpretations are frequently pre-
sented where knowledge does not warrant positive conclusions.''
This is the s[>irit in which tlie book is written, and as we turn the pages we can
see how the students' liorizon will be widened mikI cleared, and how the misty places
will not be ignored nor passed over liglilly, but openly acknowledged and the pos-
sible methods of interpretation indicated.
Tliis voluint* giAcs the best brief general statement in any language of wind work
in erosion and (l(*po>ition; the work of runninji water and the life histor}' of tlie river
valley: tlie work of ice; cnistal movement and deformation.
The [)i(tures il/i(s(rnl( the text. Many of them are reproduced in half-tone from
photoirrai)lis direct, and the quality of the paper and the prcsswork are such as to
make the print lianllv inferior to the oritrinal The twenty-four plates reproduce, in
color, portions of tliirty-ii\e of the I'. S. (J. S. topographic ma])s in the .scale and
quality of the original- a very valual)le feature.
So many are the strong points in this volume that it will be invaluable to every
teacher t)f the eartli sciences. J. P. G.
The Indians of the Painted Desert Region. By (i(X)rge Wharton James. Size
r.\xSA; pp. \.\i I 2t)8; (W) full-page plates from photographs. 1903. Boston:
Little.* P.rown *V Co.
In thi^ book of gen(M'alitie>; onc^ of the most interesting sections of the Southwest
has been ilexribeil.
'J'lie .Miitlior has (li\i(!ed the book into sixteen chapters, among which maj' be
nientioneil. Tlie PMJnted Desert Hegioii, The Ilopi Villages and Their Hi.story,
I904 RECENT PUBLICATION'S 357
rhe Religious Life of the Hopis, The Hopi Snake Dance, The Navajo Jis a Blanket
^Veaver, The Wallapais, and the Social and Domestic Life of the Havasupais.
Only a portion of the (Ireat Paint e<i Desert is described, the effort heing rather
oward the esthetic.
The home life, arts, and ceremonies of the Hopis and Navajos are mentionetl
n a geiienil way. Although of a tlifferent stock the lives of tlu»s<» .setlentary and
lomadic tribes are so intertwined from contact and intennarriage that their cere-
iioniology and artistic pnxl net ions are closely associate:!. The author hiis drawn
roin reliable scientific sources enough material to round out, with his own notes,
everal chapters concerning the.**e tribe's. It is to be regretted that hi.s personal
•bserN'ations, which cover a i)eriotl of many years, were not always veritietl, as the
rrors that result are misleatling.
Of sptM-ial interest are the cha])ters in which the Wallapais and Havasupais are
lesmbed. Even in scientific publications there exists a dearth of material relat-
iig to these little-known tribes; the information presented is, therefore, an
ceeptable addition to our current literature.
What the lxK>k lacks in accuracy is made up in interest. The mistakes are
>riiicipally technical and of a scientific nature.
The handling of the photographic plates is deploral)le. Many of them are
iiserted regardless of their bearing on the subject-matter of the chapter in which
hey appear. Aside from their i)ositions they are clean cut and convincing and
K>rtray with a vivid clearne.ss the toiK)gra])hy and ethnography of the desert.
The author hixs succeeiled in presenting the subject in an attractive and in-
tnictive manner. Mo.st of the facts can be foinid in an elaborated form in
<'ientific publicatioiLs, but the gencTaiizing of the author has bnmght the region well
vithin reach of the student, the chapters on the Wallapais and Havasupais alone
nuking it a welcome addition to the school library. CI. H. P.
RECENT PUBLICATIONS
^eographen-Kalender, 1904-1905. Hv Dr. Hermann Haack. Pp. 2<J(). Gotha:
Justus Perthes, 19()4.
An indispensable reference volume for all geographers. This, the second annual
kolumc, contains a sunnnary of geographical progres.s and e.\i)loration for 1903, a
ligest of the literature of the same year, an amiouncement of the deaths among
geographers in 19(Ki, a valuable list of the g(H)gra])hical societies and periodicals
>f the world, and many helpful statistics. Sixteen maiw are ap|MMid(Ml to show
the geographical changes of the year reviewc^l. Shoulil be in every college and
normal .school library.
k Brief History of Rocky Mountain Exploration, with Especial Reference to the
Expedition of Lewis and Clark. Hv Keuben Gold Thwaites. P]). 27(). New
York: D. Appleton iV: Co., 1904.
A brief and interesting .summary of western exploration by an authority. Should
be added to the bibliography of the Louisiana Purcha.se publisluMl in the June nmri-
i)er of the Joitrxal. TyiM)gni])hically ]>leasing and well indexetl.
Carpenter's Geographical Reader ; Australia, Our Colonies and Other Islands of
the Sea. By Frank G. Garj>enter. I'p. liHH. New York: American Hook Com-
pany, 1904.'
A catch-all volume including brief descriptions of tho.se parts of the world not
hitherto included in Carpenter's series of readers, with the exception of Africa, which
^ -3 THK JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY September
will form a soparatp volume. Written in the author's charaeteristieally interesting
style jmd well ilhi.strate<i. Not sufliciently rich to ser\-e adequately as a reference
volume for tlie upixT prades.
New Elementary Agriculture for Rural and Graded Schools. By Bessey, Bruner,
and Swpzcv. l*j). 194. Linmln, Svh.: The Tniversity PuHlishing Company ,
1904.
.V simjile vohuno coiitainiup murh of iiitiTcst to ^r^de teachers of freography.
KspM'ially to he commcndiil for its clear statements in reference to the popular
fal[jicit»s of the n*hitions hetwi'en tlie mcMHi and the weather.
North America. Hy Israel ('. Uussell. Pp. 4.*^). New York: D. Appleton A: Co., 1904.
\ vohinie devotiMl to the toiM)^raphy, climate, jreoiog>'. and life j^eography of
North America. Well written luit poorly illustrated. To l>e reviewed later.
NEWS NOTE
The Cornell Summer School of Geography.— The second session
of the Coriu'll Suniiin*!' School of (leo^'aphy came to an end August
isth. In all i)articiilars this se.-<sion was an advance over the splen-
ilid work of last summer. Mon» courses of instruction were given,
a much larjrcM' iiumher of t(»achcrs attended, and even greater interest
was manifested. No school has ever offered such a variety and
scope of instruction in geography as the Cornell School gave this
sumnuM". Practically every pha.-^(» of geography was treated in the
twcMity diffenMil courses. The faculty consisted of very nearly the
same grouj) of men as last summer — I'rofessors R. S. Tarr, Albert P.
Mrigham, and Charles A. .McMurry; Instructors F. V. Knierson,
(ieorge l>. Ilul>l>ard. H. ('. Butler. Philip Kmerson, R. II. Whitbeck,
auil Traiik Cariu'v. Five (»f tliese men will present papers before
the Intcnuuinnal (MM)i:raj»liical Cimgrcss which me(»ts in this country
in Sc]>tiM!il>cr. A< lirrrtoforc. much <'mphasis was laid upon field
sluilics. ninn' ihan torty ticld trip< hriuir jriven. These rangeil from
nnr-linur tiip^ in Immr trcograj>ljy tn tli(» two-<lay excursions to Wat-
ki»is (ilcii. Nia.i::ara. and \\'ilkcsl)arn\ Pa.
Dr. (Icvcland Ahl»c ol Wa<liinirlnn, ih(» eminent meteorologist,
was prcMMit tlio cntin* s»w-.i,in jnid <'nntnl)ute»l liberally to the enjoy-
mrnt and pmtii n\ \hr " ir«Mn;rapliy crow«l," as the group was called.
Tile Tlnirsday FviMiinii Hi»uiid Tabic Conferences which j)roved so
v:ilu:il»l»' la^t ^utnnu-r wrvr cnntinucd Miid a«'centuated this summer.
riu'>c wcrr vtM-iiaMr clrariiiL: Imu^cs t^i opinions and experience*!.
I'it'ty nr >i\lv iraclicrs uailimMJ about the r<)un<l table and under the
Icadcisliip i»l" a inrmluT t»i" ilir t'aculty discussed a series of topics prc-
\iou>lv .Nclrricd and dl^trilMncij in mimengra]>hed form.
R. H. W.
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T'/^^JOURNAL'?
GEOGRAPHY
Volume III. OCTOBER, 1904 Number 8
3^n iUntktvateif tnontifl^i tnagaiine hevoteh to the
intevetkttk of teacitev» x^f geogvapU^ in He-
mentavii^ 0ecotttfav\i^ anh normal 0citool»
Edited by RICHARD E. DODGE, Professor of Geog-
raphv,Teachers College, Columbia University, New York
City; and EDWARD M. LEHNERTS, Professor of
Geography, State Normal School, Winona, Minnesota
^onttntB fj(jr (Dctobev
i*A(;K
C^eography and History in the United States . ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM 359
Emphasis Upon Anthropo-Geography in Schools
ELLEN CHURCHILL SEMPLE 366
tactical Work in School Geography R. H. WHITBECK 374
Physical Geography in High Schools MARY I. PLATT 379
Oeographical Notes:
State Geojfraphy — Cause and Effect — Search Questions, 387 — The (leoKraphical Field
in Indiana, 389 -Cotton Cultivation. 3^2 — The Winter of 1(^3-04 in the Great Lakes
Re{^ion, 393— Bermuda, 393 — Poultry and Eggs, 395.
Editorial :
Clubs of Geography Teachers, 4.J0.
Reviews:
Commercial Geography of the World Outside the British Isles. Herbertson (R. E. D.),
401— The Land of Little Rain. Austin (R. E. D.), 40J.
Recent Publications 402
Authors are personally responsible for opinions and statements expressed in the JOURNAL
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Copyright y iqo4y by E. M, Lehnerts,
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
PUBLISHED MONTHLY, EXCEPT JULY AND AUGUST
An Itlustrattd Mogarine DeVoted to the Interests of Teachers of Geographp in
Etementarg, Secondarp, and formal Schoots
Successor to the Journai of School Geo/^rap/ty, Vol. V., and the Bulletin of the
American Bureau of Geography^ Vol. II.
EDITORS
RICHARD E. dodge:
Professor of Geography^ Teachers Coiiege^ Coiumbia University^ New York City,
EDWARD M. LEHNERTS
Professor of Geography^ State y or mat School^ Winona^ Minnesota.
ASSOCJATt: J: D J TORS
CYRUS C. ADAMS Geographical Editor, X. Y, Sun
OTiS \V. CALDWKLL . Professor of Botany, State formal School^ Charleston^ JIL
JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN', Prof of Geography, State Xortn at School, Los Angeles^ Cat.
HENRY C, COWLES . . . Associate in Botany, University of Chicago, Chicago, III,
AVILLIAM M. DAVIS. Profess.^r of Geology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
N. M. FENNEMAN . . Professor of Geology, University of li'isconsin, Madison, H^s.
J. PAUL GOODE, Assistant IWfessor of Geography, University of Chicago, Chicago, IlL
GEORC.E B. HOLLISTER, IlyJrographer, U. S. Geological Survey', Washington, D. C.
M. S. \V. }EFF\\K^O^, Professor of Geography, State Xormal School, Ypsilanri, MicJL
EMORY R. JOHNSON, Asst. IVof of Transportation and Commerce, Univ. of Penna,
ED\V. D. JONi:S. Assf. Prof of Commerce and Industry, Univ. of Mich., Ann Arbor
VERNON L. KKLLOI.JC., JVef .f/Sn.\mc/cgy, UUnJ Stanf.^rdfr.Univ.. Palo Alto, Cal.
CHARLES 1\ K I Nli Master e/ Dearborn School, Boston, Mass.
S. J. MvvLEAN. ./-/. /'nfo/'/:..t.\>'t:\s. I.e.'.! nd Stanford fr. Univ.. Palo Alto, Cal.
FORKST RAY MiULTON, ./. ;..'j.;.' JV.frss.^r of .htrono'ny. University of Chicago
JACOL ES W. RKinVAY Au//ior, Mount Fernon, X. Y.
EI.LKN C. SI:N[PLK ll'r:fc> in Anti:ropogeography, Louis-ville, Ky.
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THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
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MACE^'S SCHOOL
HISTORY 0/ the
UNITED STATES
FOR GRAMMAR GRADES
BY WrLLIAM n. MACE
Professor of History in Syracuse Univer-
sity, Syracuse, N. Y.
Superior to others because:
Its DRABSATIC STYLE seizes upon the
child's interest in what is live and human.
Its ARRANGEMENTS IN PERIODS
keeps clearly in the pupil's mind the rela-
tion of events to the larger movement of
which they are a part
Its ARTISTIC APPEARANCE, secured
through the large number of portraits,
illustrations* and colored plates and maps*
catches the scholar's attention and enlists
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For more information about this new
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AN CNTIRELY NEW SERIES FOR THE GRAMMAR GRADES
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maps used in this series have been prepared expressly for these
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accurate work of this kind that has been done in this country.
Dodge's Elementary Geography $0.65
Begins with Home Geography — Brings out the relation
between home and the geography of the surrounding country —
Gives as much of land and water forms and the elements of com-
merce as is necessary to a thorough understanding of the United
States and the several continents — Takes up existing industries,
trade, industrial and trade centers, etc., and shows them to be the
outgrowth of geographical surroundings; in other words, reasons
from consequences to causes.
Each continent is represented by three full-j)age maps and the
United States by three double-page maps, the first in each case a
Relief Map. the second a Physical Map, the third a Political Map.
The book also contains a large number of black and white mafjs
and colored product maps.
Dodge's Advanced Geography $1.20
Begins with a thorough treatment of the Principles of Geogra-
phy— Takes up land and water forms, climate (a more comprehen-
sive treatment than is usual in grammar-school geographies),
vegetation, animals, and men — Observes the causal order — Cites
an abundance of concrete illustrations of principles discussed.
Considers the physical characteristics of the continents first,
with a \ iew to showing how they have determined industries, trade.
industrial and trade centers, etc.; that is. reasons from causes to
consequences — Brings out the interrelation of countries and peoples
through trade —Keeps clearly in mind the comparison between
countries — Gives special attention to commercial geography.
K)ach continent is represented by three full-page and the United
States by three double-j)age maps, the first in each case a Physical
Map, the second a Political Map, the third a Commercial Map.
The book also contains the largest number of black and white
diagrams and colored product maps to be found in any grammar-
school geography.
&he Elementary and the Advanced Geographies are each published as th7o
boo'Ks, making a four»book series.
RAND. McNALLY & COMPANY
CHICAGO NEW YORK
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. OCTOBER, 1904 No. 8
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY IN THE UNITED
STATES*
HY ALHKRT PKRRY HRIOHAM
Colgate l'niver»ity, Hamilton, N. Y.
THAT geographic conditions have power in human affairs is known
to all, but their sc()|)e and importance are appreciated by few.
We cannot ascribe all that we do, or ex|)erience. to geographic
sources, and we must draw our conclusions with caution, for personal
and racial traits come in whose origin we cannot trace. We may
safely reject, however, Xhv phrase, '* theater of history," as it is com-
monly used. The earth is more than a mere stag(\ (Iround to stand
on, a background to look at. and even nuichinery to |)roduce new
effects do not express the relation of earth to the human drama. The
bond is closer, and might be called organic, bearing its share of the
complication and mystery that l)elong to life everywhere.
The writer has elsewhere sought to show th(» greater relations
which obtain between the American land and American life, and can
here select but two or three examples which seem to have the force of
types, and these will form a l)asis for the emphasis to be laid upon
correlating these two great l)ranches of knowledge in American schools.
We take our pe(»ple of the western world as we find them. It is a
race ancestrally molded by environment, but man nuist long be studied
from the ccmibined points of view of history, geography, and l)iology
before the unknown geographic factor in the ecpiation can be brought
out. Given the early Americans, they W(»re affected by local influences
which told in the resources of rocks and soils, in climate, in lines of
commerce, modes of communication, in the planting and growth of
cities. We pass these and we pass also the l(»ss ol)trusive Ijut doubt-
less more compelling influences of .sea. of relief, and of climate upon
the inner man, upon thought, imagiiuition, and moral convictions.
♦Presented before the Kdiicationnl Section of the Kighth Inteniatioiial (ico-
graphie Congress.
360 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
We hav'e taken certain larger regional, and indeed we might say
national, exhibitions of geographic influence in the temperate portions
of North America. In so doing we must remember that our history is
short and that we see it in its making, in its more creative stages. But
thus to see it is to have a blurred vision, it may be, of some of its most
distinctive characters. Until recently we have had as a nation a
migrating fnmtier, an ever-shifting "West,^' repeating with variations
the features of frontier life, furnishing outlet from the more settled
regions, and reflecting the influence of new conditions of society and
of new products of the earth, back upon the ohler populations. Some
of these older regions have seen swift changes, therefore, despite the
persistence of their soils, their minerals, their reliefs, and their skies.
Thus we have widening circles of adjustment in larger and larger fields.
Or, we may say that the process of adjustment is twofold. There
are local adaptations, as in periods of first settlement when most of
man's necessities are won from the soil at home; and there are adjust-
ments in relation to other regions, hinging upon more favorable com-
munications, and upon products of special regions, the law of competi-
tion coming in. The former sort are known and utilized in some meas-
ure in the teaching of our sch(K)ls. We are but beginning to know the
latter, and can know them only from the point of view of the historian
and the (^'ononiist.
, Our first (^xam|)le is New l^ngland. Here nothing less than a revo-
lution has taken |)lace, and indeed it is in progress before our eyes.
When the early coionisis sought the protected waters of the shore and
the fertile lowlands of Xho Connecticut, or cleared their rough fields and
challenged the uj)lan(ls to give them a living, or snared it beneatli the
salt waters, then* was abundant geographic influence and there was
genuine* adjustment to the conditions of the land. J-^ut if we look at
tlie New Kngland of to-day, we see many new things. The fishing has
waned and what there is conccMitrates itself chiefly at one port. There
has been a decline, so called, of agriculture, but perhaps no diminution
of the value of the |)roducts of the soil. Boston is said to be second in
this ])articular among the towns of Massachusetts. That the growths
of the greenhouse must l)e counted in to nuike this true, only points to
the great fact of s|)ecialization of tillage. It is now tobacco in the
C'oiuiecticut Valley, cranberries on Cape Cod, and truck farming adja-
cent to innumeral)le cities, instead of a toilsome struggle to raise bread-
stuff's everywhere. Fields too steep and too rough with bouklers
to favor the ])l()w are relapsing into forest, to become valuable to
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY IN THE UNITED STATES 36 I
the next generation at least for refreshment, and to later genera-
tions, it may be, for lumber as well. Meantime the population of the
region has increased, its wealth has grown, and its array of comfortable
conditions of living is out of all comparison with the days of the fathers.
What now are the larger connections in this chain of events? We find
them in early migraticms to New York and Ohio, the '^West^'; in the
wheat fields of the Genesee Valley; in the expansive acres of Illinois
and Iowa, and in the silver and gold of Colorado and California. Cer-
tain industries could be better carried on if New England men and
others were to follow the fleeting limit of our country toward the set-
ting sun, and the old New England, mourning less about herself than
others have mourned about her, set herself to do the things that she
could do best. No water power could be more abundant, no seashores
more attractive, and few harl^ors more inviting than those of New
England. Manufacturing, commerce, a considerable range of mineral
industries, and the care of resorts among the mountains and by the
sea, may not unfairly be said to mark the more assured and final
adjustments of life to land in this region whose bread can better be
won by exchange than with the plow. Adjustment and control are
marked by wider range. But even in her special field of the factory
there is a qualification. Abundant as water power is, coal is yet
important, and must come by a long haul. And tiie haul for cotton
is yet longer. The South is awakening, and a region which has water,
coal, cotton, and labor in juxtaposition is likely to win in the race.
Time will impart the needed skill to the southern operative, and New
England manufacturing must turn in tiie main to other lines.
Professor Hinsdale has remarked upon the prodigious importance
to the old Northwest of the fact that, on the one hand, it belongs to
the upper Mississippi, and on the other is closely associated with the
Great Lakes. Thus in a word is summed up much of the history of the
prairies. Speaking in detail, we have first what we may call prairie
conditions, land that is mainly flat and low-lying, in a forestless state,
a fairly moist climate, and, owing in part to its lack of relief, a land
fitted to accumulate a soil of surpassing richness. Water power is for
the greater part absent, but there is abundant coal. These conditions
mean the dominance of agriculture, easy local communications, and
the ultimate growth of manufactures. The critical (juestions of geo-
graphic adjustment arise in connection with long-distance transporta-
tion. It has been said that the railroads raised up Chicago and deter-
mined New Orleans to an inferior position. But this does not tell the
-7 62 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
whole story. It is true that railways waxed as traffic clown the Miss-
issippi waned, but it is difficult to weigh the share that lake shipping
has had in making Chicago. It is also true that railways fall back
upon geographic conditions — easy grades along the old lake plains to
the eastward, the open Mohawk \'alley with its Erie Canal, the tidal
Hudson, and New York at the western end of the Atlantic Ferry. But
it remains to be seen how the old Northwest will be affected by rail-
ways to New Orleans and Galveston, by an extended Drainage Canal,
and a ship channel across the Isthmus of Panama. In brief, the East
and the South have long been striving for the prairie country, for it
stands balanced between the one and the other. The easy grades and
shorter haul ilown the Mississippi, added to American developments
all about the Mediterranean of the Western Hemisphere, may compen-
sate for the longer passage from the Gulf ports to Europe, and may
weaken the bond between the prairies and New York. The more is
this result possible now that for more than a generation slavery has
been wiped out, and steady assimilation of social conditions betw^een
the upper and lower Mississippi regions can proceed. The old struggle
is on which gave Washington and the fathers so much concern in their
time, as to whether by roads and waterw^ays they could render nuga-
tory the divisive influence of the Appalachian barrier. The sturdy
men that won the old Northwest came in l)y the Cumberland Gap, and
the men that subdued and populated it came by the Seneca turnpike
or through Pittsburg, but the ancestral homes of New England cannot
])e forever renieni])ere(l, nor will the man of the prairies maintain
loyalty to New York wlien liis interests point to the Gulf of Mexico.
We take a furtlu^r exani[)le in the development of the arid lands.
Tlie basal motive cannot ])e counted as other than the wealth of min-
(»rals in tlie western mountains. Once prompted to test the possibili-
ti(^s of the dry phiti^aus of the Cordilleran country, they have been
found to liave vahies of their own, making them no longer merely sub-
sidiary to deposits of gold and silver. The Kansas problem and the
unliappy inflation of the decade following 1S85 had their origin in
ignorance of g(M)grapiiic conditions. A temporary increase of rainfall
was thought to ])et()ken a permanent and beneficent change of climate.
Hence came an era of speculation and foolish spending, of boom towns
and exc(\^sive railway building, of reckless borrowing and inability to
pay interest, of ])ankruptcy and foreclosure. With this unhappy har-
vest of distress came wild-cat theories of money, misunderstanding and
bickering Ix^tween East and West, and great loss and suffering on the
I904 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY IN THE UNITED STATES 363
part of lender and borrower, until the bubble collapsed, until over-
population was checked, and most of those semi-arid lands were
returned to grazing. Thus we approach the deeply characteristic
development w^hich arid-land life must have. There will be tillage
where there is water enough for it, and grazing over wide intermediate
spaces. And in the areas of tillage population will be dense, \vill
approach the conditions of the town, and the interests of the people will
link them to each other in semi-communistic ways. These conditions
of solidarity will work themselves out in the school, the church, in
economic relations, and in the very life and quality of the men that
make up such a society. And the nation itself, by adopting an irriga-
tion policy, has not only prospectively increased its wealth and its
census roll, but fosters thereby a modified and highly specialized type
of society.
Final, or at least larger, adjustments are hinted at in our expansion
of territory, in binding to ourselves, more or less closely, lands across
the seas and in the enlarging commercial bonds which join us to other
lands. We can hardly emphasize too much the fact that w-e stand
between two oceans. The Pacific now looms in importance and w^e
are pointed back to our primal geographic-historical fact that we
fronted Europe and were thus approached on our more open side by
several colonizing peoples, of which one, perhaps in defiance of geo-
graphic obstacles, became dominant.
We now come to the question whether these great relations between
history and geography are properly recognized in the literature of the
two subjects and in the schools. We shall do historical literature no
injustice by affirming that it is generally deficient in a real understand-
ing of relations to the earth. The quality of regions and of national
domains is but partly realized. There are plains, there are mountains,
there are rivers; there is impressionistic painting, but little photography
upon the pages of the historians. In like degree geography has failed
to avail itself of the rich interest which history offers, with its wealth
of human elements and its causal associations running through time,
and its economic and social relations giving easy unity to wide regions
or remote nations.
If we inquire for correlation in schools, the answer is little better
than negative. Certainly geography should be fundamental and
should in some measure precede, while history should follow, and
should not only be more intelligible, but contribute new fascination to
the geography. The teacher of geography must know the essentials
364 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
of history, and should be well schooled in the history of his own
people, and the teacher of history is but half fitted for his task if he
does not know the principles of geography, and if he has not a generous
knowledge of the geography of his own country.
Such correlations, whether in the teacher himself or in school pro-
grams, are rare. And yet correlation is peculiarly possible with the
common plan of one teacher for all subjects in a grade and, in the
department system, only recjuires some planning on the part of direc-
tors and teachers, liut tlie teacher will often wait long for aid from
his superiors. As it was put by another, *'It is no uncommon thing
for a class to be studying at the same time the geography of Africa, the
history of England, the plant life of Minnesota, while having for their
reading lesson the story of Peter the Great. ^' Jiut, barring repressive
systems of examination, there is no limit except of time and interest
to the amount of history that a teacher of geography may know and
use, or to the history teacher's use of geography, each, of course, mak-
ing the other subject subsidiary to his own. In this respect we seem
to be far behind Germany, where the two subjects more often are han-
dled by the same teacher. We need not, however, wonder that w^e are
backward when we see geography just escaping from its thrall as a
locational study, and when the first association in this country for
improving educational methods in history dates from the Nebraska
organization of 1SS9.
Professor Howard criticises the report of the Committee of Seven
to the American Historical Association as disappointing in the matter
of coi relation. Ho, however, lays stress here on law and economics,
while we would place it without question upon geography. In fact,
the one passage of the report that touches geography with emphasis,
serious and true as it mainly is, is amusing in its assurance. "Fortu-
nately," says the passage, "it is unnecessary in these latter days to
call the teacher's attention to the use of maps, and to the idea that
geography and history are inextricably interwoven." This would be
pleasant if it were true. Th(» use of wall maps, physical maps, and of
an historical atlas is recognized, and we are told that ''pupils should
not lose .sight of the i)hysical causes that have acted in history." But
what if nine-tenths of the teachers are densely ignorant of these physi-
cal causes! The best thing in the passage is quoted from Hinsdale,
who says, with freshness and power, ** Groupings of historical figures
and scenes around geographical centers make these centers themselves,
])in(ling the figures and scenes together, give them a new^ permanence
1904 GEOGRAPHV AND HISTORY IX THE UNITED STATES 365
and solidity/' Aside from the one passage there is little reference to
geography in the report, and the implication is that locational geog-
raphy and a rough knowledge of the principal reliefs is all that is
needed. Dr. C. A. McMurry, in his 'Special Method in Geography/'
has given pointed expression to the importance and feasibility of such
correlation as is here under review.
One of the more satisfactory utterances on this subject is found in
the report of the history conference to the Committee of Ten, as fol-
lows: "From the beginning the teacher should attempt to connect
physical geography with the present political condition of the world;
and, in like manner, the study of political geography should constantly
bring in the physical features." Even more emphatic is the formal
resolution of that conference, "That the study of history should be
constantly associated with the study of topography and political geog-
raphy, and should be supplemented by the study of historical and
commercial geography and the drawing of historical maps." Good as
this is, we may even read between the lines here the " theater-of-his-
tory" idea, rather than the very ground and conditioning element of
his ory. Thorpe, in an essay included in the volume on the "Study
of History in American Colleges," observes: "That study [history]
should be at first chiefly geographical and sociological." He is speak-
ing here of the public school. The College Entrance Examination
Board might well go farther in its syllabus of history, than this, "geo-
graphical knowledge will be tested by re(iuiring the location of places
and movements on an outline map." This might have been written
a hundred years ago if history had then 'counted for admission to
college.
What is proposed to be done, in view of the need and of the evident
gains of such correlation? We have no scheme to outline, but we hope-
fully recognize an awakening interest and excellent beginnings.
Within a brief time formal works on the interrelations of geography
and history have begun to appear. There is a profound interest in
this field on the part of all progressive geographers, and a considerable
number of pertinent articles have appeared in tlie geographical jour-
nals during the past five years. Several of the later historians have
also recognized the intrinsic (if we may so term it) value of geography.
To Francis Parkman must be given the honor of being the pioneer in
this splendid field. H to him a region is a theater, it is a stage that
glorifies with its native colors every deed that emerges upon it, and the
reader knows that he has seen no manufactured setting, but the very
^66 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY October
home and fertile soil where historic deeds have matured. Fiske and
McMaster are not far behind the great master of lake and forest, and
it is worthy of note that for a part of its next annual meeting the Asso-
ciation of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland have
arranged a session for the discussion of such problems of joint interest.
These indications point to a vital growth which will bring about the
needed organization and will develop suitable school programs. We
shall, as time advances, have more teachers of geography and of his-
tory, specialists in chosen fields, and neither will be deemed fit for his
own subject until his interest and his first-hand knowledge take him
far over into the other.
EMPHASIS UPON ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY
IN SCHOOLS*
HV KLLEN CHURCHILL SEMPLE
Louisville, Ky.
EVKRV State or nation includes two ideas, the land and its peo-
ple, each unthinkable \\4thout the other. Even the Sahara sug-
gests. ])esides its wastes of sand, the group of huts in the palm-
grown oasis, the white-robed Arab sitting in the shadow of his tent by a
solitary well, the camel with his brown-skinned driver bending before
the blast of the simoon, and the long-drawn caravan creeping along a
bone-marked trail, (leography is the study of the land and its effect
upon its people; history is the study of a people in whose economic,
social, and political development the land is an essential and potent
factor, (leography lays the stress ui)on the land, history upon the
peo])le. Hut the land is fully comprehended only when studied in
t'lo light of its influence upon the inhabitants, and a people can never
be understood apart from the field of their activities, from the climate
which determines their housing and dressing, the rainfall and soil which
control their agriculture, the* isolation or accessibility of their country
which defines the amount and character of their intercourse with
other lands, and finally the size of their territory, which must always
be a factor in the numerical strength of the population.
By I ho introduction of the human element, geography is lifted
out of tlie <lul] round of formal studies and the earth becomes the
* ProiMited before tlie Kdiieat.oii:*! Seetioii of t'^e Kitrhth Internationnl Geo-
^rapliie Conirri ss.
i9<H EMPHASIS UPON ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY IN SCHOOLS 3^7
setting of a great world drama. By the introduction of the geographic
element, history becomes vitalized; through it now pulses the life-
blood of the people. All the forces and treasures and beauties of
nature enter into the chronicle. Its pages seem to smell of the up-
turned soil; they are golden with fields of ripened grain and white
with fields of cotton ; they echo the sound of the pioneer's axe blazing
a trail over a mountain pass, the ripple of the voyageur's canoe explor-
ing some far northern stream, the splash of the steamboat on a river
highway, the roar of waterfall and the whir of mill-wheel, the lowing
of cattle on thirsty plain, and the hum of life in the big seaport; they
reflect the persistent and potent forces back of political bodies and
legislative enactments in the geographic conditions of the people.
The chief emphasis in the two studies should not be changed; but
this is still compatible with a fuller, deeper geographical interpre-
tation of history than is now customary, and a more fruitful anthro-
pological interpretation of geography. Though the newer geograph-
ical text-books give an interesting and scientific treatment of earth
forms, the sections devoted to the various countries of the world are
burdened with masses of economic detail, which in themselves
are uninteresting to a child, which are imperfectly presented in
their causal relation, and which for a large part are only indi-
rectly, not directly and obviously, the effect of geographic condi-
tions. The result is that the child is swamped in a mire of unsys-
tematized knowledge or is forced along a line of causal reasoning
too long and involved for the immature mind to follow. Finally,
these facts are selected with little view to history, the next study
in the school curriculum.
Economic facts appeal little to the child; their study is proper
only for the mature mind, and hence their multiplication in geograph-
ical text-books is stultifying. Yet the causal idea back of a group
of such facts the child will seize upon and retain. For instance, he is
not eager to learn or sure to remember that Troy, N. Y., is an impor-
tant center for the manufacture of collars and cuffs, Cohoes for knit
goods and hosiery. Utica for fine hardware and machinery, but
he can grasp the principle that all these are manufacturing tow^ns,
because their location on the great canal and valley railroad route
between the Hudson River and the Great Lakes renders them access-
ible to raw materials of all kinds and enables them to send their fin-
ished goods to widely distributed markets, while local water power
reduces the item of fuel in the cost of production. In the same way
368 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY October
the child can readily understand the geographic factors which have
made P^ngland lead the world in manufactures and which have local-
ized the great manufacturing area in the northwestern part of that
country; but he gains little by memorizing a list of the chief industries
distinguishing the various English cities. The teaching of geography
would gain, therefore, both in interest and educative value, by paying
less attention to the mere enumeration of details and more to their
scientific interpretation.
This multiplication of economic facts, which has so expanded the
text in recent geographies, has crowded to the wall the important
study of the map. Earth forms are slighted in their geographical
distribution and tlieir effects as phases of geographical environ-
ment. The old routine, illogical map questions have not been suc-
ceeded by intelligent, logical map questions designed to develop
anthropo-geographical principles. The drainage systems of Russia,
Germany, China, or America are described in the t^xt, perhaps; but
the child is not sent to the map by discreet questions to discover
those drainage systems for himself and to estimate their importance
for their respective countries. And every child should become
an infant discoverer on the cartographical page in order to accjuire
a self-constructed knowledge of every ocean, continent, and coun-
try as the basis for anthr()p()-geograf)hical deductions. Maps,
physical and political, nuist remain the child's chief repository of
facts, to which he can most easily refer and from which he can
draw his surest conclusions. Trained to this anthropological inter-
l)retati()n, he finds th(» otherwise dull page becoming luminous. The
facts and ])rinci|)les thus ac(|uire(l introduce him to contemporary
history, the terms and names of which are more or less familiar
to him, and by comparative methods into past history. Moreover
they deal with themes far more likely to interest him than the weary
enumeration of economic data. A list of Cuba's mineral resources
or a statement of its commercial exchanges with other countries
appeals little to a child, and is not readily associated with the Cuba
which he knows best, the Cuba of the map; but if you would arouse
his interest, point out the isolation due to Cuba's island character,
show him that to this separation from the mainland and to the island's
limited size was due in large part its long subjection to Spain, when
all the other Spanish colonies in Mexico, Central and South America
had gaincMJ thcnr inde})endence. either because the vast extent of
their territories and their consetpient larger populations rendered
X904 KMPHASIS UPON ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHV IN SCHOOLS 369
their uprising more formidable, or, as in South America, continental
neighbors like Colombia and Vene/Aiela, Argentine and Chile, sent
armies even over the high barrier of the Andes to support each other
in the struggle for freedom, while Cuba\s seagirt location, accessible
only to ships which the new-born Latin republics lacked, kept at
arm's length the deliverer, and Cuba's relatively small area could
be retained under the crushing hand of Spain. Finally, Cuba's
proximity to the I nited States and her strategic position on Florida
Straits become obvious factors in her independence and the guarantee
of that independence by the American Government.
In the same way, lead the young student to read from the map
the restricted availability of Russia's coastline — its White Sea har-
bors accessible from the open ocean, but closed by ice more than six
months of the year; its Haltic coast, also ham[)ered by a long winter,
liable in time of war to be bottled up by Germany, Scandinavia, or
the ships of England patrolling the narrow exit; its Black Sea coast,
to which the neck of the bottle is particularly small and the cork
secured for all naval vessels of the great Muscovite power; its far-
northern strip on the Pacific with the often ice-bound port of \'lad-
ivostock, where, moreover, the long cordon of the Japanese Islands
makes the Japan Sea another Kuxine and the Korean Strait another
Bosphorus; the significance of the struggle for a maritime outlet on
an unfrozen sea in Manchuria; and finally the meaning of the ominous
bulge of Russia's frontier south of the Caucasus and the wedge driven
into northern Afghanistan, signposts of her proposed advance to the
Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. Ask the child to estimate from
the map the value of the coasts of all the Kuropean countries, in terms
of length, harbor facilities, availability, and routes of communica-
tion with the interior. See how eagerly, from an inspection of the
coasts of Germany, France, Russia, and the United States, as inter-
rupted by the intervening littoral of a foreign power, he will reason
to the political necessity of a canal to connect the separated coasts,
and from a study of a physical map will fix its possible location.
Tell the child that the Samoyedes, a retarded people of Arctic
Siberia, have twenty-one different words for the color gray, and ask
for the geographical reason of this surprising richness in a primitive
language.
The map, thus treated, becomes for the young student a great
field for comparison, and hence for the deduction of anthropo-
geographical principles. Tracing the strategic and hence political
370 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY October
importance of the entrances to enclosed sea basins, he reads at a
jj;lance the significance of Havana and Key West for the command
of the Gulf of Mexico, of Constantinople for the Black Sea, of the
Russian fortress at Port Arthur for Pechili Gulf, of the British posi-
tions at Singapore, Aden, Suez, and Gibraltar; he groups with these
strategic points Denmark's peninsula and island location command-
ing the channels leading into the Baltic, and readily grasps the fact
that this location made the historic greatness of the country in the
past, enabling it at one time to levy toll on merchant vessels entering
this northern Mediterranean, and has prevented its absorption by
one of its larger neighbors, because all these could agree upon the
desirability of having this important passway in the hands of a weak
and neutral power.
To recapitulate, this interpretation of the map has the follo\\ing
advantages: Its metliod is comparative and hence scientific; it arrives
at anthropo-geographical principles interesting and comprehensible
to an immature mind; it deals with familiar, present-day history
and leads from the present to the past ; finally it is a natural prepara-
tion for the study of history, which immediately follows geography
in the school curriculum. The American child goes from the study
of goograpiiy to the history of the United States. He possesses a
valual)le stock of facts about the climate, location, size, coastline,
and topography of his country, ready to serve as the basis for his
study of its history, but rarely or inadequately utilized for this pur-
pose by school text-books. The o])|)ortunity to apply the pedagog-
ical j)rinciple of proc(»o(ling from the known to the unknown stares
one in the face; but the valuable ready-made foundation is ignored,
the child begins inimcMJiatel.v on the superstructure, and his history
hovers in the air.
The geographical element in history as taught to-da}' in the schools
— taught often, too, in compliance with the reciuirement of college
preparation — is for the most part superficial and inadequate. It
consists chiefly in nuMuorizing geographical locations, in very imper-
fect map-drawing, yielding to the student scant profit in proportion
to the expenditure of time and effort, or in fiUing in outline maps,
guiltless of any suggestion of topography, with poHtical boundaries
and sites of towns and })attles. The study is not in the least inter-
j)retative; it makes a demand upon the memory, not upon the reason-
ing power. The teacher asks the student to locate the battles of
Oriskany, Ticonderoga, and Saratoga in the Revolution, and is
1904 EMPHASIS UPON ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY IN SCHOOLS 37 I
satisfied with the answer that they were in the central part of east-
ern New York, overlooking the important fact of their location along
the two great valley routes between flanking mountain barriers from
Lake Ontario on the west and the St. Lawrence on the north, con-
verging upon the upper Hudson, that great river highway through
the heart of the Colonies. In the War of 1812 the land battles of
Saranac River and the naval engagement ofF-shore are located by
the student near the northern end of Lake Champlain, but are not
shown to be a repetition of the battles of Ticonderoga and \'alcour
Island in the previous war, pushed a little farther north on this same
great Champlain-Hudson route. Or the numerous naval conflicts
in this same war are located vaguely in the wide waste of the Atlantic,
with no regard to the great trade routes determined by prevailing
winds and ocean currents, which were followed in that day by English
merchantmen seeking the West or East Indies, and which there-
fore were infested by American vessels preying upon English com-
merce. 1 remember distinctly, when a child of ten years old, studying
the dreary list of naval engagements in this war, with the names of
vessels and commanders on either side, and wondering in my childish
mind where all these battles were, and why they were anywhere. If
I learned that the conflict between the "Constitution" and the"(juer-
riere" took place southeast of Sable Isle in such longitude and latitude,
I was not much wiser, because the significant fact in this location
was carefully suppressed — namely, that this battle was fought near
the southern entrance to the (iulf of St. Lawrence, where American
vessels throughout the war were lurking about to intercept English
supply ships on their way either to the St. Lawrence River and the
British forces in Canada or to the British naval base at Halifax.
The geographic factors in the history of Greece receive more atten-
tion in school text-books than those of any other country; but here
only the more obvious influences are discussed, the political sub-
division of the country due to physical subdivision by mountain
barriers and arms of the sea; the indented coastline, the fringing
island groups, and the proximity of other lands resulting in the sea-
faring and colonizing propensities of the early Greeks; the effect of
climate, quality of atmosphere, and scenery upon the artistic develop-
ment of the Greek mind. But other equally important influences
are past unnoticed. The marked colonizing tendency of the peo])le
was a result also of the restricted territory of the Httle peninsula and
the limited amount of arable soil in a country of rugged mountains
372 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
and sterile plateaus. In a country where to-day only eighteen
per cent of the surface is under cultivation, population must at an
early ilate have begun to press upon the limits of subsistence yielded
by primitive agriculture. Emigration from congested districts
necessarily followed, and foreign commerce was resorted to to increase
the earning power of the states. In all these points ancient Greece
presents a geographic and hence economic parallel with the histor}-
of Fhcenicia, Norway, England, and — barring the quality of the soil
— with Holland.
But. as Hatzel says. ''The most important fact in the geography
of (Ireece was its location at the threshold of the Orient/' and yet
this factor is never brought out in its full significance. Greece was
the part of Europe most accessil)le to the ancient centers of ci\'iliza-
tion in Egypt and southern Asia; upon it converged all the great
routes from tlie East, which poured into the Hellenic world the intel-
lectual and commercial wealth of the Orient. The Mediterranean
and Black Sea termini of every such route^were marked by Greek
coloni^»s — Trebizond. Sinope, Byzantium, Smyrna, Miletus. Antioch,
and Xaucratis in the Nile delta. Over the eastern rim of the .Egean
rose the sun of Greek culture, flooding with light the islands of that sea,
the Asia-fronting shore of the peninsula, and the eastern slopes of the
Pindus Mountains, while a gray, uncertain dawn long defined the west-
ward-reaching shadow of the massive range. Then, by its position
midway between the productive countries of the East and the newly
opeiKMl lands of the western Mediterranean, (ireece became the great
middleman of {\\c early world, the distributing center of products and
ideas, just as twenty centuries later the Hanse towns of the North
Sea and the neigh])oring Baltic l)ecame the agents of Mediterranean
commerce^ and culture for the less developed coast regions of northern
Europe.
When the nialurer student has acquired a knowledge of general
history and passes to the advanced study of physiogra])hy, as now
taught in some high schools and colleges, he conmiands the material
for broader anthropo-geographical conclusions, which in turn give
him a larger outlook upon history. Tiie study of the physical features
of fiord coasts and countries will gain immensely in interest if followed
by a comparison of the influence of fiord environment upon the Indians
of southern Alaska, the people of Iceland, Greenland, and Norway.
as also upon the (H-onomic development of British Columbia, Wash-
ington, and Maine. A study of continental islands is complete only
I904 EMPHASIS UPON ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY IN SCHOOLS 373
with a comparison of the isolating influence of an island environ-
ment in Japan, England, Iceland, Corsica, Madagascar, Cape
Breton, and Cuba, and with an analysis of the striking and not for-
tuitous parallels in the history of England and Japan. The study of
enclosed sea basins requires a comparison of early maritime develop-
ment in the Mediterranean and the Baltic; the study of mountains,
a comparison of their isolating effects in the survival of moribund
languages in the Alps, Pyrenees, Caucasus, the Highlands of Scotland,
the mountain districts of Wales and Ireland, and in the persistence of
a seventeenth century English in the remoter parts of the Southern
Appalachians to-day. All mountain peoples are found to have cer-
tain characteristics in common, especially a love of political and per-
sonal freedom, which explains the existence of small, independent
mountain states like Switzerland, Andorra, Montenegro, Nepal, and
Bhutan; the fierce and protracted resistance to conquest made by
the ancient Samnite tribes of the Apennines, the Highland clans of
Scotland, the tribes of the Caucasus and Himalayas, and the Albanian
mountaineers of Turkey; and it accounts for the habitual disregard
of governmental authority displayed to-day by the people of the
isolated Southern Appalachians in matters of clan feuds and illicit
distilling.
By comparison of different periods also, the same geographic
factor is seen to operate continuously, though under new aspects,
caused by a change of other conditions. For instance, certain
mountain passes and the river valleys leading from them down
either slope have determined the routes across the Appalachians,
whether of *^ buffalo trace," or Indian war-path, or tlie well-beaten
trail of the pioneer, or the wagon road of the early western emigrant,
or the line of the railway seeking the easiest path across the wide-
stretched barrier. In the same way that deep furrow between the
mighty Caucasus and Anti-Caucasus Mountains which served as the
ancient route of communication between the Black Sea and the
Caspian, and brought the gold of the East to mythical Colchis, sees
to-day the railroad which brings the petroleum of Baku and the rugs
of Bokhara to the Mediterranean lands. The geographic conditions
which made a maritime power of ancient Greece still enable the
modern country to lead in the carrying trade of the eastern Mediter-
ranean. The arid plains and mountain slopes of the American West,
once the grazing lands of the buffalo and deer whose skins figured
prominently in the early exchanges of the busy little tow^ns at the
2 ^
374 '^'"^ JOURNAL OF GKOGRAPHY October
elbow and the mouth of the Missouri River, to-day raise the cattle
and sheep to supply the great slaughtering and packing industries
at 8t. Louis and Kansas City.
These geographic forces are stable, persistent; they operate from
day to day and from century to century. They constitute the soil
in which empires are rooted, and they rise in the sap of the nation.
PRACTICAL WORK IN SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY*
BY R. H. AVHITBECK
Stale Model School, Trenton, N. J. .
NO line of development in modern education has been more
remarkable than the growth of science teaching by the labora-
tory method. "Study things themselves; learn by first-hand
experience," is a universally accepted principle. The general prin-
ciple is established and the working out of the details is progressing
rapidly. A decade of experimentation by practical teachers has
yielded well-organized plans of work in chemistry, physics, and biolog>\
Laboratory courses in these sciences have been outlined and are
practiced with pretty general satisfaction. But what about geogra-
phy? Certain it is that in this field matters are in an unsettled state,
at least in America. There are people who (juestion whether geop:ra-
phy is really a science at all. There is lack of agreement as to what
should be included under the term and what excluded. Any one who
has attempted to define the scope of geography has found how elusive
and elastic are its boundaries, and how numerous its ramifications
into all other fiehls of knowledge.
Physical geograpliy is accorded a i)lace among the sciences, but it
does not so readily lend itself to the laboratory treatment in schools
as do chemistry or biology or (n'en physics. In the very nature of the
science, lal)oratory practice cannot form so large a part in the study
of physical geography as it does in the other sciences named. In the
broader field of general geography, this is even more largely true.
(ilance down the table of contents of a school text-book. It is evi-
dent that geography treats of an almost endless list of places, activities,
phenomena, and relations, scattered ovc^r the entire earth, and that
most of these cannot be studied at first hand unless we travel over the
entire earth. Deserts, mountains, oceans, glaciers, and a tiiousand
* Pnvscntrd Ixforo tbo Kduratioiial Section of the Firhth International Geo-
graphic Congress.
PRACTICAL WORK IN SCHOOL GEOC.RAPHY 375
more of the real things with which geography deals cannot be brought
together for study in one place. Manifestly a very large part of a
student's geographical knowledge must lye gained at second haiul
unless he is able to travel extensively. Principles, processes, and tyj)e
forms may usually be found illustrateil near home. Particularly is
this true of the physical side of the study, and also of the connnercial.
The meteorological phase of the subject is, of course, well suited to
first-hand study in almost any school. Every locality furnishes
opportunities for some outdoor studies and these opportunities should
be used to the utmost* Such studies are the lifeblood of school
geography.
Regarding indoor laboratory work in physical geography, one
scarcely knows what to say. Very few schools indeed have achieved
any notable success along this lino. The laboratory manuals thus far
produced are confessedly unsatisfactory, and each one diflfers radically
from every other.
In the geography of the elementary school, systematic laboratory
work is as yet unknown, but observation and experience are impressing
upon us that there are forms of practical work which enrich our geog-
raphy teaching and enhance its value. It is with these elementary
exercises that this paper chiefly deals. For convenience* we may
classify the exercises as follows:
1. Manual exercises, including —
(a) Modeling in sand, clay, or pulp.
(6) Map making and ordinary map drawing.
(c) Making of special maps such as, for example, those showing
productions, rainfall, or industries, including tlie filling in
of printed outline maps.
(rf) Graphic representation of important statistical facts, such
as relative areas of countries, po|)ulati()n of cities,
exports, etc.
2. Observational exercises, including —
(a) Study of pictures; the use of the stereoscope* and stere-
opticon.
(6) Study of relief models and contoured maps.
(c) Study of raw materials and tlieir finished products.
(d) Indoor study of common rocks, soils, ores, etc.
(e) Visits to mills, (piarries, markets, etc.
(/) Weather observations and records.
(g) Field trips chiefly for the study of natural forms niul
phenomena of a geogra|)hic character.
276 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY October
It is not to he hoped that all of the above will be emphasized in any
one school. Such a condition would probably be worse than empha-
sizing none of them.
Sand molding has proved its worth in primary grades. A month
ago I secured an expression of opinion from forty or more teachers
from some twenty different states as to the value of the sand table.
There was hearty agreement that its use is essential to clear teaching
in the primary grades. Only a few of the teachers cared for the sand
table beyond the fifth grade. Map modeling in pulp or putty by
grammar-grade pupils may be W(^rth while as an exercise in manual
training, but not as an exercise in geography.
Map drawing, which formed so large a part of the geography work
a generation ago, seems to have been largely crowded out of the modern
granunar-school curricidum. The group of teachers referred to above
were in general agreement that the expenditure of a large amount of
time by the pupil on a single map. laboriously executed, is not profit-
able. Rut the rapid sketching of maps, done free hand by the pupil,
was heartily endorsed by all. The outline maps sold by various pub-
lishers were generally approved by the teachers. These give correct
outlines of states and countries in which the pupils, usually from
memory, place riti(»s. rivers, or mountains: sluide areas of ample or
scanty rainfall; indicate the industrial, farming, grazing, lumbering,
or mining sections, the great trade routes, — in short, any of the larger
facts in which hwntiou is a matter of importance.
The practice of graphic representation in geography is worthy of
more att(Mition tlian most teachers give it. Statistics are to l)e
avoided in ge^ography teacliing: yet. to a small extent, they must
enter. To teach the exact population of cities or the areas of
states is manifestly unwise: yet. to know something of the relative
areas of a few of xhv most important states and countries and
the relative population of a few impf>rtant cities is useful. The
graphic representation o\ a few selected areas of .states and coimtries
by proportii»nal squares (^ften i»pens one's eyes to long-cher'shed errors
which he gained l\v studying maps constructed upon different scales.
How many Rhode l>land boys realize that, if their own state be repre-
sented by a small sipiare. more than 200 like squares are neces.sary to
reproent thi^ area o\ Texas? It may be tlisappointing but it is also
eilucative when a piq^il wht> lives on the banks of the Hudson or Dela-
ware draws a iine o\ any convenient length to represent the length
o\ his river. :\\u\ then draws another in proportion to represent the
1904 PRACTICAL WORK IN SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY 377
Mississippi-Missouri, and finds that it takes fourteen of the former
placed end to end to equal the latter. A graphic representation would
reveal to the pupils of New Jersey that if sixteen mountains as high
as the highest in their state were placed on top of one another, the
pile would scarcely equal Mount Everest in altitude. The value of
graphic representation lies in the vividness of the impressions which are
left on the mind by making these diagrams, and it should not be for-
gotten that the vividness of impressions diminishes as their number
increases.
The second group of practical exercises may be termed observa-
tional. Most of them are studies of real things. Picture study is an
imperfect substitute, but the substitution is often unavoidable. We
cannot see the Alps or the Alhambra in America. I judge that enough
pictures are used in teaching geography — perhaps too many. If the
pupil is shown a great number of pictures rapidly, no clear mental
pictures are retained.
My suggestion is :
First, a careful selection of a relatively small number of clear pic-
tures which present truly typical scenes at home and abroad. Second,
that these pictures be used for actual study, each picture being accom-
panied by a few written (|uestions which shall direct the pupil's atten-
tion to the salient things in the picture.
Regarding the study of relief models and contoured maps little need
be said. Teachers find them so generally lacking in the human and
life elements that they do not appeal to younger children. Secondary
and collegiate students may use tlieni to marked advantage.
The study of raw materials of manufacture and their products in
various stages of completion, and also the study of common rocks,
ores, soils, etc., may or may not be highly profitable. It is a noticeable
fact that when these objects are taken from the school collection and
studied, interest soon lags. On the other liand, it is equally noticeable
that if the specimens were collected by these pupils themselves, they
are a genuine center of interest. They study them and talk about
them eagerly. They may yawn over a lesson on specimens brought
from the school museum, but be on the qui vive of interest over like
specimens which they themselves have collected on a trip. In observa-
tional studies, interest is absolutely essential to good results; only
the interested observer really sees what he looks at.
The last and most important phase of practical work in school
geography is found in the visits to mills, quarries, markets, river
^yS THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
banks, falls, or anywhere else where the pupils may see with their own
eyes the actual things and processes about which they are studying in
geography. As a trip to Europe differs from the printed description
of such a trip, so, in a general way, does field geography differ from
book geography. Weather observations, systematically made and
recorded, form the reasonable basis for elementary meteorological
studies. These studies of things just as we find them is the most valu-
able kind of education. In large cities and with large classes, field
trips are, of course, so difficult to provide for that most teachers do not
undertake them. However, we found in the recent session of the
Cornell Summer School of (Jeography that more than half of the
teachers present make a practice of taking their classes on field trips
or factory visits, and practically all of these teachers were from large
cities. 1 asked a groat many of them, '^ Do you really feel that these
trips pay for tlie time and trouble involved?" and 1 received in all
only one negative answer. But the fuller discussion of field work in
geography is assigned to another, and 1 must not encroach.
I have used or seen used in the class room every exercise recom-
mended above. 1 have faith in thom. They are, however, means to
an end and not an end in thomselvos. Their value in ])ractical use
will depend uj)()n the clearness with which tlie teaclier sees the end
which she is really aiming at in using them; the definiteness of her pur-
pose and plan; and her good sense in deciding what to use and what
not to use.
srMMAHV
1. Scientific teacliing calls for the first-hand study of things wher-
ever possible— the laboratory method.
2. Physical geogra|)hy lends itself to laboratory treatment, but
not to the same extent as do some of tlie other sciences.
.*! Tn general geography most of the facts must be gained by
studying about things ratlier tluiii by studying the things themselves.
4. The valu(^ of geogra|)hical study is increased by the u.'^e of
available field and laboratory excM'cises. These are both manual and
observational.
.'). Maj) sketcliing and outline-nuip (»xercises by pupils are a
valuable means of expressing and impressing geographical ideas and
n convenient means by which the teacher may test the accuracy
of the pu|)irs knowledge.
G. (Iraphic representation tlirough diagrams aids in correcting
faulty notions and in getting correct id(»as where statistics are involved.
I904 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN HIGH SCHOOLS %JQ
7. The systematic study of pictures is a profitable form of geo-
grai)hical work.
8. Relief models and contoured maps are better adapted to sec-
ondary and collegiate students than to elementary students.
9. The study of specimens of any kind is most satisfactory when
the pupils collect the specimens which they study.
10. Field trips, whenever possible, are the most valuable form
of all practical work in geography.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN HIGH SCHOOLS*
IJY MARY I. PL ATT
High School, Brookline, Masn.
PHYSICAL geography, though in one sense as old as the hills
themselves, has been looked upon and is still considered a com-
paratively new subject. It has a brief past, a period which was
not formative and preparatory, but which rather represented a cycle
of inactivity preceding renewed activity or revival. Its present we
are in the midst of — a i)eri()d also l)rief — cliaracterized by activity and
accomplishment such as should be characteristic of the youth of any
life — characterized also undoubtedly by some of the mistakes which
necessarily accompany experiment. Toward its future we are now
looking forward, to be characterized, we hope, by increased activity
and accomplishment, by steadiness and stability also. It is my pur-
pose in the following paper to give very l)riefly an accoiuit of the past,
the present, and of what we hope for in the future of physical geogra-
phy in the high schools of our country. Twenty years ago physical
geography was a subject which appeared in the curriculum of public
and private schools as one to be pursued for a teri;i of from sixteen to
twenty weeks if so elected })y the |)upils themselves. These pupils had
passed through the preliminary steps of political geography in tlie
grammar schools, where the emphasis had probably been laid upon
arbitrary memory efforts in the study of political and natural features,
and now found themselves confronted with new and more difficult
problems in their high -school geography.
To the standard text-book of that time (Cluyot's) the modern phys-
ical geography owes much, and to it also, 1 believe, many of the more
mature students and teachers of i)hys*cal geography trace their first
* Presented before the Educational Section of the Eighth International Geo-
graphic Congress.
380 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
interest in the subject and their first inspiration along such lines.
Concise, interesting, vivid, giving cause and effect their due share in
the treatment of the successive problems of physical geography, those
of us who studied or taught it still find its very language coming often
to our lips, making a ready tool for rapid work. Other books most
frecjuently used two decades ago were Warren's and Maury's. These
books were all similar in style — in outer form the type geography of
our childhood; within, the subject-matter was arranged in double col-
umns of alternating coarse and fine print, with no attempt at illustra-
tion. They were much less attractive to the eye than our newer books.
The problems which, when strictly classified, we designate as meteoro-
logical were less empirical than those of physical geography proper.
Here, however, explanation was not omitted — on the contrary, much
more difficult explanations were given than are now attempted. It
was not upon the text-books, then, that the burden of responsibility
for the unsatisfactory condition of the subject in schools rested. This
was divided between the school authorities, who gave the subject no
consideration, and the teacher, who, chosen for convenience sake, was
often wholly unfitted for the work.
As a result of this low standing of the subject, and the low standards
set for the teacher, the i)resentation naturally lacked much that we
now consider essential. The method was ])urely a text-book method.
Each topic was j)resented as a complete luiit — a chapter to be opened,
committed, and finished with little reference to the preceding or to the
future topics; cause and consecjuence were but little dwelt upon, and
the laboratory method was ])ractically unheard of. Notwithstanding
the adverse conditions under which it labored, physical geography
was considered an interesting study from the very character of the
subject-matter. The whole thing lacked vitality — lacked reality. It
was presented as a series of spectacles, the most sensational being most
emphasized and longest renuMnbered. Too much emphasis was laid
upon externals — too little uj)oii structure, process, and gradual change,
the idea of the inipernianence of the everlasting hills was scarcely
grasped, and tlie classification of land forms according to their ])hase
of development was not attem|)ted. Systematic botany and zoology
were at their zenith, but classification in geography was almost ])urely
ar})itrary and based upon externals. Only great teachers recognized
any other. Outdoor observations were purely accidental or incidental
at the best, and there was only the most casual connection between
the actual outdoors and the mountains and hills, the rivers and valleys
1904
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN HIGH SCHOOLS 38 I
of the book. Definitions were much insisted upon, and partook of the
general empirical character of the teaching; they were most arbitrary
and quite satisfactory if one could accept them.
The aim of the teaching of physical geography was a somewhat
shifting one, in keeping with its transitory position in the course. It
could hardly have been called a culture subject, nor was it as discipli-
nary as some of the other sciences of the schools. It was too often a
stop-gap or a makeshift, and its results tallied closely with the skill
and effort put into the work of preparation and teaching.
During the last fifteen years, or perhaps, more accurately speaking,
during the last ten years, physical geography has made great progress.
First, in popularity — it is now taught in nearly all good city schools,
and appears on the curriculum in many of the smaller schools of New
England and New York, while the Central West is undoubtedly more
progressive in this respect than is the East. Its popidarity among
pupils has increased also with its wider field and with the improved
methods and facilities for teaching. Its appeal to pupils, whether of
mature or immature minds, is uncjuestioned.
Its position in the school course is a varying one, but it is a much
more secure one than formerly. Ordinarily it is offered as an elective,
in some schools to the first-year pupils, in others to those of the second
year, while in others it is taught as a more advanced sul)ject to the
juniors and seniors, or again it may be given early in the course and
then reviewed and enlarged upon later in preparation for college.
There is something to be said in favor of each of these methods, even
from a disinterested standpoint, and in view of the needs and require-
ments of each individual school there is much to be said as a reason
for putting it either in the first, second, or third years. In a year's
study of physical geography, whether it be early or late in the course,
we find it practicable to study type land-forms, to describe them, fol-
low their history, classify them, learn something of their human value,
and finally to apply the type to other lands. We study briefly the
ocean with its main features and motions, and lastly the atmosphere
and its phenomena. This study is, of course, all elementary, and yet
the results attained compare very favorably with those in more
advanced classes — they are encouraging and very real. It enables
the pupils to interpret what they have already seen; it opens their
eyes and their minds to much that they have never seen; it arouses a
questioning attitude and a new alertness; it makes travel doubly
interesting and it is not easily forgotten. I have put elementary
o
82 THK JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY October
meteorolofiy last in order as 1 do in teaching, but it is by no means
last in importance or interest, and should be included in every
course in physical geography, no matter how elementary.
Within tht last ten years, also.'^new text-books have been published
which mark a new epoch in the teaching of physical geography. Put
forth by men of acknowledged attainments and leadership, the best
ones among them bear the hall mark of authority. Attractive in
form, scientific and accurate, and increasingly practical, our present-
day text-book in physical geograi)hy marks the most rapid advance in
value and the quality of teachableness. The very nomenclature of the
modern text-book is in itself an indication of the difference between
the new and the old in physical geography. Doctor Crothers has said
in a recent essay that a noun is known by the adjectives it keeps, and
this is (juite as true in physical geography as in literature. A young
river or a drowned river, a young or a sul)dued mountain, at once con-
veys a picture to the present-day student of physical geography. But
a few years ago such nouns did not keep company with such adjectives,
and the terms would have been quite unintelligible even to students
of tlie sid)ject. Cuesta and JVneplain are new nouns which convey
their own meaning without associating adjectives. Progress has been
made also in supplementary material to which pupils may be sent as
to original sources. This is in the form of monographs on geogra])hical
subjects and state and town geograj^hies or geologies, all of them too
few in number, considering their excellence.
Tiider the guidance of some of the more recent of our best text-books
pliysical geography must be taught as a laboratory subject, and is at
once taken out of the reahn of the abstract and the empirical. Labo-
ratory work and laboratory e(iui|)ment have made less rapid advance
than text-books, and along this line there is the most inviting field for
l)rogressive work. Field work as a branch of laboratory work also
offers most promising opportunities for tlu^ activity of original minds.
In the presentation of a sul)ject wliich has the status of physical
geography in the high schools of to-day the teacher is a most important
(dement ; this is undoubtedly true always, but less strikingly so in sub-
jects where lines of work are already very definitely laid out. The
work of physical geography demands a teacher technically trained,
progn^ssive. jutlicious in experiment, enthusiastic, and open-minded.
With the emphasis now laid upon professional training, the increasing
d(»mand for technical pre|)aration. and the increased opportunities for
j)r(»paration along special lines, the iuind)er of teachers especially
i9<y PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN HIGH SCHOOLS 383
prepared for this subject is increasing, and with this improvement in
the teaching force the quality of work done has also improved. In
the more advanced schools, a college course, years of special study on
the subject, or summer study at home or abroad, now fit the teacher
of physical geography.
Both the impulse toward better work on the part of the teacher and
the opportunities for doing better work have come from above rather
than below. Because to our leading colleges, and oftentimes to single
individuals in those colleges, do we owe both inspiration and oppor-
tunity. Harvard, Cornell, Chicago, and Colund)ia, and an increasing
number of other colleges, now give courses in geography which are most
valuable to teachers and advanced students, while the summer schools
offer opportunities for brief but intensive work to the larger number
who cannot avail themselves of the full college courses. To college
professors also we owe our text-books, and, in large measure, our
present tendency toward laboratory work.
If in all or most of our high schools these things were true; that
there was laboratory ec|ui])ment for physical geography; that it occu-
pied an acknowledged place in the school course; that abundant time
was given to it; that the text-book was scientific and satisfactory, and
the whole subject in the hands of a competent teacher, then we might
say that physical geogra])hy had indeed made great strides. These
things are true in many schools, and increasingly true each year, but
the fact remains that there are also many schools — some of them
among the largest and best ecjuipped — where methods of teaching pre-
vail which are more representative of the past than of the present —
a condition of things which is the result of the ])lan of school
administration. In such schools insufhcient time is given to the sub-
ject; it is frequently introduced in the school course to serve a tem-
porary exigency; no trained teacher is provided, and in some cases no
text-book. This, however, is not a permanent condition — it simply
means that the whole subject is in a transitional stage. A lecture
course in a high school or a brief course based wholly on the book is
merely a begimiing, which must soon of necessity lead to better things.
The conditions now are very hopeful, and I feel almost inclined to say
that those who shape the work in ])hysical geography at the present
day hold the schools in the hollow of their hands. College preparatory
high schools, where the traditions are most strongly classical, have
introduced and are introducing physical geography as a subject open-
ing a comparatively new and hopeful field. Schools which offer a
384 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
general course for the sake of numbers of pupils, who finish their school
career with the high school, have introduced it or are ready to do so,
as a practical subject suited to the needs of many pupils. Schools
which attempt to do both these things must of necessity make it a part
of their work and the manual training schools also. There is a very
wholesome attitude of mind among people in general toward outdoor
subjects, an attitude, too, which demands a certain vitality in our
treatment of outdoor things, a breadth, and strength, and largeness
such as can well be used when one studies the big things of nature.
The course of the high school itself is in a somewhat unsettled
stage; old traditions are giving way and much that is new is being
added. The work in the New (ieography, so called, has been nota-
ble for its individuality, if 1 may so term it; one man in a college here
and there has sent out teachers who, acting in the inspiration thus
received, have carried the work to widely separated schools. This
work has been individual not only in the sense of large dependence
upon one personality, but both methods and results have been stamped
with individuality.
This period has had the advantage of independence and oppor-
tunity and so it will continue to have. Until very recently no effort has
been made to unify the subject work in any way. X'aluable sugges-
tions leading to greater uniformity of treatment have been made by
the Committee of Ten. Tlie outlines prepared by the National Educa-
tional Association and by the College P'.xamination Hoard have also
been stei)s toward a certain uniformity, and in New England informal
conferences, particii)ate(l in by teachers of geography and geology,
have looked toward the same end. This individuahstic phase through
which we are j)assing is about to give way to a period of greater unity.
We have been working toward the same ends, but we have pursued
diverse means, l^y experiment, comparison, ami elimination we have
established certain principles of work, even in the laboratory and fichl
work when* the greatest diviTgence has existed. From our various
(\\])eriences T think we may saf(^ly be said to agree on a few simple
fundamental j)rin(*ip]es. Among others, that the subject should be
largely a laboratory subject; that the laboratory work should consist
partly of outdoor work, the character of the latter to be largely con-
trolled by the natural featuns^ of the locality; that the time given to it
should e(|ual if not exceed that given to text-book work; that it should
follow tlie order of subjects as given in recitations and should precede
tlie recitation if possible. Our work should proceed from the general
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY IN HIGH SCHOOLS
385
to the specific, aiming to cultivate power of inference, independence
in thought, practical observation, and the ability to visualize from
type forms. It should acquaint the pupil by means of description,
map, or model with a large number of type forms, which he will at the
end be able to classify and extend to a wider application. Both text-
book work and the laboratory work should be most definitely laid out
in order to obtain the best results when deaUng with the immature
minds of our high-school children.
Some believe that the text-book of physical geography is still to be
written, and as this is undcmbtedly true of all subjects in the school
curriculum, it must needs be true in so new a field as the new geogra-
phy. The great need of the immediate future is a laboratory book
which shall follow quite definitely the order of work in our best text-
books. Such a book would be of the greatest help in systematizing
the subject and also in giving courage to teachers who have not had
special training, and who dread to initiate work with which they are
themselves unfamiliar. A beginning has been made and the need
will soon be met by a satisfactory l^ook of suggestion and outline. I
hope the time will never come when forty exercises in physical geogra-
phy shall be laid down as a necessity for the secondary schools sending
pupils to college, for from the very nature of our laboratory work and
material no arbitrary outlines can be followed in detail. Outdoor
observations on the Atlantic coastal plain must of necessity differ
from corresponding work in the old land of New Kngland or the delta
of the Mississippi. Among our immediate needs, also, J would place
additional monographs on geographical subjects, and an increasing
number of state and town geographies, all of them up to the standard
of those at present published.
The position of physical geography in the school curriculum must
be a surer one, though not necessarily an unchangeable one, that can
only be dictated by the needs of the individual school. More time
also is needed for its pro])er development. In schools which give the
most attention to the subject a year is now allowed for it, and this is
well; but if an opportunity could be given to large numbers of the
entering class in high schools to study physical geography in an ele-
mentary way, and then this could be followed by a half year of
advanced study later in the course, it would be better. In the crowded
condition of the high-school course 1 doubt if this woidd be practicable
in many schools. The value of physical geography being proved both
as an informational and disciplinary subject, our experts in school
386 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
administration will in the end give it a recognized place. Let the
number of schools where geography is taught increase just as rapidly
as it can be taught and taught well. It is already popular in large
schools; it ought also to extend to country schools. It can be taught
without elaborate equipment in such schools where working material
is ready at hand and where outdoor observations can be most easily
made.
As the years go on and the need both of professional and technical
training among teachers is made more manifest in the schools, this
demand will extend with even greater force to the teaching of physical
geography, and knowing something of the liberal manner in which the
teaching ranks are recuperated each year we need not fear a dearth of
teachers with the necessary equipment even in this comparatively
new field.
The teacher of the next few years will still have great opportunities
for original work and will at the same time have as a foundation for
work the practical results of others' experience. He will find a
stronger popular sentiment in favor of natural sciences and a greater
willingness on the part of school authorities and among the pupils to
work experimentally both out of doors and indoors, and the subject
will all the time be a progressive one. An opj)()rtunity to watch
development and to see actual results is a greater opportunity than
that of taking a subject at its height and with only the possibility of
kee])ing it up to that point or struggling against its decline. Without
desiring that the work in physical geography shall be one of absolute
uniformity, it will yel be an improvement in the future to maintain a
greater uniformity of general j)rincii)les, a more vigorous attack and
a sur(»r touch in treat menl to emphasize the process of growth and
change, to recognize* the human side more fully, and to build up a
system of classification which shall enable the student to grasp the
sul)ject more comprehensively and give to him a working standard
with whicli to measure the world wide.
We look back upon a period of disintegration and decay, when old
methods proved their futility and gave way before the new. We are
in tlu» midst of a period marked by experiment, by rapid growth and
accomplishment. We look forward to a period of increased vitality,
increased accom|)lishment. increased certainty.
J904
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES ^Sy
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
State Geography — Cause and Effect — Search Questions. — The fol-
lowing questions were prepared with two aims in view: First, to aid
in the intensive study of one's own state; second, to aid the pupil in
gaining an appreciation of the *' causal sequence" in geography.
The questions are designed for use in the later part of the grammar
school course, w^hen the home state is being studied in detail, as is done
in many schools. In the New Jersey State Model School this is done
in the eighth, or last, year.
1 . To what extent did physical conditions determine the boundaries
of the stat^? Note Michigan and New Jersey for examples.
2. Did the physiography of the state favor or hinder early explora-
tion and settlement? Note, for example, the contrast between Ohio
and West Virginia in this particular.
3. What valleys, passes, gaps, or rivers favored travel in the early
days? Note, for example, the Cumberland (lap and the Mohawk
Valley.
4. What barriers retarded travel and still do? Note, for example,
the mountains of Pennsylvania or the (,'umberland Plateau of Tennes-
see.
5. What natural routes of travel has the state? These are gener-
ally river valleys or lakes.
6. To what extent have these become trade routes? Are the
valleys occupied by railways? By canals?
7. To what extent are the large cities and the manufacturing
industries found along these natural highways of travel? For example,
nearly all of New York's large cities are along tlie route of the Erie
Canal and New York Central Railroad.
8. Does the state occupy an advantageous positicm for commerce
and manufacturing? For instance. New Jersey's greatest asset is its
position between New York and Pennsylvania.
9. In what ways has the state's position proved advantageous for
trade and manufacturing? Contrast, for instance, Maine and X'ermont
with Connecticut and Ohio.
10. To w^hat extent has the industrial development of the state
been affected by its mountains? Have the Adirondacks and Catskills
of New York, for example, been a help or hindrance to tlie develop-
ment of the state? What of the mountains of Pennsylvania. West
Virginia, Colorado?
388 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
11. If the state was covered by the great continental glacier, what
have been the chief effects of the glaciation, (a) as to soil, (6) as to
drainage, (c) as to waterfalls and water power, (d) as to clay deposits
of commercial value?
12. What are the leading factors in determining the climate of
the state? What is the average annual rainfall?
13. Show how the farming industries of the state are influenced
by the climate and rainfall. Note, for example, the Chautauqua
grape belt of New York, the tobacco area of Connecticut, the wheat
belt of Kansas.
14. To what extent are the rivers of the state used for commerce?
For water power? In the lumber industry?
15. What are the great natural resources of the state (soil,
forests, minerals, water power, fisheries)?
16. Trace the relation between the natural resources and the
manufactures of the state. In some states, as North Carolina or Minne-
sota, there is a close relationship between the productions of the state
and its maiuifactures; in others, as New Jersey, there is only a slight
connection.
17. To what extent are the manufactures of the state influenced
by the nearness of great markets like New York and Philadelphia?
Note, for exain|)le, the manufactures of Connecticut and New Jersey.
IS. What cities of the state are noted for a particular kind of
numufacturing? For example, Faterson, for silk; P]ast Liverpool.
Ohio, for pottery: Minneapolis, for flour.
19. Is tliere a natural reason for the concentration of these iiuUis-
tries in tliose particular cities? What is that reason?
20. What cities in the state are ])redominantly commercial cities?
What ones are prcMloniinantly manufacturing cities?
21. What parts of the state are especially engaged in (a) fruit-
growing. (/;) (hiirying, (c) gardening, (d) lumbering, (c) general farming.
(/) special farming? Wliat are tlie cliief reasons in each case?
22. Has the state valuable mineral deposits, as coal, iron. salt,
petroleum, etc? How liave these affected the growth of the state in
(a) population, (h) wealth, (r) manufacturing, (d) railroad mileage?
23. Has the develoj>nient of the state been rapid, slow, uniform,
or intermittent? What are the reasons? What advantage's has it for
future growth? Why?
24. Are the effects of canals and railroads in developing the state
plainly visible? Note, for exam])le, the effect of the Erie Canal in
New "i'ork.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 389
25. How has the physiography of the state affected canal and rail-
road building? Contrast, for example, the difficulties to railroad
building in the mountain and plateau states with those in the prairie
states.
26. What great trunk-line railroads traverse the state? Note the
route or routes followed by them and account for the selection of the
routes.
27. Are the great cities of the state all on trunk-line railroads?
Is there a good reason for this? Explain.
28. If yours is a seacoast state, has the coast been rising or sinking
in the past? What effect has this had upon harbors? Contrast the
drowned coast of Maine with the rising coast of New Jersey or the
Carolinas, for example.
29. How has the presence or absence of good harbors affected the
commercial development of the state? Show why trunk-line railroads
seek to have termini on good harbors.
30. If the state is bordered by one of the Great Lakes or by the
Mississippi River, show how this has influenced the industries of the
state.
31. How has the physiography of the state or its position affected
its part in the nation's history? For example, the Champlain Valley
of New York has been the scene of eleven military campaigns. The
valley is a natural highway between Canada and the North Atlantic
States.
32. On the whole, what natural causes have been most important
in promoting the growth of the state in population, wealth, and indus-
try? R. H. Whitbeck.
The Geographical Field in Indiana. — The discussion of geographical
subjects in text-books is usually so general or so bnef that unless the
work can be supplemented by nuich work in the local field for the
purpose of illustrating, verifying, and objectifying the points studied
the results may be vague and disappointing.
Home geography is particularly vahiable to the beginner, wliose
knowledge may be appropriately developed in literal harmony with
the pedagogical maxim, "Proceed by easy steps, from the near to the
more remote — from the known to the closely related unknown. '*
The study of Indiana geography would thus become one of the
essential topics of the subject. In the school geographies used in the
State the Indiana sup])lement usually appended should be jnade the
center of most careful and complete study.
590 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Ocioter
In tliis connection a brief outline of the geographical processes,
features, and relations to he observed and studied in the State may
profitably be considered by teachers of the subject.
In general the surface features of the State depend upon the position
of the rock strata of the region. These were formed of sediment from
some land surface carried by streams and currents into a sea which
overspread that ])art of the earth's surface now comprising the greater
part of the Mississippi ])asin. These rock layers are estimated to be
from three to five thousand feet thick in Indiana. They slo|>e or dip
gently to tlie southwest. They are composed of shales, sandstones,
limestones, and conglomerates. Observation of these rocks may be
made in places where streams have cleared away the loose soil from
the surface of the underlying rock or where holes have been drilled in
searcli of gas, oil, water, or coal. If a hole could be drilled through the
stratified rocks, igneous or nu»tamorphic rocks would be found below.
In tlie southwest(Tn part of the State seams of coal arc interstratified
with the beds of rock. In tlie east central part the rocks penetrated
by the drill give forth accunudations of gas and oil, probably derived
from the fossil remains of animals formerly living in the sea and
entombed in the rocks as tli(\v were forming.
As soon as the lan<l rose above the surface of the .sea in which the^o
rocks were formed, streams took their way across its surface and began
to trench their channels into the earth. The agents of weathering began
to l)reak up. dissolve, and oxidize the rocks so that a mantle of loose
material was gradually formed where not swept away by nnming
water, wind, or by its own weight on steep slopes. By the.se different
processes the surface was gradually changed from a comparatively
smooth plain to a country of hills an<l valleys. Tlie surface was roughest
where the rocks were hardest, for there the streams made narrow,
steep-sided valleys and left high, steep ridges between. A belt of such
hard rock e\t(Mids from near \ew Albany in the southtTii part of the
State in a northwest direction through Floyd. Washington. Jackson,
and Brown countic^s, forming a chain of high, rough hills called "knobs."
These hills are only the most conspicuous of a very rough region em-
braced in the counties named and in several others to the west and
southwest. This is an excellent region for the study of valleys. The
surfacf* has been literally cut to pieces in all directions. Along the
valley side's the edges of the rock strata correspond in nund)er, order,
and kind, indicating their former continuity. Over the wh(de State
this work of valley making has ])rogressed, Init the farther north wc
1904
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 39 I
go the smaller the valleys become because there they are much younger,
as is the whole surface.
Streams and their valleys are valuable features for observation
because of their occurrence in close proximity to all points. They
furnish examples of great variety, with their numerous features, such
as flood-plains, terraces, sandbars, islands, falls, gorges, etc.
The northern part of the State was formerly much rougher than at
present, resembling, probably, the present hilly southern region. This
was before a comparatively recent and very important event in the
physical history of the State. This was what is called the ** glacial
period.'' The chmate from some cause not certainly known became
colder and a great sheet of ice began to gather in the region of Hudson
Bay and creep southward, bringing with it the soil and stones of the
region whence it came.
This creeping ice-sheet ground and scraped the rocks in its course
and many elevations were lowered, while in many places the valleys
were filled with the debris of the glacier called "glacial drift." This
drift covers about five-sixths of the State to a depth averaging one
hundred feet. A depth of five hundred feet has l)een found near Ken-
dallville. Noble County. This material in most places is clay with
stones of various sizes and many kinds mixed through it. The boulders
scattered here and there, over many fields in the glaciated region, are
among the most easily and connnonly observed signi; of glacial action.
These stones are generally of igneous origin and must on that account
have been brought from l)ey()nd tlie borders of the State, as no igneous
rocks are native to Indiana. Many of these boulders are planed and
grooved by being dragged along in the bottom of the glacier. Any
gravel pit or road cut, and many plowed fields, will furnish a collection
of dozens of varieties of rocks, such as granite, gnei.ss, syenite, lava,
quartz, etc. Occasional masses of copper, grains of gold, diamonds, and
other precious stones are found in digging wells. It is (piite common
to find portions of tre<\s at various depths up to fifty or sixty feet. It
should be remembered that in the northern two-thirds of the State the
people dig cellars, wells, and ditches, plow, dig, and plant in the glacial
drift. They make nnid pies of it as children, and are buried in it after
having lived upon it all their lives.
The surface of the drift region, though monotonously smooth, is
diversified here and there by various superficial features. Among these
are moraines or ridges of clay or gravel formed along the edge of the
ice-sheet at many places as it melted away. These moraines are often
292 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY Oct(»ber
discernible only as gentle, wavelike undulations, but they are generally
found in ranges or belts extending across the country for long distances.
They arc numerous and conspicuous in the northeastern part of the
State, where several concentric ridges run roughly parallel with the
west shores of Lake Erie. An inuiiensc moraine parallels the shore of
Lake Michigan at a distance of ten or fifteen miles from it. All hills,
mounds, and ridges in the drift region except the sand dunes and ridges
in the northwestern part are morainic in character. Care must be
taken not to confuse these features with the bluffs found along the
streams in all parts of the State.
Many of the morainic ridges are partly composed of sand and gravel,
and domes or mounds of this material frequently form the most con-
spicuous elevations. Some of these heaps of gravel fonn the highest
points in many square miles of area. They are often more or less per-
fectly stratified, and the pebbles in them are smooth, rounded, of many
varieties, and generally of igneous origin. These facts show that the
piles are due to running water, probably streams nuining off the e<lge
of the ice or into holes or cracks in it and filling them \^-ith sand and
gravel washed from the ice. When the glacier finally melted away
the heaps became rounded down by gravity and weathering into their
present outlines. Sometimes the sand and gravel have been deposite<l
in extensive shoots, })r()hably as deltas at the edge of the ice. Moraine.*^
composed mainly of sand and gravel are called *' kames." Examples are
abundant and any gravel \)\t not in ji stream valley will repay a visit.
Cotton Cultivation. — The recent shortage in the supply of Amer-
ican cotton has led to an investigation of the possibilities of growing
cotton in other |)arts of the world, so that (Ireat Britain, and other
countries as well, may not l)e dependent upon the Tnited States. A
l^ritish l)lue l)ook has l)een issued recently which is devoted to ''Cot-
ton Cultivation in the Hritish lOmpire and Egypt." In this volume
the present condition of cotton production in the areas named is
summarized. The re|)ort will prove valuable to a large number of
persons. Among the most |)roniising of the experimental districts
for the growth of cotton the following are named: British Central
African Protectorate, Cganda, the West African Colonies and pro-
tectorates, the West Indies, and perhaps Fiji, British North Borneo,
and Cy|)rus.
Ju a ])aper read before the Manchester Statistical Society on Feb-
ruary loth last, Mr. .1. A. llutton, vice-chairman of the British Cotton
(Irowing Association formed in June, 1903, for the promotion of
I904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 393
cotton fields within the British Empire, made an encouraging report
upon the results and the prospects of cotton cultivation in Nyassa-
land. The climatic conditions are there favorable, the wet season
from November to April favoring germination and growth, and the dry
season securing good conditions in the picking. — Scot. Geog. Mag., July,
1904. R. DeC. W.
The Winter of 1903-04 in the Great Lakes Region. — The winter
of 1903-04 was the coldest that has been experienced in the Lake
Region since the beginning of the Weather Bureau observations in
1871. It was characterized by severe and continuously cold weather,
devoid of thaws on the one hand and of periods of exceedingly low
temperatures on the other. Individual months with lower monthly
mean temperatures are on record, and lower minimum temperatures
have also been registered, except in western New York. The precip-
itation was almost wholly in the form of snow, the snowfall being
above normal in all districts; the greatest excess, 4S inches, was in
the Huron Basin. The ice on the lakes was larger in amount than
usual; the ice fields were more extensive and disappeared later than
during recent years. In Lake Superior the lighthouse supply steamer
^' Amaranth^' was fast in the ice off Whitefish Point as late as May 22,
1904. Although certain newspapers reported that the lake was
frozen over solid during the winter, such was not the case. In Lake
Michigan the Ann Arbor car ferries were caught in an ice field and
imprisoned for nearly two months off Two River Point, Wis., and
there was considerable difficulty in operating steamers between Chi-
cago and Milwaukee and between Milwaukee and Grand Haven. In
Lake Erie a car ferry was imprisoned in the ice off Conneaut from
January 2d until March 11th, when it was destroyed by fire. The
Meteorological Chart of the Great Lakes, No. 1, 1904, from which these
fact* are taken, contains some excellent illustrations of the ice in
the lakes. R. DeC. W.
Bermuda. — Area and Population. — The area of the colony of Ber-
muda is about eighteen square miles, of which about 3,000 acres are
under cultivation. Its length is twenty-six miles; its width (in the
^^ddest part), three and one-half miles; its shape, that of a fishhook.
There are two ports, St. George, at the eastern end of the land, and
Hamilton, in the center, inside the great sound.
The permanent population is about 17,500; to this may be added
the strength of the garrison, laborers on public works, the naval and
394 THK JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
(lockyanl rrmtingeiit. ami officials anil their families, estimated at,
say, o.OfK).
The Xorth Atlantic scjuadron (British), which remains in these
waters but a part of the year, may have on board from 1,500 to double
that numlM»r. deiXMiding on the fleet of ships that may come into the
ports.
The tourist element is to be counted on as adding, according to
the records in the steamer company's offices, some 2,500 more that
visit these islands in a twelvemonth.
Import.9 — The local dealer therefore has as a basis on which to
make his estimates for the season's business a local and transient
population of about 27,000 people.
For these reasons the imports of Bermuda are comparatively
very large, those for the calendar year 1902 amounting to $2,65S.41S.
of which the imports from the United States amounted to $1,583,714;
from the I'nited Kingdom. $746,906; and from Canada, $246,511.
The nearness of Xew ^'ork insures prompt ilelivery of goods and
enables dealers to visit freciuently the northern markets.
Commercial travelers know the trade and are prompt in availing
themselves of opportunities for placing orders.
The Dominion of Canada also comes in for a share of this trade,
via tlie Halifax and St. John lines of steamers.
The I'nited Kingdom and the continent of Europe supply princi-
|)ally the finer woolen and silk and fancy dress goods.
Products and Kjcports. — IkTmuda holds a unique place in the
western world, it is a little country, with absolutely no manufac-
tures or railways, with agriculture alone as its industry (the annual
c\|)()rt ol" j)()tatoes, onions, bulbs, and vegetables being about $500,-
()()()), with no l)usiness but that of selling goods at retail and in a
limited way the warehousing of wines and spirits; nevertheless Ber-
muda is of importance in the Western Hemisphere.
Birmndftn Dcjcnscs. — It is the western outi)ost of the J^ritish
I^m|)ire, considered impregnable, well defended by fortifications,
l)ut more* completely by its chain of reefs that can only be passed
through in daylij^ht, needing then a skilled pilot to guide all vessels
into j)ort.
On tlic land the imperial government is carrying on large and
imj)ortant works. At the naval station and dockyard the appro-
j)riati()n of €.')()(),()()() ($2.4:^:^.250) was made, to be expended in five
yrars. otlier hirge ap|)ro|)riations have been made, and for very
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 395
heavy amounts, for fortifications, barracks, officers' quarters, and
other public works, all of which work is now started and some is well
under way. The weekly pay rolls for this work is largely spent in
the towns and means business activity and prosperity to all classes
of the population.
Bermuda as a Health Resort. — Bermuda is also a favorite winter
resort for a large number of strangers who come hither to escape
the rigor of a northern climate, and who spend their money freely
in every conceivable way. Of late years a crowd of visitors come
in the summer months, eager to enjoy all the delights that Hermuda
offers so bountifully. All this brings trade to the stores, life and
activity everywhere — to hotels, boarding and lodging houses, and
to the farmer and the artisan, and added to the great outlay of money
made by the national government may explain why it is that Ber-
muda can afford to import so heavily, pay its bills, and continue
to prosper.
Eggs and Poultry. — The imports of eggs and poultry seem to l)e
inexplicable, considering the ease with which poultry can be raised
here. In 1902 there was imj)orted in eggs alone some SS.OOO worth,
and poultry in proportion, and this was done even with a duty on
eggs, recently imposed, of 0 cents per dozen. The price of this
commodity never goes l)el()\v 30 cents per dozen and that for a
short time only, soon rising to 50 or 60 cents per dozen. It would
seem that here is an opportunity for some skilled and enterprising
man to establish a paying himuoi^^.— Consular Reports, March, 1904.
Poultry and Eggs.— Few people have any adecjuate idea of the
extent of this vast industry, because it is generally considered on a
small scale as a mere side issue to something else. N'iewed in the
aggregate the totals are so vast as to recpiire comparison with other
great industries to aid the struggling comprehension to grasp the
situation.
The latest available statistics show that hist year the poultry and
eggs produced in the United States were worth more than all the
gold and silver mined in the world during the same year. Kxcept
for the year 1900, the c^g product alone of this country has exceeded
in value that of its coml)ined gold and silver output for every year
since 1S50, which takes in the entire bonanza period of our history.
That, with the poultry i)ro(luct, also exceeds in value the wheat crop
of twenty-eight of the most fruitful states and territories.
-^gS THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
Consider tho discussion raised by politicians over threatened
ruin to beet sug:ar and wool. How earnestly they appealed for higher
tariffs and made protests against reciprocity propositions ! Yet in
1902 our whole sugar production amounted to only about 820»000,-
000, while the wool industry is only about a third as important as
the egg and poultry industry. In Missouri alone, the fourth poultry
state in the Tnion, recent statistics show that the poultry products
in a single year exceeded all the other products of that state combined
by about $17,000.
Prof, (leorge F. Thompson of the agricultural department esti-
mates the total value of the annual output of eggs in tliis countr}-
at 8145,000,000 and the value of poultry at $139,000,000. The
value of the combined poultry and egg product is thus nearly double
that of the precious metals.
Recent statistics show that Iowa easily leads in the production
of eggs, its yearly ])roduct being 100,000,000 dozen. Ohio comes
next with 91,000,000 dozen; Illinois is third wdth 86,000,000 dozen,
and Missouri fourth with 85.000,000 dozen.
A crate of eggs contains thirty dozen. A refrigerator car will
carry about 4,000 such crates. Some one fond of figures calculates
that to transj)ort the annual egg j)ro(Iuclion of the I'nited States
would requin* a train of cars long enough to reach from Chicago to
Washington, S()S miles, and then have a few cars left for another
train. If you like to mix your eggs with multiplicati<ni and division
you can figure out the cornM't solution of the egg train problem.
Pdckint/ Poultnj and Eijtjs. — A single large j)acking comi)any, the
Armour's, lias nearly 100 cold-storage warehouses scattered through
Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska. Most of them are
fully (Mjuij)])ed with machinery for dressing poidtry and employ experts
to examine tin* eggs. A recent writer- thus explains what is done
there :
The buyer who goe> around in a wagon jncking up eggs, chickens,
and butter from the farms and the country grocers brings his load
to one of these cold-storage warehouses, where it is placed in cold
rooms until it can be examined. Every egg and every chicken is
carefully scrutinized. The eggs are divided into three classes. The
" firsts *' are pack(»d in cases nnd ship})e(l by refrigerator cars to Clii-
cago, Omaha, or Kansas City and stored away to remain until they
i\Yv needed. There are storehouses in Chicago that will contain
I^5().()()() such cas(^s. The "seconds" among the eggs are packed
in a similar manner, but are shipped immediately to market, while
tlie "thirds" go to tlie tanneries and other manufacturing establish-
ments to b(» used for various purjK>ses.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 397
Poultry is treated in the same way, and spring chickens are stowed
away until they are needed to meet the winter demands. The "spring"
chickens or ** broilers," as they are better known to the market,
can be had the year round. This is not entirely due to the cold-
storage system, however. The introduction of incubators is respon-
sible for much of it. An incubator can be made to hatch out a brood
at any season of the year, and modern poultry farms are so arranged
that the chicks can be protected from the cold and fattened in
the winter as well as in the spring and summer. Not\\'ithstandi ng
the incubator, October, November, December, and January continue
to be the biggest months for bu\dng poultry, while April and May
are the largest months for eggs.
It is estimated that 4,000,000 cases, each containing thirty dozen
eggs, were stored over last winter in the cold-storage warehouses of
the United States, and 100,000,000 pounds of poultry, killed during
the fall and early winter, were packed away and preserved for the
higher prices of the late winter and spring months. The volume of
this business runs up to the enormous total of over $1,000,000,000
a year.
Cold Storage of E<j(fs. — To-day the prices of eggs are definitely
controlled V)y the cold-storage liouses. The demand seems to be
always ecpial to, if not greater than, the supply. It is estimated
that every five years the consumption of eggs doubles, and only the
success of cold storage keeps down the prices. In cold-storage houses
eggs may be kept for an indefinite time as fresh as if they were just
laid. The secret of success in this matter lies in careful sorting and
packing of the eggs at a uniform temi)erature.
An old picture in the Dresden gallery represents a Dutch house-
wife '* testing eggs," and shows that the modern method was in vogue
more than a hundred years ago, except for the substitution of a strong
electric light for the oil lamp. Tlie interior of the egg is examined
by the light which shines directly through it. If a perfect ball of
rosy red is found floating in clear liquid in a clean shell the egg is
fresh. If there is a slight vacuum at one end it is fresh enough for
ordinary use. Evaporation has set in, l)ut for cake-making and for
many purposes this egg is better than a perfectly fresh one. Finally,
when the egg has decomposed, the yolk sticks to the shell; it is stale
and unfit for use, though it may not be odorous. Eggs which this
test shows to be practically fresh may have been laid for months,
while those that have not been properly stored will not bear *' can-
dling^" though laid only a few weeks before.
The cold-storage houses l)egin to store eggs in February and stop
storing after June until cold weather comes again. In the hot, sultry
^gS THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
weather of August eggs, like all other perishable products, spoil easily,
and are usually unfit for storage purposes by the time they reach
market.
The first eggs to reach the great packing houses come from the
far South. In March the Middle States send in their eggs for storage.
In April and May eggs from the North and Eastern states reach
market in great quantities. Before the end of June there are often
a thousand carloads in market to be stored for the dull season *'\vhen
hens will not lay."
At those packing houses the temperature is kept at thirty degrees
Fahrenheit by means of pipes through which brine circulates, just
as steam does in modern houses. The secret of storing eggs success-
fully consists in keeping tliem at two degrees below freezing point,
in surroundings of s[)olless cleanliness, and in sorting those that have
Ix'gun to ])e stale from the strictly fresh.
PrvjmriiKj Poultry for Market. — The American Cultivator says a
poultryman of Sydney, Ohio, has a contract with a Cleveland com-
mission firm to furnish 100 dozen eggs each day, wdth the date
stamped on them. The contract price is 20 cents a dozen. It is
cortaiidy worth this man's while to have his hens attend strictly to
business, as tliey are ovidcMitly doing, for he is filHng Ids orders as
regularly as clockwork.
This same man has a different contract with another firm. He
agr(»es to furnish daily 300 young chickens weighing one and one-half
|)ounds each, for eating })urposes. He gets S3 per dozen for these
broilers. He managers to keep up with tliis l)ig undertaking by using
thirty improved incubators, that are not all filled at tiie same time,
but are j)roj)ortione(l so that some of them can discharge fresh chicks
o'di'h day. A larg(> and comj)etent (lock of barred Plymouth Rock
hens are kept constantly on duty laying t^ggs with which to stock
th{\^e hatching machines, and 450 eggs are placed in them each day.
In connection with the incubators there is a row of pens nund)eretl
from one to ninety, ivicli day the little chicks from the nuichines
are turned into the first pen. They are advanced one pen each day.
and when the last one is reached they are ninety days old. weigh
one and one-half |)ounds, and are ready for the market. They are
herded from th(^ incubators through all of the pens without being
toucluMJ until ihcy an^ ready for the frying pan. A certain propor-
tion of the eggs do not hatch, nor do all that are hatched five to
make \\\v trij) through the ninety pens, but the percentage of loss is
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
399
comparatively small, and the breeder finds that the 450 eggs which go
into the incubators every day easily net him 300 perfect broilers at
the coops, which are shipped to the city daily from pen No. 90. In
order to carry out this system and meet his contract it will be seen that
the pouJtryman hasjsomething like 13,000 chicks constantly on hand,
to say nothing of the hundreds of dozens of eggs tied up in the incu-
bators, or of the great flock of laying hens that supply the eggs. But
he gets, to market wdth his daily order and is reported to be making
a profit of $25,000 annually.
Studying the Business. — Ry intelligent management, not the kind
that vaguely wonders what sort of luck they'll have this season, but
by a clear understanding of the care of poultry and the various details
of the business, poultry raising, even on a small scale, can be made to
realize what a shrewd business person would deem enormous profits,
often as high as 75 or 80 per cent.
To furnish proficiency an unusual school has been established at
Water\dlle, N. V.. the Columbia School of Poultry Culture, with
college and university graduates on its faculty and special courses
in the care of waterfowl, geese-growing, turkeys, pheasants, guinea
and pea fowls, pigeons, and bees, in addition to the regular course
with chickens. This school is conducted in connection with a poultry
plant that annually raises 5,000 chicks and winters 2,000 layers.
International Egg Trade. — The 1901 issue of the Yearbook of
Agriculture reported more than 233,000,000 chickens on farms in the
United States, and while this poultry and its egg products are mostly
for the home market, yet we make large exports of eggs. The United
Kingdom, the largest importer of poultry and eggs in the world,
buys in nearly twenty countries about 40 per cent of the eggs con-
sumed there. Russia is rated as the largest exporter of eggs in the
world. Japan imports many from China, where they are cheap.
Denmark has a large export egg trade. Many Danish eggs are marked
on the shell with a stamp so the person selling them can be identified
if they are inferior. Italy is a large egg exporter.
It is only recently that we in the United States considered it worth
while to impose a duty on foreign eggs, and when that was done it
was rather to make our tariff schedule symmetrical than because
of any conviction that it was necessary. — Intelligence, March 15, 1904.
4CX) THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY October
EDITORIAL
CLUBS OF GEOGRAPHY TEACHERS
MANY teachers have returned from their summer vacations
full of enthusiasm for geography because they have visited
a new and interesting region, or have come under the inspira-
tion of a leader at some summer school or teachers' institute. They
are full of a desire to make their work in geography more efficient
and to do something to make the value of geography more appreciated
in their conmiunity.
One very helpful way in which advance can be brought about is
through the formation of a club composed of all the teachers in a
community who are osj)ecially interested in geography. Such clubs
have been formed in many places and have proved of great value not
only to the teachers interested, but their work has helped the whole
community. A club to bo effective should be as simply organized
as possible. There should be no long Hsts of officers, and the initial
plans should bo simple and easily accomplished. A leader or a com-
mittee to plan work and keep the movement going, and subcommit-
tees to carry on s|)ecial linos of work, is probably the most effective
organization at tlio beginning. With increased strength and increased
confidonco the plans of work may bo elaborated.
Tlie cliiof advantage of such organizations is the opportunity for
exchanging ideas as to ways of teaching and of becoming better
ac(iuainto(l witli oner's colleagues. The opportunities for mutual
holj) are. however, almost unHmit(Ml. The different committees can
bring to viwh mooting brief summaries of the Hterature pertaining
to llio <liff(M<'nl fields in which th(» individual members are interested.
Such suniniarios should bo |)resentod in such a form that others may
readily make use of tin* references in their class work. Maps and
illustrations should be reviewed in the same way, for no geographv
teaching can bo etTectivo unless based on the best maps and a few of
th(^ best ])ertin(Mit illustrations.
Another way in which stu'h a club can be of help to the individual
inom])ers and to the community is by furnishing suggestions to the
otiicials of the town or city library as to the purchase of geographical
book> for general use. The club can also help by summarizing such
books and bringing {\\vm to tlu^ attention of pupils and parents by
notices ])()st(Ml on the school or library bulletin boards, or both.
Many H])raries contain many books of great value geographically, but
REVIEWS
401
are little used for geographic reference because the resources are
unknown. Many librarians neglect geography or, in their innocence,
buy books that can only be classified geographically as trash, and
would be glad of interested advice even though it be partial.
The opportunities also of helping in organizing a strong course
of study in geography, and in planning and conducting excursions
for pupils and teachers, are almost limitless in any locality. In fact
any club will find so much to do that the danger is they will do little
through tr}dng too many things at once.
There are two primary facts that must be borne in mind by any
club: First, that a few things well done are more beneficial than many
things just touched superficially; and, second, that geography is a
wide subject and should be treated as such. In spite of our school
texts and the advance along certain lines in America within the last
few years, geography is not all physical geography or economic geog-
raphy. Geography, as a subject of discipline or of culture, is many-
sided, and no student of geography, and particularly no teacher of
school geography, can afford to become so much of a specialist in one
branch as to neglect all reference to the other sides of what may be
called general geography.
The editors of the Journal will be glad to know of the organiza-
tion of Teachers' Geography Clubs, and will help in the work in any
ways they can.
REVIEWS
Commercial Geography of the World Outside the British Isles, liv A. J. Her-
bertson. Pp.268. London and Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers,' 1903.
"Herbertson's "Commercial Geography of the World" is a companion volume to
his "Commercial Geography of the British Isles/' published in 1899, and noted in
this Journal, Vol. IV (old series), p. 38.
Teachers in America are, or should be, acquainted with many contributions to
Educational Geograpliy from the pen of Dr. Herbertson, primarily for use in the
United Kingdom, but of great value in America. This latest volume from liis pen
is not as serviceable in America as some of his other volumes, but is a good ))ook of
reference for all.
The first fifty-seven pages fonn an excellent summar>' of the eeneral principles
of geography necessary as a basis for the understanding of regional commercial geog-
raphy to which the rest of the book is devoted. These introductory' chapters are
well arranged, simple and readable, and remind one of his excellent and indispensable
volume entitled "Man and His Work."
The chapters devoted to Regional (Commercial Geography are simple and logi-
cally arranged, but for American teachers are not as serviceable as several of the
commercial geographies by American authors.
An Important Book of Travel
AFRICA
FROM SOUTH TO NORTH
THROUGH MAROTSELAND
By MAJOR A. St. H. GIBBONS, F. R.G. S.
Author of ** Exploration and Hunting in Central Africa."
With Numerous Illustrations reproduced from Photo-
graphs, and Maps. Octavo. 2 vols. $7.50 net.
Major Gibbons tiescription of his travels through the whole leni^th of
the African continent is amongst the ntost valuable contributions to
this class of literature published in recent years. Amongst other
important features in the work is an account of the tracing of the
Zambesi River to its source, which had hitherto remained undiscovered.
JOHN LANE, Publisher, i\™^ New York
BEPAKTMHJT OF EDTlDATiai) LIBRiST.
HAMMETT'S
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An artistic sea-coast shading: has been adopted, gfivinK remarkable beauty
and attractiveness.
The hills have been drawn in a more vi>jorous style.
Remarkable character is given by the system of using blue for rivers,
brown for hills, b.ack for names, and deej) red for towns.
The skillful classification and arrangement of names gives a clearness and
legibility found in n«) other map in existence.
Price on Common Roller Jl»2.25 each
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Size of all maps, 64 xnj inches.
HISTORICAL MAPS
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43x62 inches (new) $5.00
GLOBES
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^^
^/fc-JOURNAL?
GEOGRAPHY
•Volume III. NOVEMBER, 1904 Number 9
gt« lUu#trat^lr in^ntliiu vxa^a\\xiz X^z-ocXtta \o \\xt
\Xi\txz^\% 0f \z<tt\\zx% 0f 0e00vaph}i itt tit-
Edited by RICHARD E. DODGE, Professor of Geog-
raphy,Teachers College, Columbia University, New York
City, and EDWARD M. LEHNERTS, Professor of
Geography, State Normal School, Winona. Minnesota
i&oxiXtnX^ fox ^cvtttibtx
PAGE
-^^iirsions in College Geography .... WILLIAM HARMON NORTON 403
^^^poDse to Surroundings— A Geographic Principle . . R. H. WHITBECK 409
^«^»sportation, Part HI JOHN THOM HOLDSWORTH 413
'^^^at a Child Should Gain From Geography R. P. IRELAND 421
^^^^^lat the Child Should Know of Geography at the End of His Grade Course
AMOS W. FARNHAM 424
^*^ographical Notes:
Geographic Features of Alaska, 427 — A Great Tunnel, 432 — British India. 433 — The
Practical Use of the Globe in Teaching? Geography, 436 — First Lessons in Geography,
440 — Acclimatization of the White Race in the Tropics, 443 — Forests and Climate
in Texas, 444.
Bditorial:
Home Geography, 445
Review:
North America, 446.
Authors are personally responsible for opinions and statements expressed in the JOURNAL
fl.50
year
OFFJCE OF PUBLICATION
The JOURNAL of GEOGRAPHY
Room 560, z6o Adams St., Chicago, Illinois
Birtwd Mawb 10. IXB. at Chia— o. HL. m mmA^Xtm mttw. wider Art of Cowrw of Mwwb 1. 187»
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Copyright^ iqo4y by E. M. Lehnerts,
The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
PUBLISHED MONTHLY, EXCEPT JULY AND AUGUST
An lttustrat9d Maga£in9 1>9Vot9d to th9 Int9r99ta of T9ach9rs of G9ograph9 in
El9m9ntarp, S9condarp, and /format Schools
Successor to the Journal of School Geography^ Vol. V., and the Bulletin of the
American Bureau of Geography^ VoL II.
EDITORS
RICHARD E. DODGE,
Professor of Geography^ Teachers College^ Columbia University^ New York City,
EDWARD M. LEHNERTS
Professor of Geography^ State Normal School^ Winona^ Minnesota,
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
CYRUS C. ADAMS Geographical Editor, N. Y. Sun
OTIS W. CALDWELL . Professor of Botany, Slate Normal School, Charleston, IlL
JAMES F. CHAMBERLAIN, Prof .of Geography, State Normal School, Los Angeles^Cal.
HENRY C. COWLES . . . Associate in Botany, University of Chicago, Chicago, IlL
WILLIAM M. DAVIS. Professor of Geology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass,
N. M. FENNEMAN . . Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis,
J. PAUL GOODE, Assistant Professor of Geography, University of Chicago^ Chicago, IlL
GEORGE B. HOLLISTER, Hydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C,
M. S. W. JlS.^YKKSO'ii, Professor of Geography, State Normal School, Ypsilanfi,Mich.
EMORY R. JOHNSON, Asst. Prof, of Transportation and Commerce, Univ. of Penna.
EDW. D. JONES, Asst. Prof, of Commerce and Industry, Univ. of Mieh., Ann Arbor
VERNON L. KELIX)GG, Prof, of Entomology, Leland Stanford Jr. Univ., Palo Alto, CaL
CHARLES F. KING Master of Dearborn School, Boston, Mass.
S. J. Maclean, Asst. Prof, of Economics, Inland Stanford Jr. Univ., Palo Alto^ CaL
FOREST RAY MOULTON, Assistant Professor of Astronomy, University of Chicago
JACQUES W. REDWAY Author, Mount Vernon, N. Y,
ELLEN C. S EM PL E Writer in Anthropogcography, Louisville, Ky,
FREDERICK STARR, Associate Prof, of Anthropology, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, IlL
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ROBERT DkC. ward . . Assistant Professor of Climatology, Harvard University
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A. J. HERBERTS(^N, Lecturer in Regional Geography, Oxford University, England
JOHN A. DRESSER Prince Albert School, St. Henry de Montreal, Quebec
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ne JOVRNAL of ■
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. NOVEMBER, 1904 No. 9
EXCURSIONS IN COLLEGE GEOGRAPHY*
BY WILLIAM HARMON NORTON
Professor of Geology, Cornell College, MovrU Vernon, Iowa
THE excursion in geography is based on two fundamental princi-
ples of education. It has long been recognized that first-hand
knowledge must form the foundation on which all other knowl-
edge of a subject rests. Nor is it questioned that in higher education
training in research is more than information. Learning is not enough
to make the scientific scholar; he must be trained to observe, to
arrange, to compare, to draw inductions, to propose hypotheses and
test them, to solve the problems of his science.
If the application of these principles has been less thorough in
geography than in other sciences, it is only because of the difficulties
inherent in our subjects. The phenomena with which we deal are for
the most part too large to be brought to the laboratory for observa-
tion and experiment. If we study them first hand and with the
technic of research it must be in the field.
The excursion, therefore, in the earth sciences has the same place as
the laboratory has in other studies ; it gives first-hand knowledge and
definite and accurate conceptions of reality; it teaches the methods
of investigation. The field has a smaller place in teaching geography
than the laboratory has in other sciences ; but this is not because its
value is underrated, but only because it is less manageable than the
laboratory as an educational instrument.
As outdoor laboratory work the excursion meets with climatic
difficulties. In latitudes of severe winters it is suspended during
much of the college year. Our schedules must be arranged — perhaps
I should say disarranged — so as to bring the topics where field work
is most needed at the beginning or at the end of the yearns courses.
The field work thus crowded into a few months of fall and spring
* Read at the Eighth International Geographic Congress.
404 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
•
is restricted further by the weather, and how serious this restriction
may be, those teachers know who have experienced an October or
a May of rainy Saturdays. The uncertainty of the weather makes
it difficult to arrange our programs in advance, and the field meet
designed to introduce or to illustrate a given subject must often be
postponed until it has lost its pertinence or be given up altogether.
Nor is it easy to avoid conflicts with the other engagements of our
students. In most schools the excursion cannot be assigned definite
place on the college roster, and the regularly scheduled exercises of
each day hold the right of way against it. The excursion cannot be
limited to the hour or two allotted to other college exercises, but
requires often half a day at least. Conflicts are therefore numerous
where it must be foregone in favor of recitations or other scheduled
exercises. It is thus usually deferred until the Saturday holiday,
where it competes with athletic sports and unduly lengthens the
working week both of student and instructor. In some schools the
employment of student assistants permits an excursion to be scheduled
on the college roster for four afternoons a week, and the student
registers for field work on that afternoon of each week in which his
time is free. Such a delightful comity prevails in several univer-
sities that students are excused — "cheerfully excused,*' one corre-
spondent writes me — by their departments for absence on excursions,
though of course the work is to be made up later. But I see no
general relief in sight from these conflicts until the excursion comes
to be considered as a college sport instead of an essential part of
scientific education. When the field day in geography is once placed
on the same plane with football, our students can be taken by the
day and week hundreds of miles away and excused from all their
cla.sses meanwhile.
Certain difficulties are more or less inherent in the excursion.
The number participating may make itjmpossible to give close super-
vision and direction to the individual student. Our young people,
exhilarated by their unaccustomed release from sedentary tasks,
tend at first to look upon the excursion as an outing and to take an
attitude of mind more suited to a picnic than to serious study. As
the field meet is held more often, and as students are sent out in
small parties each in charge of an assistant, such difficulties diminish,
and they practically disappear with thoroughly interested students
and those in advanced courses. To meet these difficulties, however,
requires all the qualities of the successful class room and laboratory
X904 EXCURSIONS IN COLLEGE GEOGRAPHY 4^5
instructor raised to the nth power. The important problems must
be set clear in view, investigation must be directed, and the attention
of the class is to be held under circumstances which cannot fail to be
distracting. To make the exercise to all who take part in it one of
earnest intellectual effort without impairing its natural pleasure
taxes a teacher's skill if not his patience, and requu*es a thorough
knowledge of the local field, studied preparation of methods, and
experience in this kind of work.
So various are the subjects studied in the field and the purposes
in view, that even in elementary courses no uniform methods are
adopted. Any lecture is certainly out of place. A short demon-
stration may be useful in closing the exercise, or such a review may
be postponed to the recitation hour when the students* papers on the
excursion are presented.
In general, the end of the excursion is best met by whatever method
rouses the student's interest and effort and leads him to describe
accurately what he sees and to think out clearly the causes of it
for himself. That field work has the greatest zest, I think, to which
the student brings for solution problems which have already risen in
the lecture room and laboratory. He holds in mind various hypoth-
eses by which the facts might be explained, together with the critical
phenomena which would decide in favor of one hypothesis or another,
and his search for these decisive evidences can hardly fail to be dili-
gent and fruitful.
In many cases problems cannot well be brought before the stu-
dent until the field is reached, but here also they may be set forth
with advantage early in the exercise rather than at its close. Facts
which might seem trivial so long as they were unrelated details of
observation gain dignity when they are seen to lead up to large
conclusions. Thus in the study of the not uncommon sections in
the middle west of the United States, where deeply decayed rock
mantled with residual clay is overlain with till, the question whether
the rock decay is older or younger than the deposit of the till may be
raised as soon as the general relations of the section are well seen.
With this problem in view the discovery of fragments of residual
clay kneaded in the till becomes to the student one of the first impor-
tance, proving the clay preglacial and that a continental glacier
may, move over rotten rock and its residual clays and leave them
disturbed but little.
Some topics may best be opened in the field without the prepara-
406 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
tion of any previous study. Investigation of a section of the drift
may well begin class work on glaciers. The characteristics of loess
are better learned at outcrops than from any text-book. Care is
needed to advance no step beyond the facts open to observation
and the inferences which may be drawn clearly from them. Least
of all in the field is there place for the dictum: Thus saith the au-
thority. If questions rise to which the facts before us give no answer,
let them go unanswered for a while and trust to an awakened curi-
osity to continue the search. The active, investigative attitude of
mind is to be encouraged, not the passive attitude, the listening ear.
Individual effort is stimulated by requiring of each student a for-
mal report of his work. His field notes are written fully on the spot.
With beginners, suggestive questions are needed at every step, and
before any subject is left some notes may well be read for correction
and addition by the class, while the appeal in case of disagreement
can yet be made to Nature. Sketches, maps, and diagrams are
prepared, and may be inspected also as far as possible, on the spot.
Some pains are taken by the instructor to have the reports conform
to the rules of scientific writing. The uninitiated need warning to
avoid all that is subjective, to omit references to the weather, the
route, and incidents of the trip, and to describe in simple phrases
the things which they have studied, stating logically the inferences
which they have drawn.
Even in elementary courses considerable is taught of the use of
instruments — the compass, the hand level, the aneroid, the clinom-
eter. Distances are paced, dimensions and angles of slope are
estimated by the eye as well as measured afterward. Contour
sketching is practiced in the field^and the data taken for the prepara-
tion of maps and sections.
In more advanced courses, study, mapping, and technical descrip-
tion are made more systematic. Small areas are mapped with
the plane table. Students are given special areas to work out inde-
pendently and their final reports rise to the dignity of theses.
There is one general preparation for the excursion wliich I am
convinced is greatly needed. If our students do not ^* tackle'^ well
the problems of the field, it is probably not only because of their
inexperience in outdoor study, but also because they are unaccustomed
to solve problems in the class room. Lectures, library references,
and text-book recitations do not encourage the investigative attitude
of mind. The dei)arture most needed in our text-books and our
X904 EXCURSIONS IN COLLEGE GEOGRAPHY 4^7
teaching is the wider, freer use of problems, whose function in our
inductive science will be that of the exercises of inventional geom-
etry. If, for example, the means of discriminating contemporaneous
lava flows from sills have been worked out in class room and laboratory
exercises, one of the best possible preparations has been made for an
excursion to some outcrop of the traps of the Newark system of the
Connecticut Valley or of northern New Jersey, often visited by stu-
dents.
The scope of the excursion is limited. The field accessible to the
most favorably located school is far from embracing all the phenomena
of earth science. All topics cannot be studied in the field, nor
need any topic be studied there alone. But if the excursion secures
even a little first-hand knowledge, that leaven will permeate and
vivify the entire body of knowledge of our science. A little field
study of land forms, sufficient to make the subject real, to develop
the topographic sense, to give some few type specimens for reference,
to bring into clear view the slow, sure w^orkings of earth forces in
the present and in ages past, to train in methods of research — even
a little field w^ork will lay the foundation on which the superstructure
may be raised by other means.
Models and photographs are only a step removed from Nature.
To study a good model, such as that by Howell of the Chattanooga
district, might almost be called field geography. The photograph
projected by the lantern of the glacier, the sea cliff, the lava flow,
the desert dunes, or the dissected peneplain, gives almost the sense
of reality of the view of the thing itself, and is to be studied by
much the same methods of the excursion — as phenomena to be
described, presenting problems for solution. When contour mapping
has been well learned in the field, topographic maps and charts open
up the land forms of a large part of the world to laboratory study.
Every college teacher knows how greatly the excursion is still
needed even in its elementary exercises. Our students have not
seen things nor have they learned to see things. Only a small per
cent of college students, at least in the western states, have done
field work in secondary schools. The attention of most of our students
has never been called to the phenomena of our science. Of course
they have not seen them, any more than they have seen the structures
of leaves and flow^ers, unless they have studied leaves and flowers in
botany. The training which students have received in other studies
is not our training and cannot take its place. As one's memory for
j^08 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHV Xovember
faces is not strengthened by committing vocabularies, so a critical
observation of Greek accents, or of organic tissues under the micro-
scope, does not make the student ready to read the lessons of the
sky line and the profiles of hills and valleys. On the whole the con-
ceptions of the college student in our science as he comes to us are
faint and hazy — undertimed, under developed, and unfixed negatives
— and are derived largely from words and not from things. His
education has been largely bookish. The study of nature in the field
throws the average student into a new element where the support
of authority is wanting, and he is decidedly uncomfortable until he
has learned to swim. Our students crowd about the instructor to
obtain some authoritative word for their field notes far more eagerly
than they turn to investigate a section for themselves. The con-
ception derived from books of what they ought to see blurs the
impression on the retina of the thing itself. Thus students stand-
ing in the dry channel of a little brook have told me that the pebbles
were well water worn and rounded, while in fact they were subangular
stones washed from the adjacent bank of drift. The university stu-
dent who, on a field trip to an interesting Ordovician shale, packed
with fossils, flat lying, and hardly altered from the sea mud it once
was, cried out after the instructor's demonstration, ''But,. Professor,
where is the volcano which threw out all this stuff?'' is an excep-
tional case, but I infer that she was studying volcanoes at the time.
From communications from many American colleges and universi-
ties giving in detail the field work done in earth science, I am assured
that the excursion holds an increasingly large and valued place.
In a nunil)or of elementary courses outdoor laboratory work counts
one-third. In general our best higher schools can say in the words
of one of my correspondents, ''We have all the excursions we can
get in."
It is in the l^niversity Summer School, or Summer Quarter, where
the students' entire time is at command, that the excursion has devel-
oped to its best. Field courses are offered by a number of our schools,
in which snuill i)arties of advanced students spend five weeks or more
of the summer in camp in the serious study of some area. Among
the regions where such investigations were in progress in the sum-
mer of 1904 were eastern New York, central Wisconsin, the Lake
Superior region. The valley of the Mississippi bordering Ilhnois, the
Black Hills, the Big Horn Mountains, the Colorado Rockies, the
Great Basin ran<?;es of Nevada, the Grand Canyon of the Colorado
19^ RESPONSE TO SURROUNDINGS 409
River, and the Hawaiian Islands. An equally thorough training for
the cadets of our science is afforded where, as at least in four states
of the Union, the State Geological Survey is so closely connected
with a university that capable students are employed on the field
work of the survey during the summer vacation.
It is from these university field courses and from work on the
United States geological survey, the geological survey of Canada, and
the various state surveys that young American geographers are now
graduated.
RESPONSE TO SURROUNDINGS— A GEO-
GRAPHIC PRINCIPLE
BY R. H. WHITBECK
State Model School, Trenton, N. J.
PROFESSOR J3A\'IS, giving a modernized extension of Ritter's
view, says: "The essential in geography is the relation between
the elements of terrestrial environment and the items of organic
response.'' He would not confine geography to the study of the earth
as the home of manj but would carry the inquiry so far as to include
the relations between the earth and all living things.
It does not require a scientist to note how prevalent is the prin-
ciple that living things — plant or animal — are singularly adapted to
their environment. It is, however, a relatively modern view to look
upon all organic forms as a response to that en\dronment. Once
men thought, and not unnaturally, that all living creatures are made
for their particular surroundings. We now see that they are as truly
made by those surroundings; nor does this view exclude the operation
of a divine intelligence in nature.
Modern geography, w^hen dealing with the science maturely, is
seeking to trace and establish the relations which exist between
living things and their physical surroundings. As man is the most
important and most interesting of earth's inhabitants, he is naturally
the center of interest in the study of geography. But, owing to man's
superior intelligence and his power over his surroundings, it is not
always easy to determine how far his activities are governed by his
earth surroundings and how far he has subjected them to himself.
The oceans and the mountains w^ere once very serious barriers to
4IO THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
human intercourse. Now man has largely vanquished these bar-
riers, as such.
With creatures lower than man, however, physical environment
amounts almost to actual control. The various species of plants
and animals have each responded to a particular set of surroundings;
every organ is delicately adapted to just these surroundings. They
are the creatures of their environment and, for the most part, they
cannot exist outside of it.
Life seems to be the most aggressive and insistent thing in the
world. It is found almost everywhere, in the cold climates and in
the hot; in the dry and the wet; in the earth, under the earth; in
the air and in the sea. No matter what the conditions may be,
some creature is happy there. It just suits him, for he is made for
and by just such a place. The bird lives in the air and so requires
some organ to get the oxygen from the air for his use; hence, lungs.
He moves in the air, hence he has acquired a fluffy coat of feathers,
light, hollow bones and relatively large wings. If he varies his habits
and swims, he has webbed feet. If he wades, he has long legs and
neck. If he scratches, he acquires sharp toes.
The fish anatomy is a response to a different kind of environment;
not air, but water — a much more dense and buoyant fluid. The
fish doesn't need featherS; and hollow bones, and feet; so his epi-
dermis develops scales in place of feathers; his appendages become
fins instead of wings and feet; and he gets oxygen by means of gills
instead of by lungs. He would have had lungs if they suited his
purpose better than gills, but they do not. The bird swims in air
and the fish in water, fluids of different density, hence the difference
between the bird's fins and the fish\s. Furthermore, the anatomy
of the bird, for example, is not simply a response to an aerial life,
but it is a response to an aerial life on the earth. The earth's atmos-
phere has a particular composition and density. Were there dif-
ferent proportions of oxygen and nitrogen in the air, or were the air of
<lifferent density, the whole bird anatomy would have been different.
So, also, in the case of all breathing things. The structure of birds
on \'enus or Mars, if birds there be in those worlds, is a response to
a different set of conditions from those on the earth; hence those
birds are not like the ones with which we are famihar.
The distance of the earth from the sun, the density of its atmos-
phere and the inclination of its axis largely determine the intensity
and distribution of the heat that we get from the sun. In these
ig^H RESPONSE TO SURROUNDINGS 4II
particulars no other planet is circumstanced like the earth, and it
follows that no other planet supports life of the same kinds that
flourish here.
But not alone do some creatures respond to aquatic surroundings
with scales, fins, and gills; and some to atrial surroundings with
feathers, wings, and lungs; and still others to a terrestrial home,
with hair, legs, and feet, but there are a myriad of variations in these
responses. The camel has fitted itself for a desert life with padded
feet, calloused breast and knees, protected eyes and nostrils; with
a system of stomachs marvelously adapted to long activity without
water, and a hump of stored-up fat for a long journey with little food.
Was the camel made for the desert or by the desert? Both.
The tree that grows in the open, spreads its branches. Its trunk
is relatively short and its branches broad. The same tree growing
in the forest is tall, with branches far above the ground and relatively
short. In each instance the tree is developing the shape that best
facilitates its efforts to get light and air. The whole plan of a tree
is a response to its habitat. It gets food in solution from the soil,
and the tree adapts the number, length, and distribution of its roots
to the kind of soil in which it lives. That it may expose the largest
possible amount of surface to the light and air, the tree sends out a
million leaves, broad, thin, light, and so disposed as not to shade
one another to an unnecessary extent. If the tree grows far up on
the mountain side, it is exposed to winds and snows. A tall tree
with wide branches would invite its own ruin, so the tree on the high
mountain slope grows short and gnarled and very tough, almost
hugging the mountain side. Wherever the plant grows it adjusts
itself to the conditions in which it must live.
The cactus lives in the arid lands. At the best it can secure but
little moisture. The air and soil are dry and hot most of the year.
A little rain falls and the cactus must make this little go a long way.
It must contrive to hold all the moisture it can get. Leaves on
plants are evaporating surfaces, so the cactus will have no leaves;
it dispenses with them; its stems grow thick and massive and they
branch but little. It exposes the smallest possible amount of surface
to the hot sun and thus the cactus lives through the hot, dry season.
It has responded to its particular environment.
Man, too, feels powerfully the influence of his physical surround-
ings and out of those surroundings he develops many of his traits
of character. One type of man lives in the cities of the plain and
412 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY Xovembcr
quite another type in the mountain defiles of Switzerland or Scotland.
The sunny skies and soft air of Italy nourish music and poetry and
art, but the rock-bound coast of Norway breeds a race of vikings.
The rocky soil and the cheerless winters of New England intensified
the cold philosophy of the Puritan; and the softer air and warmer
suns of the South had a part in creating the gentler and finer manners-
of her people. The tonic force of our northern winters has not a
little to do with the restless energy, the dash, and the push of northern
enterprise.
A writer in this journal has pointed out that the success of the
English and Americans on the sea is, in part, attributable to the supe-
rior skill attained by their seamen in the uncertain waters of the
prevailing westerlies; while the disasters which have so often attended
the navies of France and Spain are equally attributable to the inferior
skill of their seamen, trained more largely in the belt of the trade
winds, where conditions are more uniform and less trying to the
sailors.
Says Professor Geikie* of the Scotch Highlander: "Placed in
a glen often narrow and rocky, and separated from his neighbors
in the next glens by high ranges of rugged hills, he has had to contend
wTth a scant and stony soil and a wet, cold, uncertain climate. . . .
Like his own granite hills he has grown hard and enduring, not with-
out a tinge of melancholy suggestive of the sadness which lingers
among his wind-swept glens and that hangs about the birken slopes
of his lonely lakes."
It is true that man, with his superior intelligence and freedom of
movement, may choose where he will live, and then, by his knowiedge
of the arts, he may greatly modify his natural surroundings — make
a Biltmore in the mountain wilderness of North Carolina or irrigate
the desert of Southern California into an orange grove or vineyard.
Yet he can never get away from the influence of the skies, the soil,
the climate, and the scenery amid which he lives; and w^hen these
influences have borne their ripened fruit in the settled character-
istics of the people, it will be seen that a people that has lived many
generations amid any set of surroundings is mentally and physically
a response to those surroundings.
The Scenery of Scotland, p. 436.
TRANSPORTATION 4 I 3
TRANSPORTATION
PART III
BY JOHN THOM HOLDSWORTH
Professor of Commercial Geography^ Drexel Institute, Pfiiladelpfiia
THE RAILROAD ERA
1"^HE third great period in the history of American transportation
is the railroad era. Extending from about 1830 to the present
this period has witnessed one of the most striking develop-
ments in the entire history of industry. Though it covers but the
span of a human lifetime, yet it has marked the working out on
this continent of industrial and commercial achievement more
signal; more far-reaching than that of any similar period in modern
times. In these seventy years the country has grown from a few
scattered states with a total population of twelve million and an
annual commerce of $134,000,000 to an empire whose 80,000,000
people have spread over the entire land, pushing the railway ahead
Fig. 14, The Conestoga wagon, the predecessor of the freight car in the
Middle Atlantic States
of them or dragging it after them, and exploiting its every resource,
animal, vegetable, and mineral, until to-day the foreign commerce
totals the amazing sum of $2,500,000,000, and the domestic trade
almost fifteen times as much. In this great evolution no single influ-
ence or agency has contributed so much as the railway.
An English observer writing of our transportation says: "It
has been a magician's wand, calling towns into existence on the naked
prairie, raising towns into cities and cities into world-famous hives
of wealth and industry. It has conjured up fortunes out of nothing
and multiplied values ten, twenty, aye, often a hundredfold.
The cuts and maps for this article have been used by permission of D. Appleton
& Co., New York, from American Railway Transportation by Emory R. Johnson.
4 I 4 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
Millions of well-fed. well-paid laborers enjoy its blessings wdthout
ever thinking to what they owe them. The busy factories of New
England and the mammoth stores of Chicago have sprung from it
as directly as the silver mines of Colorado or Nevada. The wealth-
creating'power of North America is to a very large extent the product
of its wealth-distributing facilities. But for the capacity of the
railways to carry wheat from the Missouri River to the Atlantic
coast for a few cents per bushel there would have been no wheat
farms west of Chicago, and many of the richest agricultural states
in the Union might still have been in possession of the buffalo and
the red Indian.*' *'The railway is the best measuring-stick T^nith
which to mark the industrial advance of the American people."* The
writer quoted above says further: ^'Not only did American railroads
open up the country and lay the foundations of a prosperous agri-
culture, but they created directly or indirectly most of its staple
industries. They furnished the best market for domestic iron and
steel. They supplied cheap fuel to every industrial center. They
were the principal importers of foreign labor and capital. They
provided the materials for a distinctively American stock market,
out of which grew in its turn an American system of finance. For
years the history of the railroads was the history of the country."
The influence of the railway in the development of our vast grain
fields, cotton plantations, slaughtering, mining, quarr}4ng, and lum-
bering industries — in that great territorial division of industry which
has given this country first place among the industrial nations of
the world — may be traced most satisfactorily, perhaps, by noting the
stages in our railway growth.
The history of American railroads may be divided, roughly, into
four periods:
1. Construction 1830-1850
2. Consolidation 1850-1870
3. Combination 1870-1896
4. Merger or community of interest . . . 1896-
THE CONSTRUCTION PERIOD
The tram road was the immediate predecessor of the railroad in
this country. The first of these, opened in 1826, was used for haul-
ing stone for the Bunker Hill Monument from the Quincy granite
quarries to a wharf on the Neponset River. The Mauch Chunk
* Lawson, Americari Industrial Problems.
1904 TRANSPORT ATIOX 4 1 5
tramway, opened in 1827, was intended for the transportation of coal.
In 1828 the Delaware & Hudson Canal Company opened the Car-
bondale & Honesdale tramway connecting their coal mines with the
D. & H. Canal. The first locomotive seen in America was imported
for use on this road.
The first full-fledged railroad was the Baltimore & Ohio, a sec-
tion of which, fifteen miles long, was opened in 1830. At first, horse
power and even sails were used, but in 1831 the company purchased
an American locomotive for its road. The system was slowly extended
until in 1835 it boasted a total length of 135 miles. By 1834, how-
ever, the Charleston & Hamburg, a South Carolina road chartered
in 1829, had 137 miles in operation, and for a short time enjoyed
the distinction of being the longest line in the world under one man-
5- The stage-coach, generally used for passenger travel before the introduction
of the railroad
agement. Pennsylvania had by 1835 about 200 miles of railroad,
mostly coal roads; New York, New^ Jersey, and Massachusetts about
100 miles each, and Virginia a few short lines. In 1836 a line, sub-
sequently to become a part of the powerful New York Central, was
opened between Albany and Utica, and six years later Buffalo was
reached. Meantime lines had been extended from Boston and
New York to Albany, so that railway communication was effected
between the Great Lakes and the seaboard. As early as 1834 the
western end of the Camden & Amboy road was opened, and in 1837
regular communication between New York and Philadelphia was
established. In the same year Philadelphia and Baltimore were
connected by the Philadelphia, Wilmington & Baltimore. The
Philadelphia & Reading, built chiefly as a coal road, was completed
in 1838. Philadelphia was connected with Columbia in 1834 by the
Columbia road, the first division of what is now the great Pennsyl-
vania Railroad System.
41 6 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
New England was especially active in railway building during
this period. By 1835 three lines radiated from Boston; one to Provi-
dence, another to Lowell, and a third to Worcester. The whole line
from Boston to Albany was completed in 1842, and constituted the
first important through route in the country. Writing of railroad
construction in this period, Hadley says: **If we look at the railroad
map of the United States in 1850 we find that the New England
system has developed its main outlines; that the Middle and South
Atlantic States have seized the idea of their lines of development,
but have not as yet carried it out, while the States of the Mississippi
Valley are just making their first experiments in railroad construction.
In Ohio, part of the Cincinnati, Sandusky & Cleveland had been
built about 1837. But it had for a long time stood alone. It was
not until 1848 that through rail communication, by any route what-
ever, was secured from Cincinnati to the Lakes." *
The railroads of this period, then, were for the most part local
affairs, carried on without any system. Each locality operated its
own road. Geographically it may be noted that the railways con-
structed in the first ten years radiated from the leading seaports,
Philadelphia, New York, Boston — Philadelphia leading as a terminal
city. As shown by the accompanying table, railway mileage increased
from about 30 miles in 1830 to 2,818 miles in 1840, and at the end of
this period aggregated a little over 9,000 miles.
YEAR
MILEAGK
INCREASE
1830
23
1835
1,098
1,075
1840
2,818
1,720
1845
4,633
1,815
1850
9,021
4,388
1855
18,374
9,353
1860
30,626
12,252
1865
35,085
4,459
1870
52,922
17,837
1875
74,096
21,174
1880
93,296
19,200
1885
128,361
35,065
1890
166,817
38,456
1895
181,065
14,248
1900
194,321
13,256
* Railroad Transportation, p. 36.
X90<
TRANSPORTATION
417
THE CONSOLIDATION PERIOD
The financial panic of 1837 gave a severe shock to railway enter-
prise and there was, consequently, a marked falling off in the annual
mileage increase down to 1848. But in that year the discovery of
gold in California awakened a new interest in railway construction
throughout the country. During this period, too, the South and the
Middle West developed rapidly, thereby creating a demand for
extended and improved facilities for transportation. Railways
shared in the marked prosperity of the first decade of this period.
'^The year 1850 marks the beginning of a rapid welding of short
connecting railroads into long lines under a single ownership.'^ Dur-
MAP OF THtUNinO STATES ^ ^
SHOW^NfifUIUtOAQS *
it 185a.
Map V. Railroads in the United States in 1850
ing this period many new lines were built, especially into the new
West, and the demand for uninterrupted travel and shipment resulted
in the coalition or consolidation of local lines into through routes.
Chief among these through lines were the following:
1851 — Erie Railroad reached Lake Erie.
1852 — Michigan Central and Michigan Southern lines opened,
connecting Chicago with the East.
1854 — Chicago & Rock Island pushed through to the Mississippi.
1855 — Chicago & Galena, the nucleus of the Great North-Western
system, opened, followed by the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy, and the Illinois Central.
4 1 8 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
1858 — The Hannibal & St. Joseph reached the Missouri River.
At about the same time the Pennsylvania Railroad got through
connection with Chicago by the extension of the Pittsburg, Fort
Wayne & Chicago.
This rapid extension of railroads into new and sparsely settled
regions was greatly stimulated by the policy of land grants. Vast
areas of public lands were freely granted by State and National
governments to induce corporations to undertake railway construc-
tion. This policy was followed for nearly thirty years, and was
responsible for the construction of many lines in the West earlier
and more rapidly than otherwise would have been the case. State
aid to the railroads took various forms. Some made large grants of
lands received from the National Government; some gave bonuses
of cash or securities. A few states undertook the construction of
railways as a state enterprise. Most often, however, assistance was
given through the large purchase of railway stock.
The National Government was even more generous in its aid to
railway building. In 1850 the first large grant of land from the
public domain was made, the Illinois Central being the recipient.
The railway corporation was given the right of way, 200 feet wide,
and also alternate sections of land six miles back on each side of the
road. During the next few years similar grants were made to com-
panies in ^lissouri, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Iowa, Florida, Mississippi,
and other states. ^' Eight million acres were granted under Fillmore,
nineteen under Pierce/'* After the Civil War, economic and military
reasons alike called for a railroad to the Pacific. In 1862 Congress
incorporated the Union Pacific Railroad, granting it and allied com-
panies a money subsidy of $30,000,000 and land grants aggregating
more than 30,000,000 acres, an area greater than the entire state of
Pennsylvania. Congress made grants to over twenty companies
during the next ten years. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
received 3,000,000 acres in 1863, and a little later the Atlantic &
Pacific received a grant of 42.000,000 acres. An almost equal grant
was made to the Northern Pacific, and large grants to the Texas &
Pacific and the Southern Pacific. Up to 1871 these grants from the
public domain amounted to about 150,000,000 acres. Parts of these
lands have reverted to the United States through the failure of the
companies to comply with the conditions of the grant. Professor
Johnson, summing up the policy of land grants, says: "Unquestion-
* Hadley, p. 37.
1904
TRANSPORTATION
419
ably the United States was more L'beral than it need have been, and
if the public had chosen to wait twenty years the railroads in the
Central West and between the Mississippi Valley and the Pacific
Ocean would have been constructed by private capital. The liberal
donations of public land caused the railroads in that section of the
country to be built earlier than they would otherwise have been con-
structed, the West was settled up more quickly, and the Government
has been able to dispose of many parts of the domain it did not give
away at an earlier date, and possibly more advantageously than they
could have been sold had none of the land been given to the railroad
corporations. ''* Thus rapidly railroads were developed in the upper
%
PDF THE UNITED STATIS
SHDWEHG RAILROADS
iNmro.
Map VI. Railroads in the United States in 1S70
Mississippi Valley, particularly in the five years following 1868.
The crisis' of 1873 checked railway expansion everywhere, but with
the revival of business the Southwest and Rocky Mountain regions
experienced a similar development. The increase in four years of
the mileage in the southwestern states was 168 per cent as compared
with an increase of only 24 per cent east of the Mississippi.
While these transcontinental routes, backed by land grants, sub-
sidies, and local subscriptions, were being pushed across the plains
and over the mountains, the earlier roads of the East were slowly
being shaped by consolidation into a few great trunk lines. This
♦ American Railway Transportation ^ p. 318.
420 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
process of welding short, local roads into through lines had become an
economic necessity. As through traffic, and particularly the through
grain trade, steadily increased, the expense and delay of frequent
transshipments made consolidation imperative. The first consoli-
dation of importance was in 1853, when eleven different roads between
Albany and Buffalo were united to form the New York Central.
Gradually the system thus formed acquired control of numerous
branch lines. In 1869 Cornelius Vanderbilt, who had foreseen the
great future of this road and had become its dominating genius,
consolidated the Hudson River Road and the New York Central, and
soon afterward gained control of the Lake Shore & Michigan South-
ern, the Michigan Central, the Canada Southern, and other roads,
thus uniting under one management over 4,000 miles of railroad
between New York and Chicago.
The nucleus of the present Pennsylvania System was made by
similar consolidations carried out largely by Thomas A. Scott, who
became vice-president of the road in 1860 and president in 1874.
During the twenty years of his executive service the system was
extended westward to Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, northward
to Lake Ontario, eastward through New Jersey, and southward to
Baltimore. By the absorption of other lines it gained control of
over 7,000 miles of railroad, comprising properties formerly owned
by over 200 companies.
By 1874 a third great trunk line, the Baltimore & Ohio, under
the skillful management of John W. Garrett, had been extended
to Chicago. Two more trunk lines, parallel to these, soon followed:
the Grand Trunk on the north, and the Erie, which Vanderbilt had
sought in vain to bring into his system. Thus by 1874 there were
five great trunk systems actively competing for the growing business
between the Mississippi Valley and the Atlantic ports.
Toward the end of this period jijreat rival systems were developed
west of Chicago and St. Louis. These systems, instead of running
parallel like tlie great trunk lines of the East, radiate from common
centers, reaching out in all directions for the grain and other produce
to be brought in to the primary markets. Thus from Chicago radiate
the St. Paul, the North-Western, the Rock Island, the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago
& Alton, and the Illinois Central. The railway net about St. Louis
shows a similar radiation.
(7^0 be continued.)
WHAT A CHILD SHOULD GAIN FROM GEOGRAPHY 42 I
WHAT A CHILD SHOULD GAIN FROM
GEOGRAPHY
BY R. P. IRELAND
Principal of Grammar School, Gloucester, Mass.
A NY answer to the question, *'What is essential in geography?'*
J^\^ or **How much geography should a pupil know at the end of
his course? must be viewed rather as a shot at a moving
target and not as an attempt to put a fence about a particularly
fertile bit of ground. The needs of pupils another year and at
another place are sure to differ from their needs here and now.
Diplomatic relations, inventions, explorations, and feats of engineer-
ing are some of the factors which are sure to place a new emphasis
on some product, place, or people.
At the outset nearly all of the ordinary facts of geography must
be examined and their importance rigidly questioned. I say nearly
all, because it is hardly open to question that the continents, the
oceans, a few mountain and river systems, most European countries,
and half a dozen great cities are indispensable facts. The rivers
of Siberia, the tunnels through the Alps, the tides in the Bay of Fundy,
and the capitals of several countries are examples of various classes
of facts whose worth may be questioned.
Then we may proceed according to time and place to select much
that is unessential and discard it. Thus the fact that Newfoundland
is a crown colony, distinct from Canada, is of vital importance to this
city (Gloucester, Mass.), but it would be of no particular value in
many sections. Whatever tends to show the ^'causal relation,''
the reasonableness of things, is generally worth while. Many children
may prefer memorizing a list of products, for example, to inferring
what should be produced under given conditions, but this cannot be
considered. The matter has too much bearing upon their happiness
and usefulness in adult years to be decided upon such a basis.
Pupils can hardly be grounded too thoroughly in home geography.
This should include such diverse facts as the differences in the vegeta-
tion of various parts of near-by fields and pastures, and the relation
between the primary and secondary industries of the town. It should
include to a considerable extent the sources of the commodities used
in the town as well as the destinations of those produced. Enough
physiography should be given that the present appearance of local
42 2 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
features may be understood. The progress of minor changes, such
as the variations in ponds and brooks or the sliding of a boulder or
a tree down a bank, should by no means be omitted. When more
distant regions are considered, less detailed study is possible, but
there should be nothing magical or capricious about the phenomena
of foreign lands. Certain books of travel and some teachers seek to
interest children by conveying the impression that in China or Aus-
tralia everything in nature is topsy-turvy. This is entertaining; but
it adds nothing to scholarship. The ** wonders *' of foreign lands are
frequently only larger examples of local features. The hackneyed
statement concerning the leaves of certain Australian trees is brought
to an everyday basis by observing the behavior of corn leaves and
some others in time of drought. Unless some such association can
be made there is little use in alluding to the feature at all.
Mathematical geography need be considered only so far as it is
required for use in other parts of the subject. A true conception of
much of it is unattainable even to adults, but a working knowledge
of certain features may be acquired. This, plus the ability to avoid
confusing such points as the cause of the change of season with the
cause of day and night, is about all that is needed. In some cases
where the cause as a whole cannot be understood certain surface
observations may be used. Thus it is easily seen that the sun's
path from the eastern horizon to the western horizon is shorter
in winter and longer in summer. Most children have learned in
some form that there are astonishingly long periods of light and
darkness and of daylight at the poles. Using this, a fairly correct
inference may be made as to the length of day and night at such
points as Montreal or St. Petersburg. With regard to latitude and
longitude the most important point is that pupils should distinguish
one from the other, and the next point is that a given reading should
suggest some position on the earth or, what is more likely, on a globe.
This association will not occur unless the use of the globe is habitual
in the class room.
Just how nmcli poHtical geography is requisite is the hardest part
of our question. Certainly no question relating to a geography
course has been so poorly answered at times. The number of geo-
gra{)hic names held, ready for use, by the average well-educated
adult is probably much less than is commonly supposed. To test
this let almost any two teachers whose work for a few years has con-
cerned different continents give each other a fairly sharp quiz.
WHAT A CHILD SHOULD GAIN FROM GEOGRAPHY
423
As indicated in the commencement of this article a few facts may
be put in a favored class, but most must be rigidly questioned and
good reason found for including them. Most countries may be
included without question, but Montenegro, Guatemala, etc., might
be overiooked without loss. A few years ago Korea or Abyssinia
might have been left out. National capitals may be divided in a
similar manner. The burden of memorizing state capitals should
be dropped as that of state boundaries has been. The amount of
possible interest a place has for a pupil will determine in many cases
whether it is to be studied or not, even though the interesting feature
may not be of great importance to adult minds. It ought to be
unnecessary to suggest here that the possession of a city charter
does not increase the importance of a place in a geography course.
As we reach places of historic importance 1 believe we should do
more than is generally done. Brief accounts of some of the more
important events of foreign history may well be included. Warren
Hastings and Lord Clive will interest, as Cortez and Pizarro do.
The stories of the Roman and the Mohammedan conquests of Europe
are decidedly worth while. Such terms as Finn, Syrian, Bohemian,
a large number in all, are in everyday use, yet ordinarily neither map
nor text sheds much light on their meaning. This omission should
be remedied.
In the foregoing paragraphs I have suggested not so much what
a pupil should know as what standards should guide the teacher in
selecting work for him. Our most urgent work as framers of a course
lies rather in bringing the facts into close relation to the pupil's life
rather than in the selection of facts.
424 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
WHAT THE CHILD SHOULD KNOWOFGEOG-
RAPHY AT THE END OF HIS
GRADE COURSE
BY AMOS W. FARNHAM
Teacher and Supervisor of Geography, State Normal and Training School t Omoego, N. Y.
PLACE. Geography is pre-eminently a place study. Place involves
direction and distance. The child should know the use of the
terms right, left, nearer, and farther. He should know how
to determine actual directions by the aid of noon shadows, the
North Star, and the mariner's compass; and to determine repre-
sented directions by the aid of parallels and meridians. He should
know how to determine actual distances in units of linear measure,
and represented distances in units of angular measure, which units
he should readily translate into more familiar units of linear measure.
He should know that a line drawn longitudinally through the center
of a noon shadow is a part of the meridian of the object that casts
the shadow; that a line drawn at right angles to the meridian and
through the center of the base of the object casting the shadow is a
part of the parallel of that object; and that the exact number of this
parallel may be known by determining the height (in degrees) of the
North Star alcove the horizon as seen by an observer on tliis parallel.
He should be able to estimate distances in units of time, according
to the means of travel, whether express train, trolley car, carriage,
steamship, etc. He should be able to make a practical use of his
place knowledge, wlion occasion recjuires, by giving and receiving
clear and exact information regarding the location of streets, roads,
and buildings of his neighborhood; the location of the towns of his
county; the counties of his state; the states of his country; and the
principal countries of the world. He should know the location of
the cities of his state, of the great cities of the world, of important
land and water forms, and of the noted j)leasure and health resorts,
and for what these resorts are noted.
GOVEKNMENT
^The child early learns that he is under the control and protection
of government,, — government of home, school, and society. He
learns that the boundaries of his district are political boundaries,
and that certain district oiricers control the district schools. A
1904 WHAT THE CHILD SHOULD KNOW OP GEOGRAPHY 425
knowledge of municipal and town government follows; and later,
a knowledge of state and national control. The child should know
that public highways and bridges are constructed and maintained
by government; that canals, chartered corporations, penal institu-
tions, boards of health, and public charities are under governmental
control. He should know that his government constructs, main-
tains, and controls the harbors, harbor lights, breakwaters, life-saving
stations, weather bureaus, custom houses, and post offices of his
country, and he should know the relation which all these bear to the
commerce of his country. He should know the various kinds of
national governments, and that that government is the best govern-
ment that is ''of the people, by the people, and for the people. '*
EARTH FORMS
The earth is composed of land, water, and atmosphere. Each
of these earth elements contains portions of the other two. Each
is influenced by the others. All are necessary for the existence of
plant, animal, and man. Hence the child should know the hills and
meadows, the streams and ponds, and the atmospheric phenomena
of his neighborhood. He should know the relation of liill and meadow
to the run-off, to ground water, and to evaporation; he should know
the relation of the streams and ponds to drainage; the relation of
winds to rainfall, and of rainfall to vegetation. He should know
what soil is, how to tell the different kinds of soil, and the relative
capacity each kind of soil has for heat and moisture. He should
know what soil is best adapted for each crop raised in the near-by
fields, the time of sowing and harvesting, and the use made of each
crop. He should know the relation of local relief to the use of farming
implements and machines, as well as to the different modes of trans-
portation. He should understand map representation of relief,
drainage, soil, rainfall, temperature, winds, land and water trans-
portation routes, latitude and longitude. From given data he should
be able to make intelligent deductions regarding the industries of a
given place.
THE THREE KINGDOMS OF MATTER
The child should know that all matter can be grouped under three
heads, namely: animal, vegetable, and mineral. He should be able
to catalogue under these three heads all substances with which he
comes in contact. He should know from what kingdom each article
of his food comes, each article of his dress, of the furniture of his
426 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
room, and each part of the house that shelters him from the weather.
He should know the relation of each kingdom to each of the others.
THE EARTH AS A PLANET
The child should know the shape of the earth, the size, the moticns,
and its relation to the sun and moon. While none of this is geography,
it all has a direct bearing on geography. He should know of what
the surface of the earth is composed, the relative amounts of land
and water, and what the effect upon life would be if these relative
amounts should be greatly changed.
COMMERCE
The child early learns that if he prefers a ball to the knife he owns,
and his playfellow prefers a knife to the ball which he owns, that
each may satisfy his want by making an exchange. Or the child
may have a handful of marbles but no top; his playfellow may have
two tops but no marbles; an exchange of a part of the marbles for
one of the tops will satisfy a want of each.
He knows that farm produce is taken to the city and exchanged
for sugar, coffee, cotton cloth, nails, etc.; that strawberries are ex-
changed for bananas, and apples for oranges.
He should know why rice is not grown in New York, cotton in
Illinois, and wheat in Florida. He should know the importance
of these products, the conditions which favor their growth, and the
great demand for them; and that where they can be grown success-
fully there thoy will be grown. He should know that only a com-
paratively small area of the continents is adapted for the growth of
each, and that each product is needed throughout the extent of every
continent; hence the need of extensive cultivation, and of means of
communication and transportation.
He should know that the increase in population and the advance-
ment in ci\dUzation demand a greater quantity and better quaUty
of food and shelter materials; that the demand calls for improved
machines; and that improved machines and manufacture call for
the exercise of inventive power and skilled labor.
The child should know what states of his own country and what
countries of the workl lead in the principal productions of food and
shelter commodities. He should know where the great centers of
industry are and why they are there. He should know where are
the great shipping and receiving ports, where are the great commercial
routes on land and on sea. He should know what irrigation is and
1904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 42 7
its use, from his own kitchen garden to the great systems of the West,
of India, and of Egypt. He should know the relation of irrigation
to commerce.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
The child should know the use of his text-book on geography:
the use of the pictures, the diagrams, the various kinds of maps
(not political only), the text, and the pronouncing vocabulary. He
should know the use of the gazetteer, the dictionary, the encyclo-
paedia, the topical index of standard works of reference, and the
card catalogue of his school library. He should know how to use
these sources of information that he may read the daily paper and
current literature with interest and with profit. The intelligent use
of sources of information should develop the reading habit, and make
the study of geography lifelong.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Geographic Features of Alaska. — An examination of a chart of
the world will show that the latitude of Alaska corresponds approxi-
mately to that of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Point Barrow, the
northernmost cape of Alaska, is in about the same latitude as North
Cape. Dixon Entrance, which marks the southernmost point, is
nearly on the same parallel as Copenhagen. Sitka, the capital of
Alaska, is in the latitude of Edinburgh, in Scotland.
To consider the longitude, the meridian passing through the most
western of the Aleutian Islands passes near the New Hebrides and
through New Zealand. Cape Prince of Wales, the most westerly
point of the mainland, is nearly as far west as the Samoa Islands.
Alaska stretches through 27 degrees of latitude and 54 of longitude.
Its east and west dimensions, measured to the extreme limit of the
Aleutian Islands, is almost exactly equal to the distance from Savan-
nah on the Atlantic coast to Los Angeles on the Pacific. Its most
northerly and southerly points are as far apart as the northern and
southern boundaries of the United States.
Alaska, the northwestern extremity of the North American con-
tinent, forms in its main mass a peninsula nearly rectangular in out-
line, cut off from the continent by Mackenzie Bay on the north and
the Gulf of Alaska on the south. South of it lies the Pacific Ocean.
428 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
On the west it is bounded by Bering Sea and Bering Strait and west
and north by the Arctic Ocean.
The territory is extended west and southwest by its two penin-
sulas of considerable size — the Seward Peninsula, with which the
Chukchee Peninsula divides Bering Sea from the Arctic Ocean, and
the Alaskan Peninsula, which, continued in its archipelagoes, the
Aleutian Islands and Commander Islands, cuts off Bering Sea from
the Pacific Ocean. The coast of Alaska is of two distinct topographic
types. Northward from the Alaskan Peninsula shallow-water condi-
tions usually prevail, the coast line is very regular, and the land
slopes gently from the shore. Eastward and southward from the
Alaskan Peninsula the shores are usually abrupt, with many embay-
ments and islands. This Pacific coast region is included in the
glaciated area of Alaska, while along the western and northern coasts
glaciation is either entirely absent or only of local character.
The Pacific coast line forms a deep reentrant angle, which is
occupied by the Gulf of Alaska. It is bounded on the east by the
Panhandle of the territory, usually called Southeastern Alaska, and on
the west by the Alaskan Peninsula. It will be shown that the axis
of the dominant mountain chains undergo, too, a marked change in
direction, and are parallel to the crescent-like bend of the southern
coast line. A study of the geology goes to show that this is the topo-
graphic reflection of an important structural feature.
A clear conception of the main features of the topography of
Alaska can be obtained by comparing them with those of the western
United States. A broad mountainous belt, called by Major Powell
the Pacific iMountains, including the Coast Ranges of CaUfornia, Ore-
gon, and Washington, the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains,
extends along the western margin of the United Stat^js and is con-
tinued by other ranges northward into Canada. East of this lies
the Great Basin or Central Plateau region, which also finds its counter-
part in British Columbia to the north. The eastern limit of the plateau
region is marked by the Rocky Mountains, which again, like the
western Pacific Mountains, extend into Canada. To the east of these
the (Jreat Plains extend northward to Arctic waters.
Dr. George M. Dawson and others have shown that these four
topographic provinces of the United States, which are fairly well
defined throughout western Canada, find their continuation in similar
geographic features in Alaska. The general trend of the highlands
in Alaska, as in the United States and Canada, is parallel to the coast
X904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 429
line. Attention has already been called to the great southwest bend
of the Alaskan shore line near latitude 60. The orographic features
of the mainland experience a similar change in direction, continuing
parallel to the shore line.
Alaska is thus divisible into the same four geographic provinces
as those of western Canada and the United States. The lines of
demarkation between these pro\nnces are usually sharply drawn.
Each is of a predominant topographic type, though each may be
subject to many minor topographic subdivisions.
A mountainous belt skirting the Pacific coast of Alaska and British
Columbia, extending inland from 50 to 200 miles, forms the most
western of the four provinces, which, in conformity \\'ith Major Pow-
eirs classification, 1 will call the Pacific Mountain system. It properly
includes the mountainous Alexander Archipelago and Aleutian Islands,
and a number of other island groups which lie adjacent to the coast.
The Pacific Mountains belt is made up of four distinct ranges: The
Coast, St. Elias, Alaskan, and Aleutian. These are often separated
by broad valleys or indentations of the coast line, and while the
topography of the system is mainly rugged and mountainous, it
includes several large basins, like that of the Copper River.
East and north of the Pacific Mountains is the Central Plateau
region, limited on the north and east by the Rocky Mountains, cor-
responding with the Great l^asin region of the western United States.
The term plateau can only be assigned to a part of this province,
and not even that by strictest usage. Its dominating topography
is a gently rolling upland of low relief, compared with the mountain
systems, in which the rivers have trenched broad channels. The
inter-stream areas mark a former plateau surface, which the erosive
agents have dissected. This plain slopes gently toward the axis of
the basin, and the axis is tilted to the north and w^est. Its surface
is interrupted by a number of mountains and mountain groups, which
rise above the general level. Within this belt are also a number of
lowiand areas of considerable extent, which lie below the upland
surface. Among these the flat of the middle Yukon is notable.
The lowlands which extend along Bering Sea adjacent to the Kus-
kokwim and Yukon rivers are included in this province.
To the east and north is a broad mountain system but little
explored, which forms the third of the geographic provinces. It is,
as has been shown, the northern extension of the Rockies. These,
like the Pacific Mountains, also undergo a marked change in direction.
430 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
Trending northwestward from the United States and Canada, they
swing to the southwest at the Arctic shore, which they touch again
north of Bering Strait. The system is represented in Alaska by the
Endicott Mountains, and probably by several other ranges as yet
unsurveyed.
The fourth province is that of the plains lying east of the Rockies,
which in Alaska is represented by the Arctic Slope region, lying
between the western extension of the Rockies and the Arctic Ocean.
This province, like that of the western United States, is really a
slightly elevated plateau, dissected and more or less rolling, which
slopes to the north from the footliills of the Rocky Mountains. A
featureless coastal plain, of varying width, separates the northern
boundary of the plateau, which is marked by a scarp, from the Arctic
Ocean.
About one-fifth of the drainage of Alaska is toward the Pacific
Ocean, nearly one-half toward the Bering Sea, and the rest toward
the Arctic Ocean.
The map shows the Yukon to be the master stream, and the out-
lines of its basin correspond in a general way with the boundaries of
the Central Plateau province. The headwaters of this mighty river,
the fifth in size of the North American continent, lie in British Co-
lumbia far to the southeast of Alaska, where they fight for mastery
on one hand with the water courses flowing into the Pacific and on
the other with those belonging to the Mackenzie drainage basin, flow-
ing into the Arctic Ocean. The general course of the upper Yukon
and its tributaries is northwest as far as the Arctic Circle. It then
makes a great southwest bend and pours its great volume of muddy
waters into Bering Sea, nearly 3,000 miles from the source of its
longest tributaries. The valley of the Yukon occupies the medial
line of the plateau province, and with it makes the same great bend
to the southwest parallel to the swing of the two mountain systems
to the north and south. The relief, which is measured by the altitude
of the remiumts of the i)lateau above the floor of the valley, is greatest
near the international boundary and decreases both above and below.
A narrow valley characterizes the upper Yukon proper, which broad-
ens out at the so-called Yukon Flats, near the big bend, and contracts
again below in the Ramparts, and then broadens out below the mouth
of the Tanana.
The northern and eastern limits of the catchment basin are gen-
erally defined by the crest Hne of the inland frontal ranges of the
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 43 I
Rocky Mountain system, but this does not always hold true, for the
Peel River, a tributary of the Mackenzie, has its source west of the
Rockies. On the other hand, the Macmillan River finds outlet in
the Yukon drainage after traversing one of the ranges of the Rocky
Mountain system. The southern and eastern divide of the Yukon
basin is even of greater irregularity. On one hand some of its tribu-
taries find their sources to the south of the ranges of the Pacific Moun-
tain system, and on the other a number of large rivers emptying into
the Pacific have their headwaters inland of this barrier.
The Yukon River forms the great natural highway of Alaska.
In summer 3,000 miles or more of navigable waters are found wnthin
its basin, and in winter the frozen surface of the river affords a route
of travel for dog teams. It was along the rivers that the pioneer
could best journey, for on his crude rafts or boats, built of the timber
which grew on the banks, he could transport necessary supplies,
and later the steamboat succeeded to that propelled by hand.
The Kuskokwim, flowing into Bering Sea, is second only to the
Yukon among Alaskan rivers, and includes probably upward of
1,000 miles of waters which are navigable for steamers. Its basin
lies west of the Alaskan range and entirely within the plateau prov-
ince.
The Pacific drainage embraces two classes of rivers : First, those
whose catchment basins lie entirely within the coastal zone of moun-
tains, and second, those whose courses reach into the interior region
and traverse the mountains on their way to the sea. Of the first
the Sushitna and Copper, and of the second the Alsek, Taku, and
Stikine are the most prominent examples.
The Arctic Ocean receives the waters of a small part of the plateau
provinces through short rivers draining the northern part of the
Seward Peninsula and some larger ones flowing into Kotzebue Sound.
Much of the larger part of the Arctic drainage consists of that received
from the interior valleys of the Rocky Mountain ranges and from
their northern slopes. Under the former are comprised the drainage
basins of the Noatak and the Kobuk, both streams including navi-
gable waters which are bounded both north and south by the moun-
tains of the northern system. The second class of waterways
includes the northerly flowing streams which receive the drainage
from the seaward slope of the Rockies. The Colville, the largest of
these streams, properly belongs to both classes, for its source lies
well within the front ranges, w^hich it traverses in a narrow valley,
432 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
and it also receives a large amount of drainage from the northern
slope of the Rocky Mountains. — National Geographic Magazine^ May,
1904.
A Great Tunnel. — During the life of the present generation the
Alps have been pierced four times by tunnels, the latest of these
being the greatest of them, the tunnel under the Simplon Pass. Work
on this great enterprise began in 1898, and a French geographical
journal, quoted by the New York Sun^ announces that on the
fourth day of May the Swiss and ItaUan workmen, who have been
approaching one another from the opposite ends of the tunnel, knocked
down the slight barrier of rock which still separated them. The
Jura-Simplon Company agreed to have the tunnel ready for use in
five and a half years. They have spared neither time, money, nor
skill in the endeavor to fulfill their contract, but the diflSculties they
have met have been enormous, and the Swiss Government, rightly
taking these difficulties into account, has extended the time for the
completion of the tunnel to April 30, 1905, and has given the com-
pany a supplementary credit, increasing the payment for the tunnel
from $14,000,000 to $15,600,000. The first of these great Alpine
tunnels in point of time was the Mont Cenis tunnel in France, which
is nearly eight miles long and was fourteen years in construction,
being finished thirty-four years ago. Next came the St. Gothard,
nine and a (juarter miles long, which was nine and a half years in
construction, and was completed twenty-four years ago. Then came
the Arlberg, six and a half miles long, three and a half years in build-
ing, and completed twenty-one years ago. The Simplon is twelve
and a half miles long, its greatest altitude above the level of the sea
being 2,314 feet, while the altitude of Mont Cenis is 4,248 feet. The
work has been done, as all work of the kind is done on the continent,
with artistic completeness. The station at Brieg was finished some
time ago and is an admirable structure. The valley which approaches
the tunnel from the Italian side was one of the most beautiful in
northern Italy, but has been hopelessly scarred by excavations, cuts
through the rock, and the litter and disfigurement attendant upon
railroad building, to say nothing of a great village of Italian work-
ingnien which has grown up near the entrance to the tunnel. This
entrance is approached by a series of smaller tunnels which extend
all the way from Lake Maggiore. The greatest obstacles which the
enterprise has been compelled to meet have been water and heat.
During the first three months of 1902 the work on the Italian end
lyn GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 433
advanced only fifty feet, so many were the springs that were met
and so great was the volume of water which had to be cared for. . The
heat has been in many places prostrating, the temperature ranging
from 95 to 107 degrees. It was necessary to shorten the hours of
work and to provide buildings with facilities for hot and cold baths,
so that when the miners came out of the tunnel they should not
be at once exposed to the keen Alpine air. The completion of this
tunnel will give direct communication between Milan and Paris and
London and points all the way to Brindisi. The Mont Cenis furnishes
the shortest and quickest route from France and northwestern
Europe to Genoa. The chief route between Central Europe and
Italy is that through the St. Gothard, and travel from Paris and
Genoa to Austria passes largely through the Arlberg. With the
completion of the Simplon tunnel the Alps have been practically
annihilated for purposes of travel and traffic. — The Outlook^ June
11, 1904.
British India. — Agricultural Conditions. — The peninsula of India,
which in area is about one-half the size of the United States, has a
population of nearly 300,000,000, about 200,000,000 of whom depend,
directly or indirectly, for a livelihood on agricultural employment.
The area of the holdings is on an average exceedingly small, seldom
more than a few acres and often mere gardens. Of course there are
some exceptions. Zemindars and a favored few having larger holdings.
The holdings are held by different kinds of tenures, generally
leasehold; seldom in fee simple. The fee being, as is the case in the
presidency of Bombay, in the government, the tenant is not per-
mitted to alienate or encumber his title.
The farmer of India, or ^^ryot,^' as he is called, is in utter darkness
as regards education, and is poor and underfed. He is industrious
and, under the circumstances, outside of famine years gets good
returns from the soil. He lacks ambition or desire to improve his
material condition or methods of labor. He cuts his crops according
to the signs of the moon or the custom practiced by his forefathers.
Oftentimes the grain is overripe, and grass or fodder has lost its
nutriment and turned to straw on the stock before it is harvested.
The system of timely cutting and curing grass and fodder is quite
unknown to him.
He has little knowledge of green manures. Much of the excrement
of the bullocks is used for smearing waUs and ground floors of their
houses and for making cakes for fuel.
3
434 'THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
Life in the villages has been modified but little since the most
ancient times. All ryots, or farmers, live in villages, and to them
one must go to understand the life of the Hindoo.
Hand Labor vs. Machinery. — Farm labor is plentiful and cheap,
and is paid from 2 to 4 annas (4 to 8 cents) per day. The farm
is so small and the ryot so poor — taxes and famine years claiming all
his savings — that he is generally in debt to the money lender for
marriage ceremonies for his children or memorial celebrations to his
Ancestors.
Agricultural Implements in Use. — The agricultural implements
used by the ryot are of the most primitive and ancient patterns.
Hand sickles are universally used to cut the crops; grain cradles are
never and scythes seldom seen in India.
The grain is thrashed by pounding with a club or tramping by
cattle, and winnowed by being tossed in the air so that the wind
may blow out the chaff.
With a few exceptions in large cities, the grinding of grain is done
by women on hand mills, after the manner shown in Biblical pictures
of the time of Abraham.
The plow consists of an upright piece, made from a curv^ed limb
of a babul tree, with an iron point, having mortised into it a beam
lengthening into a tongue, and which is tied by a rope on the yoke
of the oxen. The y)low is made by the village carpenter, at a cost
of 3 or 4 rupees ($1 or $1.30). The plow is drawn by one or two
yoke of oxen, and it simply stirs the ground. The monsoon rains do
the rest.
Water is drawn from wells for irrigation purposes by bullocks
pulling down an incline. The water is raised in leather bags, con-
nected to the ox yoke by a rope running over a pulley.
An implement universally in use on the farm and generally for
all sorts of digging, scraping, and raising of dirt is the **pharwa."
It is somewhat similar to the hoe; the blade, however, is broader,
thicker, and deeper. It is hammered out by the village blacksmith,
and has a short, straight handle.
If earth is to be moved any distance it is dug up by the pharwa
and scraped into a shallow, round, bamboo basket, w^hich is then
placed on the head of a coolie *' woman," who carries it to place or
dum])s it into a bullock cart.
S})a(les are not in use because the native, being barefooted, can-
not ])ress it into the ground. Shovels, which require more strength
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 435
to shove them than to pull the pharwa, are likewise never used by
the native.
How to Increase American Trade. — Under the foregoing condi-
tions we cannot expect to sell in India mowers, reapers, binders,
steam separators, gang plows, and such agricultural machinery as
prove of great value on an American thousand-acre farm.
There is, however, no doubt but that there is a considerable open-
ing for hand machinery, farming implements, and other labor-saving
devices, such as hand fanning- mills, cheap plows, ox yokes, dump
carts, horse powers, feed or fodder cutters, small thrashing machines,
carriages, cultivators, cane mills, oil engines, belting, iron hand-pumps,
brick machinery, grindstones, sickles, wind-mills, pumps and towers,
carpenters' tools, safes, hardware, electrical supplies, and cotton
machinery.
Roads, Animals, and Vehicles. — The main highways and city
streets are well made, usually of macadam, thoroughly drained, and
rolled by heavy steam rollers imported from England. Famine
labor has been utilized in their making. India, being tropical, is
never disturbed by the upheaval process of frosts and ice.
The vehicle of transportation is the bullock cart. It is native-
made, simple, heavy, and clumsy. The tongue is mortised into the
axle, and upon this T the rack or box is permanently fastened ; the end
of the tongue is bound stiffly to the ox yoke. The latter is a simple,
round piece of timber three or four inches thick and about four feet
long. It rests on the neck of the bullock, wooden or iron pins being
run through its ends to keep it from slipping off the neck of the animal.
The load on the cart is balanced so that the yoke is held down, and
a rope around the neck of the ox takes the place of an oxbow and keeps
the cart from tipping backward. The cart is dumped by simply
unfastening the rope around the neck of the oxen.
The oxen, being of the high-hump, sacred variety, are peculiarly
fitted for this barbarous yoke, which conveys every motion and jolt
of the cart to the neck of the oxen. A Yankee ox-yoke would be a
blessing to these dumb brutes, and at the same time it would increase
their efficiency. These ox carts, or " bail-ghari," are universally
used in the cities as well as in the country for all kinds of draying and
hauling grain, hay, dirt, brick, stone, bales of cotton, steel construc-
tional beams, or teakwood logs forty feet in length; everything and
anything is carried upon them.
The native ^^reckla," or covered two-wheeled cart, drawn by trot-
436 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
ting oxen, is much in use in the cities for the transportation of natives.
In the cities a ^Wictoria/' or *Hicca-ghari/' drawn by one horse,
is generally used by the Europeans and better class of natives as a
hired street conveyance. It is native-made, the springs, axles, and,
perhaps, some other parts being imported from England. In Bombay
it is fitted with rubber tires and forms a convenient and cheap mode
of street conveyance.
In the country and interior towns the conveyance for Europeans
is the '* tonga," a two-wheeled cart with a seat facing the rear for two
persons, who ride with back to the driver. They are drawn by two
small native horses, with a kind of yoke fastened on the back or neck.
The European in India generally supplies himself with a fine \Hictoria
imported from England. It is drawn by a span of Persian or Aus-
tralian horses. — Monthly Consular Reports, December, 1903.
The Practical Use of the Globe in Teaching Geography. — I pro-
pose to describe a series of lessons that I have given during the last
term to a form of boys whose average age is fourteen years. If the
illustrations that follow appear to you to be exceedingly elementary
and self-evident, please remember that the whole object of this paper
is to show how these elementary ideas may be arrived at in a practical
way, and to indicate briefly the method adopted in the course of
lessons I have mentioned. 1 did not therefore deal with those ab-
struse mathematical calculations which are so dear to the hearts
of mathematical masters, but confined myself to those broad principles
which are so necessary,
I need hardly point out the necessity of constantly using a globe
in geographical teaching. Some people still ask with surprise whether
we wish to revert to the system of the old-fashioned ladies' school,
in which ''deportment and the use of the globes" figured as impor-
tant items on the prospectus. Meditrval pedants are always depicted
with a globe, but in recent times globes have almost disappeared from
our schools. This is very remarkable and perhaps can only be
accounted for by the great improvement that has taken place in
the production of wall maps and atlases. The excellence and cheap-
ness of maps account perhaps for their almost universal use, while
the greater cost of globes and the difficulty of using them with large
classes tend to make globes less popular. Geography is a subject
peculiarly suited to the training of the powers of observation and
imagination. How can we expect a boy to realize that the parts of
the earth he is studying are curved surfaces when we constantly
GEO(iRAPHICAL NOTES
437
put them before him as flat surfaces? It is of little use to ask a ques-
tion occasionally in an examination paper (perhaps once a term or
once a year) as to the shape of the earth, and then to ignore the sub-
ject as if it had nothing to do with the work of ordinary geography
lessons. What is absolutely necessary is to have a globe always in
view so that it may be constantly referred to. Any kind of globe
is, of course, better than none, but the most useful kind, and the one
which I myself use, is a globe with a slate surface on which the out-
lines of the continents only are marked in white paint, while the
circles of latitude and longitude, at intervals of 15°, the tropics and
the Arctic circles, are incised. This globe, twenty inches in diameter an
mounted with the axis inclined, w^as made by Messrs. Philip & Son
of prleet Street, and is excellently adapted for the lessons described
in this paper. Each lesson was studied with the globe at considerable
length, the boys having to observe and find out as much as possible
for themselves; no text-books were used, but after each lesson a
description of the work was written out and, w^here possible, dia-
grams were drawn. I am very anxious that the method that w^as
followed should be clearly understood, because I am obliged to intro-
duce, as I go along, much that was only taken at the end of the term
when revising what had been done. No lantern slides were shown,
except for purposes of revision at the end of the course.
In the first lesson the boys examined the globe and noted such
facts as the following: (a) That all the lines drawn on the globe
are circles, (b) That the equator and all circles passing through
the poles divide the globe into hemispheres, (c) That all the other
circles divide the globe into une(iual parts, (d) That the land masses
are nearly all north of the eciuator.
In the next place, taking an unmarked globe to represent the
earth, we found that the position of the poles depended on the axis of
rotation. On being asked how the axis of rotation should be inclined,
boys are generally ready to reply: ''At an angle of 23^° to the
vertical," instead of to the vertical to the plane of the earth's orbit.
Simpler than this is to point the axis toward the north polestar.
Here one naturally asks: ''How can the position of the north pole
be found on a starlight night?'' Many boys when asked do not
know at all, and of those w^ho can sketch the seven stars in the con-
stellation of the Great Bear very few have ever actually seen the
constellation. One boy who said he had seen it explained the position
as, '* Above the left-hand fence of our back garden." He had so
438 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
far never realized that he had been looking toward the north, while
at the same time he showed a lamentable lack of power to describe
what he had seen in a definite and intelligent way.
We now drew a circle around the globe midway between the poles
to represent the equator. If a place is 40° north of the equator
it must lie somewhere on a circle; but this is all we know% unless we
are further told its distance east or west of a given circle passing
through the poles. Hence the following facts: (a) That the
equator and the prime meridian are the only circles necessary to
determine positions, (b) That all other circles are drawn on globes
simply for convenience in measuring positions, (c) That all these
circles depend on the rotation of the globe. Here, then, follow exer-
cises in finding positions on the globe when the latitude and longitude
are known, reading the latitude and longitude of a given place, finding
the difference of time at given places, and so on. The boys take great
interest in doing this; in fact, they will often practice by themselves,
and, if the class is small, it is always possible to let them stand round
the globe and do these exercises, with very satisfactory results.
In order to fix the cardinal points in the class room, the boys
themselves should find the north-south line by means of equal altitudes
of the sun from the shadow of a stick, and then draw this line on the
floor of the class room. The determination of this line took us a
fortnight to accomplish; that is, we began and tried day after day
for a fortnight. We then got a magnetized needle and found the
direction of the magnetic north, and on measuring the angle between
this direction and the geographical north, it was found to be about
15°, a sufliiciently accurate result for 1903.
The globe was then placed so that its axis was pointing toward
the north polestar, and it was decided that the globe must be revolved
from west to east, and never from east to west. The room having
been darkened, the light of a small lantern was next turned on to the
globe, and it was seen that the line dividing the dark from the light
side was a vertical circle. On revolving the globe, the phenomena
of sunrise, sunset, meridian altitude of the sun, etc., were roughly
demonstrated, and after this diagrams were drawn to show the length
of day and night throughout the year for any latitude. Having
drawn a scries of diagrams for various latitudes, we at last came to
90° N., and, while drawing the figure in the usual way, viz., observer
in center, horizon, N., S., E., W. points, and so on, one boy sug-
gested that in this case these points might be omitted on the ground
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 439
that an observer of the north pole would be looking south in what-
ever direction he turned.
By holding the axis of the globe vertical and allowing the light
of the lantern to fall directly on the equator and carrying the globe
round the light, it is at once seen that under these conditions the sun
would be always vertical on the equator, and the days and nights
would be equal throughout the year. But from experience we know
that the sun is only vertical on the equator twice a year; that it is
vertical over places 23^° N. on June 21st, and over places 23^° S. on
December 22d, and that the length of day and night varies through-
out the year. To account for these phenomena it is necessary to
incline the axis 66^° to the plane of the ecliptic. Having placed the
globe with the north pole turned away from the light, and having
noted the northernmost point reached by the light, we turned the
globe around and found that we had traced a circle, viz., the Arctic
Circle, and that in this position all places within it were in darkness.
Similarly, all places within the Antarctic Circle were illuminated.
As the globe was moved round the lantern through an angle of 90°
the light was seen to creep gradually into the Arctic Circle and to
reach the north pole, while the direct rays of light were at that
moment vertical on the equator. Similar observations were made
as the globe was slowly moved into other positions in its course round
the illuminating body. Here it is most important to insist that the
equator. Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and the Arctic Circles
are not drawn on maps and globes arbitrarily but are due to the
apparent motion of the sun, i. e., to the varying positions of the
earth in its annual revolution round the sun. Boys rarely realize this.
We next considered the effect of parallel rays of light striking the
surface of the earth, and hence accounted for the fact that in the
Northern Hemisphere we have the summer season when the earth is
farthest from the sun. By using a small globe to represent the
moon, eclipses may be shown very effectively, as also the phases of
the moon.
I have as yet only described those lessons in which the globe has
been the most prominent object; but in ordinary geography lessons
a globe is indispensable. We can at once compare the area of one
country with other countries, for all are drawn to one scale. The
position of one country A\ith regard to other countries can be seen
at a glance. Trade routes can be pointed out, and distance by alter-
native routes can be compared. While agreeing with Professor Reclus
440 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY November
that projections on flat surfaces should be banished from our schools
and that only maps drawn on curved surfaces should be used as
being more in accordance with nature, it seems to me that for the
present we must be content to compromise matters by using the
most up-to-date maps in conjunction with a globe; so that, by con-
stant comparison between the two, boys may become accustomed,
when looking at a map, to picture in their imaginations the curved
form of the portion of the earth's surface they are studying. — The
Geographical Teacher, June, 1904.
First Lessons in Geography. — Within the last decade or two great
changes have taken place in methods of teaching geography. The
results of modern geography teaching must correspond to modern
methods as shown in the pupil's idea of the earth on which he lives.
To study geography in olden time*was to learn the contents of the
text-book. To study geography in the present day is to gain, as far
as possible, an objective knowledge of the earth and to imagine and
reason from the known to the unknown.
In country schools there is fine opportunity for pupils to learn
by observation the natural forms of land and water. The brook,
the river, the pond, the lake, the slope, the hill, and other features
of the surface of the earth in the vicinity of the school, are in them-
selves object lessons if the minds of the pupils are trained to see for
themselves.
The first lessons in geography are properly nature stories without
the use of a text-book. Such lessons in nature study are usually found
in the courses of study for city schools. In ungraded schools all the
pupils who arc not studying the printed book in geography may be
placed in one class. Even the youngest pupils need not be excluded
from the simplest lessons, particularly those which are objective, for
they can gain practical ideas which will create a taste for the further
study of the earth.
The teacher of oral geography may select from the natural features
of the district some one prominent for study. When possible, study
slope first, for a hill is an object of interest pleasurable when connected
with the play of the children.
Flowing waters are also objects of interest to children, affording
them sport. The teacher may illustrate the terms source, course,
and mouth of a stream, in the schoolroom, and take her class for field
study later, or she may give the first lesson from Nature's book, and
follow with oral lessons in the schoolroom. Lessons on a stream may
1904 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 44 1
be succeeded by lessons on a watershed. In the meantime, instruction
should be given on the points of the compass. Great care should be
taken that the pupils know the directions north, south, east, and
west, outside of the schoolroom as well as in it. This result can be
accomplished by questioning the class about the direction of the road
or street in front of the school, or the direction from the schoolhouse
of another school building, or of the homes of individual pupils. lics-
sons in map reading may be given by the teacher placing a line on the
board from south to north, and another north to south, the two
lines being continuous but for a little space intervening. These
lines are to represent rivers, the space between the lines the height
of land where each river has its source. Each stream may be named
after some pupil in the class. Questions will test the pupil's abiUty to
imagine slope. They may be sent to the board to point to the source,
the mouth, to show which river flows north, which south. In a
similar way forms of land may be taught, as valley, plain.
When features of the earth not found in the neighborhood are to
be taught, the good teacher of geography will have a supply of pictures
to illustrate the subject. Frye's Brooks and Brook Bamns is a most
helpful book for the teacher commencing oral geography.
In the winter months when field studies cannot be pursued, the
teacher may read from Seven Little Sisters. This is a book most
interesting to all children, as it gives them the first glance at children
differing from themselves living on other parts of the globe. It is a
known fact that the children they study about become real person-
ages to the pupils who learn of their habits and customs. The teacher
reads and the pupils afterward reproduce, either orally or in writing.
However, before this part of oral geography is taken, some ideas
must be gained by pupils about the shape of the earth. Any com-
mon sphere may be used to lead up to the globe. On the globe locate
the point where they live. To some children, even bright ones, it is a
wonder that we live on the outside of the earth. No definite size of
the earth should be given thus early, only that it is very large.
In the spring-time lessons in market gardening and farming may be
given, covering the kind of products raised. A few lessons on some of
the products may be taught. Such lessons illustrate one occupation
of man. A game may be used which is imaginative, as are some
lessons in the kindergarten, in which the products of the garden or
farm are sold and other products bought. Such a game would illus-
trate another occupation of man.
442 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
If there are manufactories in the vicinity of the school, one or
more talks may be given on what is made in these, and an exercise
follow in which all articles in the schoolroom which are manufactured
may be named. This exercise illustrates a third occupation. After-
ward pupils may name persons whom they know who are engaged in
agriculture, in manufacture, in commerce.
After such preparation in studying real objects in geography as
slope, stream, plain, the points of the compass, the shape of the earth,
stories of other children who live on the earth, and what kinds of
work men and women do, we may commence the study of a map.
Let the children make a map of the district or the part of it in which
the school is located. It will mean more at first to the children if
made on the floor, or on paper or cloth placed on the floor, as the points
of the compass can be kept true. If made on paper or cloth, it may
afterward be hung against the wall, telling the children that men have
agreed to call the top of the map north. When the first map is under-
stood the teacher is ready to begin the study of the state in which the
class live, as Ohio. If the pupils live near one of the limits of the
state, commence with that boundary, as in the northern section we
should begin with the southern shore of Lake Erie; in the southern
section with the Ohio River. The teacher may place the outline of
the state on the board. If she can do it in the presence of the class
much more interest will be aroused. After the outline is drawn,
pupils may travel from the school north to Lake Erie, south across
the Ohio River to West Virginia or Kentucky, east to Pennsylvania or
West Virginia, and west to Indiana. Such exercises must be frequent.
The teacher may tell the children that these are our neighbors and
we must know their names and which way to go to visit them. The
class may next study the flowing streams. They may commence
in the part of the state in which they live; that is, all living south
of the watershed would first study the Muskingum, the Scioto, or
the Miami rivers. Which one of these to study first would depend .
on the location of the pupils studying. The study reviews the idea
of slope. The study of rivers flowing in the opposite direction develops
another slope, and the fact that here is a watershed. At the proper
time the Ohio River is studied, and Lake Erie. If the surface of the
map is colored, brown being used for high land and green for low
land, the surface of the state can be well shown. The teacher should
develop the idea of a state. No better lesson can be given com-
bining civics and geography than Sir William Jones* poem, *^What
Constitutes a State?'' ChiWrtMi shouKI u^0MU\^i«i^ l\^i^ \\\M \\is\\
ending with
**Men who their duties know.
But know their rights, and, knowing* diuv nm(hUM»\ /'
I^essons may follow on Ohio, its olininto, hoII, |>roi|\iol«>. \ 1*^1*1 ♦»l»l»»
and mineral, the occupation of its inhnltitunt^, \\n \vi\\\\\\^ oilioQ, inil
roads, and canals. If an electric roiul pnw^ci* \m\V \\\v mA\\\\\\^ lln'
pupils might study about the townn it comitM'li*. or Ir pmsmImI *siillMl»
ban lines enter the town where the mcIiooI \n locnteil m hiiip MIMV liH
made of these. In the meantime pupiln mny ihiiw iIim iMillhiii iit lh»»
state, its principal rivers, atnl locate itn IcimIImi/ I'HIno TIimv IMMV
also model in sand. Mol(h'r*M Miind \h H\\\\n\iU* for h\uiM\hii Mill
children have made a mo(h*I of Ohio ifi the pl»yt/roiMMl wMImmH Mm*
presence of the teacher, becaune they were po mmmIi hih'M'tth^'l )M llM•l^
lessons in geography. When Miich nlndien in nrn\ i/«o|/Mi|/ht hwv**
been pursued, pupil>4 are ready io lake n le/J boot mtti m^'I- M )hh'\
ligently.
I cannot V>eliev*' but th^at in u^*'tiff^tSty Mm' i:^i$i^)uy \tH)h^ )** h^
home. Working i»ith youi^ff^-T |/M|/i)* Uoth ^Us hs i4t t4hfi hi*r^h,
interest i» de\'*fUfif^l \u tb<r Um Jtt^i/Jy //f t^o^fH^fhj/ tih)^it ^///V""
with their gf^mlb, <//*<// K^hM^tiorftJii f/w///////
Affliniitirartkwi ^ tlM Wlwl« IUm; Hiy tiMP '//^fM4 y/^^>< ^frA
views Q|> tuo. liUR %vu^ ry.^Xyy} ^^'*\ f^^^4\-^* y ^^<a j^aa-^m^^a^/^^^
Two ♦nr&iMr ■^its.tv.-^fugr.i'* *:** tiv** '^-^"/ ••4//.^/. v/ «**-< V Vvy V"^
iB5pn*?^i» 5vr -**uv ^t >\r^v\ ^^a ^V/ Wi^ / X i*^tfV,Mt ^wi 1^ 1^
iP!Ul»iI •31U«»^ l<»i5fcKi- »fjj*^'«ju^*«^ f Usi 0>-«iV,A.
lilUWl. «^I#^ <#k»frt«»' t-i^ *Mrr./ ^ /./»* ^#./« V.>*
^«>vtl*«
*f *
.♦.«^'
•'»*t*i
'v,#» A?/>t*«/<
V^.j-
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<*••>
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v,^
^J^i- •^■/.
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.^y-
446 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY November
region should not merely follow the plan of their school course of
study, but should go deeper and attack the problem as a problem in
geography primarily, and in geography teaching only when they have
mastered the geography. Workers in this field would do well to take
as a guide a little book like Herbertson's Man and His Worky or like
Professor Davis' article on Home Geography in the Journal of
School GKOfjRAPHY for January, 1897, for both of these are full of
suggestions as to how to see relationships in the geography about
one.
The topic of home geography is so new. that it is not yet under-
stood and there is much work to be done. It cannot all be done
by remote geographers. The local students must help themselves
by adapting the suggestions of others to their own localities, and in
so doing will gain vigor, interest, and a love for nature as well as
geography.
REVIEW
North America. Bv Israel C. Russell. Pp. x and 435. Appleton's World Series.
New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1904.
Russell's North America is primarily a volume for the general reader and does
not form as valuable a book of reference as could be desired. It includes extended
accounts of the topography, climate, plant and animal life, geolog>'' and al)origines
of North America, but is extremely deficient on the political, social, and economic
sides. This lack, however, is not due to the author, but to the fact that the volume
was planned to cover the whole continent and hence all part.s of the geography
could not l)e included in the space provided. This is particularly unfortunate,
for the portions of the subjects treated are more readily available in the existing
literature of geography than are the subjects omitted or seriously condensed.
Although all th(i chapters are extremely readable (except where fine writing is
indulged in) the most valuable for teachers are those on the plants, animals, and
aborigines. In the chapter on topography and climate Professor Russell has not
followed the classifications usually adopted by workers in these subjects. Hence
teachers who want to pass from the book to the detailed literature will find the
chapters less u.sable than they might be.
The illustrations are few, nmch fewer than they might well be, a lack which has
l)ecn thus far characteristic of the series. The maps are well drawn and executed
and are valuable adjuncts to the text.
Though the volume is not of the standard teachers have long needed, it is
extremely valual)le for reference and should be in evcrv school librarv.
R. E. D.
EDITORIAL 445
being reached, and the effect of the transpiration of water vapor,
are noted. It is only through the constant reiteration of the right
view of the position of the forest in relation to climate that the com-
mon and highly erroneous ideas of the climatic influences of forests
can be successfully combated. — R, DeC, W.
EDITORIAL
HOME GEOGRAPHY
HOME Geography, now recognized as being the fundamental
phase of any rationally ordered course of study in geography,
is based upon the well established principle of teaching,
that a child must begin wdth that which is near and personal and
work out to the remote and unfamiliar features of the world which
cannot be personally seen and directly studied. Home geography
as taught, however, is not always made as foundational as it might
be for the reason that teachers do not choose the topics to be pre-
sented with sufficient care, and do not draw out the relations between
the many features of their geographic environment so as to make
the study thought- and question-inspiring.
Home geography should not include all the features of the home
region just because they can be seen from the school window. For
then home geography becomes a mere catalogue of facts taken in
a chance order and is deadly as a subject for provoking interest
and observational study.
The difficulties of teaching the subject are many, for no phase of
geography is so complicated and difficult to present understandingly
as that great complex of physical, biological, and social facts which
make up the geography of the home region. A great step in advance
can be made if interested teachers \\'ill get together and study the
home geography of their own locality, and prepare an abstract or
even a paper of some length for their colleagues to whom geography
teaching is a bugbear.
The home geography of no two regions is alike, and the subject
cannot be presented in exactly the same way in two different places.
The relationships to be seen and the points to work for are practically
the same, but the details, the flesh to clothe the skeleton of principles,
vary according to the locality.
Teachers who care to organize the home geography of their
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7-/&^JOURNAI^:
GEOGRAP
VOLUME III.
DECEMBER, 1904
Jin illu^trat^b tnonttjlD tmxgaiint b^vot^b to th^
Edited by RICHARD E. DODGE, Professor of Geog-
raphy, Teachers Colleg^e, Columbia University, New York
City, and EDWARD M. LEHNERTS, Professor of
Geography, State Normal School, Winona, Minnesota
Cfpontntte for ^^c^tnbiev
PACK
Fiud Remits in the Study of Geography . . . JACQUES W. REDWAY 447
Results of an Elementary Course in Geography . . . PHILIP EMERSON 450
Foundational Experiences ARTHUR P. IRVING 454
What Should Graduates from Elementary Schools Know About Geography
ISAAC O. WINSLOW 458
Commercial Importance of ConUnents .... GEORGE D. HUBBARD 462
Later Geographies CLIFTON JOHNSON 467
Geographical Notes:
Trade and Qmirncrcf in Persia, 4.S6.
Editorial:
What a Child Should Gain from His Schonl Course in Ge<^«:raphy. 487.
Reviews :
Handbf^ok of Commercial Gco^Traphv Chisht.ilm ((ji.'o. G). .%>,■; — Stories of Discovery
Hale (Edward Ej. 4SS.
News Notes 488
Authors are personally responnible for opinion < .n,:' statements expres-ed in the JOURNAL
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The JOURNAL of gp:ography
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PUBLISHED MONTHLY, EXCEPT JULY AND AUGUST
An iUustrated Magajtine Devoted to the Interests of Teachers of Geographp in
Etementarp, Secondary, and formal Schools
Successor to th^ Journal of School Gcof:rraph\\ Vol. V., and the Bulletin of the
American Bureau of GeOf^raphy\ Vol. II.
EDITORS
RICHARD E. DODGE,
Professor of Geography^ Teachers Colle/j'ey Columbia University^ Neur York City,
EDWARD M. LEHNERTS
Professor of Geography^ State Normal School^ Winona^ Minnesota,
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
CYRUS C. ADAMS Gco/p-apliical Editor, X. Y, Sun
OTiS W. CALDW ELL . Professor of Botany^ S/ale Normal School, Charleston, JlL
JAMES F. C H AM BERLAIN, Prof ofGeofrraphy, State Normal Sclwol, Los AngeUs^ Cul.
HENRY C. COW LES . . . Associate in Botany, University of Chicago, Chicago, Jll.
WILLIAM M. DAVIS. Professor of Geology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Alass.
N. M. FENNEMAN. . Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
J. PXVLijOOTiYj, Assistant Professor of Geography, University of C/ucagc. Chicago, /,L
GEORGE a IIOLLISTER, Ilydrographer, U. S. Geological Survey, Washing/on, D, C.
M. S. W. }KVV\lR\r>OK, Professor of Geography, Stale Normal School, Ypsilanri, Mich.
EMORY R. JOHN'SON, A.ist. Prof of Transportation and Commerce, Univ. of Penna.
I^DW. D. JOKES, As<t. Prop, of Commerce and Jndu'^/ry, Univ. op Mich., Ann Arbor
VERN'OX L. KELLOGG, Prof, of Entomology, Lcland Stanpordjr. Univ., Palo Alto, Cal.
CHARLES F. KING Mast<r oj Dearborn School, Boston, Mass.
S. J. Maclean, AssI. Prof.of n.onomics, Leland Stanford fr. Univ., Palo Alto, Cal.
FOREST R.\V MOULTON, Assis/uut Professor of Astronomy, University of Chicago
JACQUES W. REDWAY Autlwr, Mount Vernon, N. Y,
ELLEN C. SEMPLE Writer in Anthropogeography, Louisville, Ky,
FREDERICK STARR, Associate Prof of Anthropology, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, JlL
RALPH S. TARR, Professor of Physical Geography, Cornell University, Jthaca, N. Y.
SPENCER TROTTER Professor of Biology, Stvarthmore College, Pa.
ROBERT DkC. ward . . Assistant Professor of Climatology, Harvard University
ASSOCIATE EDITORS FOR GREAT BRITAIN AND CANADA
A. J. IIERBERTSON, Lecturer in Regional Geography, Oxford University, England
JOHN A. DRESSER Prince Albert School, St. Henry de Montreal, Quebec
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The JOURNAL of
GEOGRAPHY
Vol. III. DECEMBER, 1904 No. 10
FINAL RESULTS IN THE STUDY OF
GEOGRAPHY
BY JACQUES W. REDWAY, MOUNT VERNON, N. Y.
THE American boy begins the study of geography at the age of five
or six years ; at the age of twelve or thirteen he closes his text-
book and makes an end to the systematic study of the subject
so far as his school course is concerned. During the first three years
of this course the work is mainly to develop the perceptive faculties,
and he becomes familiar with geographic forms, earth substances,
form factors, etc. He may or may not be old enough to comprehend
that these are either topographic or climatic in character. It is of
very little use to attempt to force this categorical classification
upon him unless he can understand it, and the understanding of it
is a matter, not of *' brightness" but of mental development.
During the fourth, fifth, and sixth years he undertakes the system-
atic study of geography. During this period he gets a superficial
knowledge of peoples and the countries in which they live; the chief
thing accomplished is the acquisition of a vocabulary of geographic
names. From three-fourths to four-fifths of all the place-names
he becomes familiar with he learns at this time. And a reason
therefor is not hard to find ; between the ages of ten and twelve the
memory faculty is stronger and more active than at any other time
of life. A moment's reflection is sufficient to show that this sort of
work is not the real study of the subject, but only a preliminary prep-
aration for it. In its intrinsic value it is not equal to the knowledge
gained in the first three years of field work. The unfortunate part
of it is the fact that not far from three-fourths of the public school
pupils never pass this stage of geography study.
In the seventh and possibly in the eighth year the pupils who
448 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
remain in school take the subject upon a basis that ought to be nat-
urally broader. They are supposed to learn not only about countries
and industries, but they should also know that those same industries
depend mainly upon either climate or on topography, or on both
climate and topography. The boy should know it not only in the
abstract, but in the concrete as well. He should know it by discovery,
and the discovery should result' from the study and investigation
made in his own neighborhood. Let us take several illustrations.
Suppose the locality is the prairie region of Illinois: Wheat is
the staple product. The wheat-farming is there because the staple
foodstuffs can be cultivated and harvested on a level plain, covered
with alluvial or diluvial soil, more economically than in any other
locality. That is, topography, a geographic feature, has controlled
a great human activity.
Suppose the locality embraces the corn belt: The corn does not
thrive best, we will assume, south of the latitude of Oklahoma
because the days are not long enough to bring about the high tem-
perature which corn requires. It does not thrive in the latitude of
Minnesota because, in spite of the long days, there are occasional
cold nights in August that arrest the process of fructification; that
is, a crop of tremendous importance is controlled by climatic conditions.
Suppose we consider the coal regions: In this case climatic con-
ditions were the proximate causes of the growths of vegetation that
nov/ constitute the coal. Geologic and physiographic forces of a
complex character resulted in the topography that now makes the
coal available as a source of energy. The old denuded Huronian
ranges, their present topography resulting from physiographic process,
3deld their contents of iron ore. The (Ireat Lakes, a natural basin,
constitute a line of such low resistance that upon their surface the
ore may be hauled very cheaply. Because of all these conditions
iron ore fit for making the best Bessemer steel may be delivered at
the smelteries at a cost varying from $1.75 to $3.25 per ton. As a
result of these fortuitous conditions this region has become a center
of steel manufacture that practically fixes the price of steel rails for
the world. So, also, the cotton region, the grazing region of the
plains, the mining region, and the humid lowlands of the Pacific
coast offer excellent illustrations. An inspection of a good relief map
of the country, beginning \rith the Sound Valley and ending with
the lower flood plain of the Colorado River, is sufficient to show that
this is an area destined to become one of the great food-producing
FIXAL RESULTS IX THK STmV OF <;K\>tiKAn<V
,M0
regions of the world. In other wonis, to|H>}j:ra|>hy }^\\\\ oliiuwfo «<>^
the chief factors that control a certain hunuin aouvity an^l nmko
both economic and political history.
Let us consider a foreign country, the conditions of \vh<v*o polilioid
organization are unique — Austria-Hungary: The pupil learn?< of it«
general surface features and what may l)e expected of it?* product vity
so far as latitude permits. He also learns that the popidiUion of thi»
country consists of races that are very diverse in charmMer. Thi»
Czechs hate the Huns and the Huns hate tlu» (V.echH; they l»olh
unite in most cordially hating the (Jermans f)f A\istri«. \Vhy,<hi<n.
are they held together under a single politicnl nrgani/.iitlon? \'u\\\
the pupil knows this he is not armed witli th<» knowledge of the geogin
phy of Austria-Hungary that he ought to luive. 11»c» chief nxplrtii«-
tion of the political entity of the empire is to he fouiul in the VMJley
of the Danube River. On the Houtlieast and east nrc* ihn grwhi flehU
of Roumania and Bulgaria; on the west and north weF»l, jp the den^e
population of the manufacturing centern of I'iurope. The Mannbrs
a line of least resistance becauHc <»f itn topogriiphy, Ip one of Wit*
great trade routes of Europe. So inifMirtant i^ it tlnit thn Ir-on ^hit*^
the water gap in which the river hn^akn through thf C!arp«fh)«n
Mountains, is controlled by an int.<'rnuiional conitniwion. Now i\i$*
commerce of this region is W) exU'nmve ihatihec#iinnMinitvof lnt«'M*ttf
overbalances race hatred. Hence A nutria- 11 nnii /try liold* UfUf'ih^t
because of commercial iuU^UTHin miiiiml Ui the divere^*' tft*'*^.
In the case of Germany we rn«y *w*i' ih'* effi'/f of ft *'otnfftMrf')Hi
product in relation to jreojo'aphi'wnvjrorirrM'rii on Wn' nt^ h«^id hwS
to political hi.«tory on th#- other, Th/r ^awSy \Ui\Ui' \i\h)u h«« « ^^f\^*t-
raphy that has re^uh^-<i U'tUi ^uU^rt-^Uuv phyj^i'/jr^'^phM' \ffin'Mmnt Jf
is indifferent land ior rh^ f'uhr/f%iiou ffi ntfUtittry food ^m/|/», >fO^ lot
the production of 'i^-'iz^r \ft^M. %)^' «//») is m^f^rti.]^ ^-/^o^M i-)«rf.tyhi./i.
So weD tAspUrfl i* t^;^ Uri/J i*ff ih}* ''f/p Wtft^ tfiHtty ^i^Ht*- ttnU-if
formerly derr/Uid Vy otk^^ *yoi^ In Up4^ ^fm^tt ft^y/ ^i^ttt* h*t*r^ )H^it ^) ^t-t*
up to the enkivari/yf. // ♦f^ « /3f;»f f^^ /^/J^-id. of*^- nnifh^ hm/ yr)*h
but Kttle «tt^3EftT**i//r. V.^r *f^ 1^/,f^li$*i^/r** //f O^'- *m\iit^ nt^ h^^^
sugar mzwi fes>rt^r?r..^r **^^* tr/ff. ♦f^ *)i- ft.\^f^ft4fi'tf^ '/f ></•/•* ^^-t^ht
and the Spanaftr.-A.a-uMrV*/', %'*^
we shall fijui *.iia^, xx^^^% yA^^'^* ''^/;»^'*.va%**''^', ,> Mf»/ i^j»;/^v/ f/^
450 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
industries of a people ; that is, production, manufacture, and commerce.
Furthermore, these industries in the main are very largely controlled
by the conditions of geographic environment; that is, by climate and
topography. These are the fundamental propositions in the study
of geography and if the pupil may have forgotten everything else
that he has learned in his school course, he can easily rebuild a good
working knowledge of the subject upon them. Without an under-
standing and comprehension of these principles his knowledge of the
subject is incomplete, imperfect, and fragmentary.
There remains to be considered the way in which the inculcation
of these fundamental principles can best be accomplished. To com-
prehend them a certain maturity of mind that comes only with years
is essential. The German schoolboy has this sort of knowledge
because he has about four more years of work in the systematic
study of geography than the American pupil. Indeed, as a rule,
his knowledge of the subject much surpasses that of the American
boy even in matters pertaining to the geography of the United States.
The American boy closes his study of the subject usually in the eighth
year. In many schools, notably those of New York, he quits it at
the end of the seventh year, just about the time he is old enough to
begin these fimdamental principles. In many cases, more especially
in the elaborately graded schools, the conduct of the study is bent
mainly to the work of preparing for the examinations. '^He studies
to pass and not to know; he does pass and he does not know."
RESULTS OF AN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN
GEOGRAPHY
BY PHILIP EMERSON
Principal of Cobbetl School, Lynn, Mass.
NO more important consideration concerning the teaching of
geography exists than the question as to what results the
course in this study should secure to pupils. The content
of text-books and the methods chosen by the teacher are dependent
upon its decision. It is fundamental to the construction of a coiu*se
of study.
The graduate of a grammar school should have definite knowledge
of the most important facts concerning the earth and its peoples as
a result of his work in geography. Most boys and girls may forget
Z9(H RESULTS OP AN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN GEOGRAPHY 45 I
the facts of mathematics they learned after the fifth or sixth grade
and rarely miss the knowledge. If they fail to remember the essen-
tials of geography presented in upper grades they are poorly prepared
to read newspapers and periodical literature or to converse confi-
dently on current events. They should be equipped with the knowl-
edge requisite to enable them to share in the larger life and thought
of their times.
In years agone, and in belated schools of both city and country
extremely close to the present day, too, about the sole result of the
geography course was a summary knowledge of many brief, unrelated
facts as to location, products, and the like. How many capes and
capitals, distant bays, and little rivers pupils pored over their maps
to find! Happily, ere long most were forgottten, because, having
little life importance, they were but lumber in the mind. In some
school systems reaction from such teaching has resulted in a general
failure to learn the locations of places having prime importance.
We may agree that a graduate should know the location of the
countries of the world, perhaps a hundred of its important cities
definitely and in similar manner the larger physical features and
those of great influence on life, not forgetting really leading produc-
tions. Much more will be known in a rather general way, for instance
that SheflSeld is somewhere in the industrial district of England.
The class of facts first mentioned should be so known that the pupil
will habitually picture in his mind any continent and locate country,
city, or river upon it so as to consider it in its true geographical rela-
tions. The ability to draw a good sketch map rapidly is proof of the
mental picture and its degree of accuracy. There should be built
up in a pupil's mind broad general outlines of the continents and
their life, accurate so far as they go, but with no attempt to elaborate
details. This latter aim would prevent accomplishing the main
purpose.
But what cities and mountain ranges should be well known? some
teachers ask. Why, those that the teachers themselves have found
referred to again and again in papers, magazines, and books — by trav-
elers, historians, and the commercial world. Geography studies the
relations of man to his environment, and facts are important accord-
ing to the closeness of their relation to man's life. There is no need
that some authority should make a list of the places of first importance.
Were a hundred people to make lists of the hundred cities of the
world that a pupil should be able to locate closely, they would
4^2 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
certainly agree in their choice of the majority. Most text-books
emphasize rightly the facts of prime importance.
Geography secures to the pupil more than knowledge of mere
facts; it gives knowledge of the relations, the causal connections,
between facts concerning man and those as to his natural environ-
ment. A pupil should not only have knowledge of successive instances
of relations between man's life and the earth ; such knowledge should
be organized into the more fundamental general truths of geographic
relations. In this direction results are as yet unsatisfactory. The
textrbooks state few general principles clearly; geography in its
higher reaches has not been fully developed as a science. Naturally
the pupil has only indefinite conceptions of the fundamental laws
illustrated by the specific cases he has learned.
The relations of man to the earth have been slowly established
through the changing reactions of history. These relations are often
intricate and hard to comprehend. Even the simpler truths of
geographic relations that are taught can be better understood, per-
haps alone understood, when relations are viewed from the stand-
point of their development. One result of an elementary course in
geography should be some knowledge of geographic facts and relations
of past time — history if you \vill, yet not history in its central purpose.
The pupil will know the world not merely as the sum of present
facts and relations, but as having developed from a different past
toward a more perfect future. These larger general truths of the
evolution of the relations of the different peoples to their home lands
are of at least as much importance as the actual facts taught con-
cerning present geography. When the child has become a man or
woman of middle life, the facts he learned at school will have become
in considerable part untrue; capitals and boundaries change, new
centers of life develop, areas of production and routes of distribution
wonderfully change. Principles of geographic evolution true for
past development control present changes, and knowledge of such
general truths of the science, geography, constitutes a guide to the
understanding of current events of the world and one's home com-
munity that should be furnished in some measure to every graduate
of our schools.
It is even more important that graduates should know how to
study for themselves than that they know certain life facts and general
truths as to their earth relations. Geography provides the earliest
and best opportunity of the elementary school to train children to
i'«»fr"mf "LlsSLii ila**if :i >^ iTii. >4.V'«vm.n *. ..■..\ ^^,-. *.\
riT T- .rfT ■±li^ i^ ITA.V^.'^'.v- >>>,: .. -vVNs ? >%" VS ■!:■■.'■■ ,\ * .^-.^.SiV -. \n v
pan .>: even- yosr. m^w to|\\oH \v\ s»>>, hn^*^* •U>^»0\^ \\> n*^^\" '^^\^^^^ \ \
class study, or liisoussiou, ol \unj^> p^^ n»^> - .\\\A >m\\n\ a,m\\\\ 'S
knowledge, under the tertrher*^ nrn\»\ »ih**l»uu> ,^ \\\\ \\^'\\^ |'\^*\\^'l
and pupils pereeive its Npirii nhd nu Hh*^!* \\\y \ \\s\\\\A |^ ..\ \u\\vl
subjects for indepeiuliMH nHhh, ohd \\ "\ \\)\\a\\\'\\ \\\^\ |"||">^
^-ithout preliminary leiH'liiiip rHhhliMl.. m.n \U\\ \\\ holm 'M" |*||..^»
how to study the pictiirr^, iiui)i^, tiihl ii ^1 h| |i>ih|« • w \\\ w \\\\ ) « \\\^ \
the secondary school or Inivi' m ln»i»l hit hh ^m»iI»
Geography ufTordn u hi I'f/r II h'l nifdiiii'l m)i)mi| imhm v ). ) ||,i))i)|i).
children to um; tiicir t-yt-i- uml mOih • » h'n> \n lirii/rliliMl |i|>h •!
objects. Field Ieh>r<;ij.- ^}|'/^iJd l/i ii/iH)nj|*ij ih/M'i/Ji i|m j,//i|« m/'HI
pupils will naturally '^ij<v-noii l^^/w i|m innhttn hh '-^ *')».v /" /. )/•
sented c>ODjnjujiity ij- i<;J«U;*j »>y lU- * i»vi^i,iJi/i> j>i^ / .m- j^ i)n . •/"/»' » ..
certaiiJy qu<:?^■1ivTJ Kvw u*iy u<w ili.ijMi ,,.i ;(.'.•)• !••) i., hmI'm
foroe§- Ijb.^/'.inx v^i y < v.*^* <'i.v< i- rv» 1 1 . „!...!, . i . . . . . . , .< . I . i j i I j ' J i ^
HIThJXiS^fid M^l'^ 'jl ^J/<.-<'li*4Mi.- «i1 Ii. „ II ,. i>i J I..1. .,,.1 t i.. 1 < <l j.;i.ili|il.
ffUOld ih^ leiuliOiif u"" •^♦i.i.- I .•> I.' /,'■''' ' ■• '■•"'■i'
st'UCiy ill ut'y**i*t\ni,^' 'i,* i-{ii,«.»( o . \,'..*i ■- •/■'«■ ■'■ ^i-J »ii.
Wudenl^- *fllli**ilif 'lit :..^': ..<■:,/'* . ' w I.* , I ' .. ■■■ •/'■ '*,'
It' rtiutty tiii f?a*'lj iiii' 'ftji.i ... .-/'^t J
moJ-* tJiiJJ 1; J
' :»*
f.,,
iic<('iinu*»; '.
• 1 -' (•■
"**■■■
r^U'.»i 1' fii?.'
. . ,
■ ;-
oMj a;i' 1 :,^^
.,<; " » /
.*
JL-riiwr iij; a<i
^*
if«--itu-.«^l./ ,:^^.
:.^.
«'OV«J.- -c«»^^
.-.
til* !' = ■ :/*. *j*- V
*s
Ji>./i ^ '>
,
454 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
earnest and broad patriotism, intelligent devotion to the develop-
ment of the economic and social possibilities of the home community,
comprehension of the resources and relations of the nation that shall
complete the work of history in securing wdse citizenship, apprecia-
tion of fellow lands and peoples that shall make patriotism broad
enough to know the rights of other nations and the duty of our people
toward other races.
In summary: the knowledge gained during an elementary course
in geography should be so limited and systematized as to be definite
and permanent; it should be so gained as to open attractively a
limitless field of knowledge and to inspire an earnest and practical
effort to relate one's own life to its environment.
FOUNDATIONAL EXPERIENCES
BY ARTHUR P. IRVING
Buckingham School, Springfield, Mobs.
AT the opening of the last school year all of our classes took up
£^^ geography work and we determined if possible to lift the study
above the merely word work so often found. To make the
study more real to the pupils was our aim.
The first step was to find out what the children offered us to build
upon, not in the way of previous book knowledge but in actual obser-
vation and experiences. We also noted that ideas of the oceans,
lakes, rivers, and mountains predominate in geography. Therefore
we set out to learn just what the children knew at first hand of these
fundamental features by having them write answers to the following
questions. Some of these questions are necessarily local, covering
prominent features of this section:
Ocean —
1. Have you been on the shore of the ocean?
2. Have you tasted of the water of the ocean?
3. Have you waded into the water of the ocean?
4. Have you seen the rise and fall of the tide?
5. Have you sailed on the ocean?
Lake —
6. Have you seen a lake?
7. Name the largest lake you have seen.
8. What is the taste of lake water?
1904
FOUNDATIONAL EXPERIENCES
455
River —
9. What large river besides the Connecticut have you seen?
10. Have you seen falls in a large stream?
11. Where are these falls you saw?
Mountain —
12. Have you been on Mount Tom?
13. Have you seen a greater mountain than Mount Tom ?
Name it.
14. Have you ever lived outside of the Connecticut Valley ?
If so, where?
The answers of the children are tabulated by grades and rooms.
In the following chart the total number of each grade is given except
for the seventh grade, which for our study is given in detail. Many
of the questions could be answered by yes or no. The upper number
of the fractional form in the chart signifies yes and the lower number
no. The results of some of the questions do not appear on the chart.
Foundation Experiences in Geography
1
1
IK'KAJ!
LAKK
1
1
t
1
RfVKU
MOUN-
TAIN
1
1
1
1
{-
s
1
iJi
1
J
1
1
1
**
1
m
i
1
1
1
s
1
i
0
S
i
3
VI
4
5
H
f!lH
n !i
n u
8
0
1 s
5
5
15
jis
22
16
10
15
5
46
IS
4
9
1
4
18
H
H
*f
«
H'H
VI]
3
2
1
7
H
H
H
V
H
n
H
H
iV
H
H
H
H
H
H
Total
H
U
H
H H
'w\fh
H
VIII
8,9,
10
12
H\H
a
«
18
16
1
«
IX
H H
¥
H
7
U
^
Upper number of frnrtion In nnmber of piipiln aneweririK Vt'S,
Lower nmnb^ of fraction w number of papib antiwering No.
456 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
While considering these answers we must bear in mind that Spring-
field is about a hundred miles from the ocean; that no lake of any
size is very near us, the nearest ponds even being so situated that
many of the children do not see them; that Mount Tom (1,218 feet)
is ten miles away, easily reached by electric cars and clearly seen
from most parts of the city; and that the Connecticut River is at
our door, although not much of a factor in the business of the city,
as in Hartford and Holyoke. Again, these children are all in the
upper grades and from pretty well-to-do families.
In grade VI over half of the pupils have no first-hand knowledge
of the ocean and eighteen have none of lakes either. About half
have not seen falls of any size and a large number have not been
much above the common level of the land hereabouts.
I^t any teacher think over her geography outline and consider
such facts of the mental condition of her pupils and she must sit down
in blank discouragement or spring up with a grim determination to
overcome these difficulties so far as possible by good teaching. One
of our teachers expressed it when she said she realized for the first
time how dim were the visions which the children had from her teach-
ing, for she had taken too much for granted.
A little better condition is shown in grades VII, VIII, and IX, but
in every grade and room the per cent of those lacking fundamental
concepts is large, very large, and must be reckoned with in class pre-
sentation.
In grade VII are given the statistics of each room to show that the
deficiencies are everywhere present and not confined to the highest
or lowest divisions of a grade.
The statistics of this school as such are of little use to teachers
of other schools. They merely suggest that every teacher must know
her own class and present to her a simple way of getting such knowl-
edge. It would be interesting and helpful to have such a study of
the whole city, yet after all each teacher is concerned chiefly with her
own class. By the conditions herein presented the teacher is chal-
lenged to do good work. The first step is to know the conditions;
the next is to govern ourselves accordingly. That the teachers of
this school have overcome these difficulties would be far too much
to say. But different and more thoughtful teaching has been going
on. We are right in the stage where we would like to have some
show us how to do more. The way, however, is not all so dark as one
might think. We can make use of well known devices, well selected
X904 FOUNDATIONAL EXPERIENCES 457
pictures, and good word pictures from any source. Talks by chil-
dren who may have seen different places are of great interest to
the others. For illustration, in room 7 we found a number of pupils
who had seen lakes ranging from Forest Lake, Whalom, Quinsigamond
to lakes Champlain, Erie, Michigan, and Great Salt Lake. And for
rivers we got experiences from the Chicopee and Westfield to the
Nashua, Charles, Penobscot, and Mississippi. Several had seen
Niagara Falls. Seventeen had lived outside of the Connecticut
Valley, as in New Hampshire, Montreal, Providence, Long Island,
Buffalo, and in England. For mountains we ranged from Wachusett
and Greylock to Mount Washington and the Catskills.
I am fully aware that our course of study calls for North and
South America in grade VI and for Europe, Asia, and Africa in grade
VII, etc. But how can children ever know and visualize anything
of these remote places until they know what is about home? Those
children whom Doctor Hall mentions who thought of berg as a
place of amusement, from Pefferberg, the name of a saloon in their
neighborhood in the city of Berlin, were better off in the use of a
geographical term than some of our upper grade children. They
had at least a concrete idea under the word. We hope also to see the
time when we can ask the pupils of the ninth grade to point out a
plain or plateau without having them charge up and down a streaked
map of remote Asia or Africa while all the time our own city is largely
situated on such a form.
So at last we drop into a plea for and a trial of a broader study
of local and neighboring conditions. Not that local geography is
meant which confines itself to the fourth grade and then forgets
that the pupils ever had a local habitation. We might as well study
phonics in grade II and then never require it again.
A distant and foreign land must be interpreted in the thought
and terms of the home country. Understand the Connecticut River
and you understand all rivers. This thought applied in every grade
must help overcome some of the difficulties.
458 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY December
WHAT SHOULD GRADUATES FROM ELEMEN-
TARY SCHOOLS KNOW ABOUT
GEOGRAPHY
BY ISAAC O. WINSLOW
Principal of Thayer Street School^ Providence, R. I.
THE determination of the course in geography for elementary
schools is a process of selection and elimination. In the rapid
development of the subject in recent years a great amount of
the **new geography '^ has been added, while but little of the old
has been abandoned. The result is that we have an impossible
amount of subject-matter included in the course and in the text-
books, and the attempt to accomplish the whole leads to confusion.
The necessity of selecting imposes an unnecepsary burden upon the
ordinary teacher and requires greater ability than she possesses.
The few artist teachers are able to shape their own work, but while
we are theorizing about the few we are neglecting the many.
Of all the work that might be regarded as belonging in the geograph-
ical sphere of education, to determine what parts are of greatest worth
to the average child as a preparation for life is the task that lies
before us. There ought to be a more general agreement with regard
to the several divisions of geography — astronomical, mathematical,
physical, historical, political, descriptive, and economic — upon the
question what there is in each division that for its practical utility,
or its value in culture, the average child should be expected to know
at the time of leaving the elementary schools.
With regard to astronomical and mathematical conceptions, too
much is generally expected of young children and but little is accom-
plished. By the simplest forms of illustration, wdth the globe and
a diagram, and by observations of the sun, the most elementary
' notions of the motions of the earth and its relative positions should
be thoroughly established in the mind of the child as a permanent
possession. Upon this basis he should be able to understand the
causes of the changes of the seasons, the alternation of day and night,
and the variation in the length of the days. A little practice in
thinking where the sun would appear to be in the heavens, at noon,
to one situated at the equator, at the tropical circles, at the Arctic
Circle, and in various countries of the world, at different seasons of
I904 WHAT SHOULD GRADUATES KNOW ABOUT GEOGRAPHY 459
the year, will serve to effect a transition from the artificial illustra-
tions to an imagination of the realities.
There is great clanger of attempting too much in physical geogra-
phy and of teaching it at the wrong time. Pupils of the high school
grade may find interest in this part of the subject, when pursued for
its own sake and with extended applications in detail, but for ele-
mentary pupils this is wearisome and unprofitable. It is not difficult,
however, to awaken an interest in scientific principles and facts
which can be easily understood and which have an evident relation
to human welfare. A good understanding of such elementary prin-^-^
ciples is necessary as a general basis for causal explanations. In
setting forth these principles it is not necessary to give all the causes
that produce a given effect. A clear idea of one cause is better than a
confused notion of several, and satisfies the demand for explanation.
We should give a clear idea of the cause of the movement of the *^
air, in general, and of some particular applications, such as sea breezes
and land breezes. The latter part of the course should include an
explanation of the prevailing winds of the earth and their changes
with the seasons.
With regard to temperature, two points are important, the differ-
ence due to elevation, and the difference between inland regions and
those near large bodies of water. An explanation of the curves in
isothermal lines, at various seasons, furnishes good practice in the
application of these principles.
The child should be able to give, first, the general causes of the ^
appearance of moisture in the atmosphere in the form of fog, mist,
clouds, and rain, and secondly, the most common of the particular
causes, as when a body of air rises, or passes over mountains, and
when the trade wind meets the land. These points should be so
thoroughly understood that an application may be readily made
under any specified conditions.
A causal explanation of the physical features of the earth requires ^^
a brief account of geological history, including the formation of the
earth's crust by cooling, the principal agencies of erosion, the forma-
tion of new strata, the effects of upheaval and depression, volcanic
action, the effects of rivers in wearing down their beds, transporting
detritus, and forming flood plains and deltas, the work of waves on
the coast, and the principal effects of the Ice Sheet. It is impossible
to avoid an elementary consideration of these principles without
abandoning the attempt to give explanation and reverting to a static
460 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
treatment of geography, or mere description. On the other. hand
it is necessary to guard against the temptation to enter into details
too minutely. Brief and simple explanations, if clear and correct
as far as they go, are not open to the charge of superficiality.
The aspect of supreme importance, to which mathematical and
physical considerations are subordinate and in which the highest
^ interest of children centers, is the treatment of the people of the
earth, of the geographical reasons for their activities, and of the
causes and results of their abode in the various regions.
As an introduction to the life of the people of a country and as a
/means of awakening interest in them, it is of great advantage to give
a brief account of their origin and of the development of their leading
characteristics. A brief statement of the great national facts in the
history of the Swiss people, for example, an account of their patriotism
and their struggle for liberty and independence, arouses an interest
in their present conditions as nothing else can.
The culmination of both interest and value is in the customs and
occupations of the people, especially as resulting from natural condi-
tions. Children are eager to learn what manner of life the people of
a country are leading, what they are doing and why they are doing it.
A strict regard for the limits of the field would confine us to such
activities of the people as are geographically determined, but it is
unnecessary to bo greatly troubled upon that point. The objection
to passing beyond the boundary lines has a stronger basis in the
question of economy of time, than in that of sinning against
principles. The teacher himself should have so clear a view as to
know the boundaries of the field, but should not hesitate, at times,
to pass beyond them. The production of wheat in the Dakotas and
Minnesota is a fact geograpliically determined. Routes of trans-
portation of the wheat, if affected by geographical conditions, are
also legitimate. The water power at Minneapolis may furnish an
excuse for mentioning the bare fact that wheat is there converted into
flour. Precise geographers of a certain type are ready to cry out
against anything further, and yet the practical teacher who fails to
weave in details by briefly describing the methods of handling the
wheat and the process of manufacturing flour, misses an easy oppor-
tunity to clothe the subject with life and to strengthen the memory
by vividness.
The commercial phases of geography belong preeminently in the
elementary course. To account for the leading productions of a
X904 WHAT SHOULD GRADUATES KNOW ABOUT GEOGRAPHY 46 I
country without explaining what becomes of them is to leave the
thought in suspense. A study of the system of exchanges of the great ^
staple products among the various countries is as easy and interesting
as the spontaneous play of childhood. Thorough practice in thinking
out the leading commercial routes and the products transported over
them serves as the best kind of final review and fixes in mind a
most concise knowledge of world relations. Recently there has been
a tendency to enlarge upon physical geography in the elementary
schools while, on the other hand, commercial geography has generally
been regarded as a high-school subject. There are good reasons for
reversing this. The graduate from the elementary schools should
be sufficiently acquainted with the practical world of the present day
to have in mind a fairly complete scheme of commercial relations
and exchanges. On the other hand, with a good understanding of
the simplest elements of physical geography he can afford to postpone
an elaborate treatment of that subject.
Such an industrial and commercial view of the world will serve
to emphasize the most important part of *^ sailor geography." Mere
convenience requires one to be familiar with minor localities in the
vicinity of his home and within the circuit of his practical life, but
aside from this the indiscriminate cramming of names and locations
is worse than useless.
Since the capital cities are not always the largest cities of countries
and states, there is neither practical nor disciplinary value in the
ability to recite them. The memory should not be burdened with ^
the names of more cities than are often mentioned in the newspapers
or in books commonly read. Every city of this class should be asso-
ciated, in the child's mind, with some special industry or attraction
for which it is noted.
Great exactness should not be required in the matter of locations ^
or boundaries, except in the case of the home state or country. The
ability to name, in order, the succession of states along the border of
the country or along a river, or those through which one would pass
in traveling from a given point in a given direction, embraces all that
is of much value in this kind of knowledge. If children can give the ^
countries and the parts of the countries in which the important moun-
tain ranges and rivers are situated, there is little additional advantage
in more exact details. The knowledge of capes, gulfs, and bays and
other forms on the coast should be confined to those whose names
are of frequent occurrence. The most effectual means of fixing locations
462 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
December
in the memory is practice in filling outline maps, or making maps
quickly from memory.
The suggestions herein set forth may seem to propose a course
unnecessarily brief and simple, but they will be appreciated by those
who have had experience in ascertaining how little of all the geography
that is studied in school is retained in after life. It is true of many
subjects of study that much is gained from what has been once learned
and for the time forgotten, but in geography facts forgotten are
nearly a total loss. In this department it is best to strive to know
the few things well.
COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CON-
TINENTS*
BY GEO. D. HUBBARD
Cornell University
AFRICA has been styled by a leading traveler, *'The Coming
^ Continent. '' In what sense may it be thus named? Perhaps
because of its rapid development; perhaps because many
European nations rushed precipitously, less than two decades ago,
to possess themselves of a portion. Certainly not as a place into
which the peoples of temperate climes may overflow, since most of
the great continent is climatically unfitted to be their home. Cer-
tainly not for its people, because its unnumbered millions belong to
low, savage, restless, workless, or nomadic, marauding types. And
certainly not on account of its mineral wealth, although the output
of gold and diamonds is something prodigious, because these minerals
never have been the basis of the permanent development of any
country, nor indeed can be. The nations whose greatness is due to
mineral industries base them on coal and iron. Certainly not as a
market for manufactured articles because most of the natives, who
constitute a large percentage of the 130,000,000t souls, make all
the clothing and tools for which they have use. Wherein, then, lies
♦Note. — After the continents have all been studied it is well to sum up the work
in various ways, and to introduce comparisons and contrasts between them as to
size, population, position, and other characteristics. The theme of the accompany-
ing paper may be suggestive along this line. The countries of a continent or states
of a nation may serve as a basis for a similar study.
t A mean of the estimates for Africa's population.
COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF CONTINENTS 463
the importance of this massive, dark continent? It really has great
possibilities. Can we not find them in the relation to the other
continents, which it is destined to bear in the business world? This
discussion is opened in order to set forth the geographic conditions
upon which is based the economic interdependence of continents and
of zones.
The loudest cry of all the leading life centers, agricultural as well
as manufactural, has come to be, ^*A market for our products or we
pertsh." With this in view, let us look at the field. The market
hunter seeks primarily for people. This is the first element in a mar-
ket, for wherever the density of population is high, there a consider-
able quantity of various commodities are used. It is because some
writers have gone no farther than this that an error has been made.
A second element includes the needs of the people unmet by home
productions. Regions differ immensely in this factor. Climate,
occupation, and customs established by constant or repeated contact
with elements of the environment help to determine the needs. For
example, a resident of central western Europe must have cotton,
woolen, and silken clothing, gold rings, feathers, books, elegant
carriages, and tempting viands with beautiful pottery upon which
to serve his menu. The central African native uses but little cot-
ton, no wool or silk; ornaments of iron, bone, or even wood, make
very good substitutes for the costly golden treasures. A chicken^s
feathers equal those of an ostrich. And as for ''tempting viands"
and the associated chinaware — native, uncultivated fruits and vege-
tables eaten uncooked from the hand are all that could be desired.
For books he knows no use, and when he takes his outing he walks.
Since what little work he does is hand work, machinery is not in
the list of his needs. Therefore^ the wants among these people are
extremely few.
The third element consists of the present products of the region.
Notice the last two regions mentioned. The European can make
all his clothing and to spare, if he only has the raw materials. He
grows the wool-bearing sheep and tends the tiny silk spinner, but
his climate forbids the growing of cotton, hence he must buy that.
His feathers and furs must be imported. The gold he can dig in
many places, but in insufficient quantities; so that, too, must come
to him. He has learned to collect the raw materials of his food
from all the corners of the earth, and in them he has built up a great
commerce. The clays and sands of his own hills and valleys and
2
464
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
December
the coal of his mines enable him to make his own chinaware and
ornaments. The wants unmet by the home products or by goods
made from the latter are practically all raw materials. Hence we
say France and Germany are manufacturing nations. But the
African finds a strip of homemade grass cloth sufficient for all his
clothing. The feathers in his hair or hanging from his girdle are
from native wild birds or from his own poultry y^rd. His orna-
ments have always been homemade from native products until
Europeans taught him different. Now he wants strips of calico,
green or red cotton parasols, and all sorts of gewgaws from abroad.
These flummeries constitute his great unmet wants. In almost all
other respects the products of his land are sufficient.
With these principles in mind, turn to the several continents and
see what part to expect them to play in the world's great commercial
system, for by virtue of commerce and commercial centers all other
life centers are united and vivified. In the following table the items
are brought together for comparison:
Continents, Etc.
Density
OF Pop. per
Sg. Mile
Needs or Wants
Beside Those Met
AT Home
Surplus Products
i
Europe | 97
Many ; highly specialized ;
foods, and raw mate-
rials for factories.
Many classes of manu-
factures.
Asia
48
Many; less specialized;
all sorts of manufac-
tures and machines,
some food.
Many raw materials; sjx?-
cial food stuffs, a few
types of manufactures.
Pacific Isles 42
Oniaments, civilization,
development and asso-
ciated machinery and
equipment.
Oniaments, civilization,
development and asso-
ciated machinery- and
equipment.
Mineral and agricultural
raw materials.
Africa
15
Raw materials.
North America .
12
Many; highly special-
ized; foods and raw
materials.
Manufactured goods and
raw products, as grains,
cotton, etc.
South America . . .
«
Many; less specialized;
manufactures and ma-
chines.
Raw materials, especially
tropical agricultural
products.
Australia
''
Manufactures.
Agricultural and mineral
products — grains, wool,
and gold.
X9(H COMMERCIAL IMPORTAN'CE OF CONTINENTS 465
From the table it appears that Europe is most densely settled,
and, judged on this point alone, should be the best market. It is
true that its people use by far the most manufactured goods per
capita as well as per unit area, but they also make the most. Their
special need is for raw materials to be made into foods for home use,
and into textiles, hardware, and machinery for use and for export.
Asia is a continent only half as densely settled, but by a people whose
wants are many and whose productive power is good, especially
along agricultural and certain manufactural lines. Hence their
need is for general manufactures and their surplus is raw materials.
And since Asia\s area is several times greater, the actual number of
consumers is millions above that of Europe. These people should
meet those of Europe and exchange commodities. Asia is pre-
eminently characterized as a market for manufactures, hence to a
manufacturing nation it must seem like "the coming continent.^'
The Pacific Isles, however, with nearly as high a density of pop-
ulation, have very few unmet needs, while they possess facilities for
turning out a large quantity of tropical food products and raw mate-
rials to supply the manufacturing industries of Europe and America.
These islands should be looked to, not as markets for manufactures,
but as sources of raw materials. It is true they buy almost nothing
but manufactured goods, but the list is mostly made up of machinery,
carriages, beer, flour, and petroleum, and the total is very small
compared, for example, with the Australian colonies. All the Dutch
East Indies imported, in 1901, goods to the value of $2.50 per capita,
while in 1902 the Australian commonwealth imported to the value
of $54 per capita. The continent of Africa belongs in the same
category. The people of both countries lack all urgent needs, a lack
due to the hot, enervating climate, the uncultured condition of the
mass of the population, and to the prodigious productivity of the soil.
In North America great nations occupy broad tracts. The people
are extremely progressive; the invigorating climate, by its severity,
creates wants for clothing, fuel, houses, and food. The people have
developed manufacturing to an extent, in many localities, compara-
ble with that in Europe. The country is not thickly settled, hence
there is magnificent opportunity for the production of raw materials.
North America produces as much of this class of commodities as it
uses, but ships some out and buys others to meet special manufactur-
ing demands, then makes up much more goods in many lines than
are needed. Therefore the continent may be classified as a producer
466 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY December
of raw materials and also of mill products. For this reason Europe
is invaded to sell goods of the first class and Asia to sell those of the
second, while our merchants join hands with the Pacific Isles and
Africa in order to purchase raw materials.
South America and Australia, with their sparse populations and
broad acreage, are prel^minently producers of raw materials and
purchasers of manufactures. But they differ between themselves
so much in climate that as continents they must always differ in
the general character of the products. The former will supply,
largely, tropical fruits, vegetables, and forest products, while the
latter will produce sheep and wool wdth southern South America;
and gold and wheat, by means of which it can buy the needed manu-
factures.
In conclusion it may be said that the climate, soil, density of
population, and the social and economic conditions of the people
differ widely in the several continents, and disclose the basis for inter-
continental commerce and exchange. Goods must cross the merid-
ians from one temperate country to another because of the enforced
difference in output and in the respective needs of the people; and
for the same reason they must cross the tropics. Temperate coun-
tries, while great producers of raw materials, are preianinently the
manufacturers of the world. Tropical lands, while making nearly
all that they need, are preeminently producers of raw materials
which must waste unless sent to factories in the temperate zone.
Just as our continued prosperity depends upon our finding a market
for our specialties (manufactures), so the development of tropical
lands depends upon their finding a market for their specialties (raw
materials).
1904
LATER GEOGRAPHIES 467
LATER GEOGRAPHIES*
BY CLIFTON JOHNSON
THE old-time geographies until nearly the middle of the last
century were never larger than 12mos and some of them were
diminutive 32mos. Up to 1820 they were as a rule iKiund
in full leather, but occasionally the wood or binder's board of the
sides was covered with dull blue or marbled pajxT. Buff -tinted
papers i^ith the title and more or less other printing on them were sul>-
stituted on nearly all the later books. Illustrations also l>egan to l>e
used, at first sparingly, but soon very generously; an<i instead of
being designed for the older pupils the books were ma<ie ^lith sf>ecial
reference to the needs of the younger children.
For a score of years after ge^>graphies began to \)e introduced
into the schools they dej>ended largely on the use of a globe to make
clear the di\'isions of the earth. It was not long, however, before
nearly ever}' book was accompanied by an atlas, and this continued
customar\' to about 1850. Not many of these atlases have survived.
They were fiimsily made, with paj>er covers, and the wear and t-cr'ar
of daily use made an end of them. The usual size was either alxjut
six by nine inches or nine by eleven inches. Conjparatively little
color was used on the maf>s, and even at their newest the atlases
must have looked dull and uninteresting. To niodern eyes the
oddest features of the maps are the vacant or mistaken outlines of
the northern coasts of tWs continent, and the general blankness of all
its w€*stem pcrxiou, with Mexico ma^cing a great sweep up into tfie
present domains of our republic. S<^me of the African maps, Um). are
given a strange ap]>earanc^ by the jxjrtrayal of an immense line of
mountains — the ''Jibbel Kumra (*r Mts. of the Mocjn '' — extending id
a continuous and j>»erfeetly straight chain fronj ea%t to west entirely
across the broadest part of the continent.
Jedidiah Morse was the pioneer among American authors of schcxJ
geographies, as I have explained in the previous ehajiter. Tlie
earEeet rival to contest the field with Morse's lx>oks was a small vol-
ume of quesiions and answers compiled by Xathaniei liwight and
published at Hartford in 1795. Our own continent is confined to
^Keprioted by peniuwkiti from *H>id-TiixK' Schoc^ and BchouHiciakfc," jmU-
liflbed by The MftrnmUwi CompaDr, Kew Yofk.
468 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY December
the final third of Dwight's Geography, while Europe, Asia, and Africa
have the first two-thirds. How very remote and unfamiliar many
portions of the globe still were can be judged from the fact that
most of the capital cities in Africa and some even in Asia and
Europe are located by giving their distance and direction from Lon-
don. ThuS; ^'Petersburgh the capital of Russia is 1140 miles north-
east from London. Pekin the capital of China stands eight thousand
and sixty-two miles south-easterly of London. '' Monomotapa, the
capital of a country of the same name '*on the sea-shore in the
southern part of Africa, is built with wood, covered with plaster
and stands about 5,200 miles south-easterly from London.'* Other
curious bits from the geography follow:
Q. What are the Russian funeral ceremonies?
A. They are singular: The priest prays, and sprinkles the
corpse for eight or ten days; it is then buried with a passport to
heaven, signed by the bishop and another clergyman, which is
put between the fingers of the deceased, and then the people return
to the house whence they went, and drown their sorrow in intoxica-
tion. This they commonly do for about forty days, during which
time the priest says prayers over the grave.
Q. Are there any lakes in Scotland?
A. There are many; but two are very remarkable: One near
Lochness is on the top of a hill almost two miles high. This lake is
small, but it has never been sounded, nor does it ever freeze. About
seventeen miles distant is another lake which is frozen all the year.
Q. What are the persons and characters of the Scots?
A. They are generally lean, raw-boned, and have high cheek-
bones, which is a characteristical feature.
Q. What are the diversions of the Scots?
A. They are all of the vigorous, athletic kind; such as dancing,
goff and curling. The gofT is a species of ball-playing performed with
a bat and a ball, the extremity of the bat being loaded with lead,
and the party which strikes the ball with fewest strokes into a hole
prepared for the purpose wins the game.
Q. What are the customs and diversions of the Irish?
A. There are a few customs existing in Ireland peculiar to this
country. These are their funeral bowlings and presenting their
corpses in the streets to excite the charity of strangers, their con-
vivial meetings on Sunday,, and dancing to bag-pipes, which are usually
attended with quarreling.
LATER GEOGRAPHIES 469
Q. What curiosities are there in France?
A. A fountain near Grenoble emits a flame which will burn
paper, straw, etc., but will not burn gun-powder. Within about
eight leagues of the same place is an inaccessible mountain in the
form of a pyramid reversed.
Q. What are the animal productions of Poland?
A. Buffaloes, horses, wolves, boars, gluttons, lynxes and deer.
Besides these there is elk, which is said to be destroyed in the winter
by flies who get into his ears and live upon his brain.
Q. What curiosities are there in Portugal?
A. There are lakes into which a stone being cast causes a rumb-
ling Uke the noise of an earthquake.
Q. What do you observe of the inhabitants of Guinea?
A. They are chiefly pagans and idolaters. In Eyo, where the
people are governed by a king who is not absolute, when they are
tired of him, a deputation waits on him and informs him that it is
fatiguing for him to bear the burden of government any longer,
advising him to take a little rest. He thanks them and retires to
his apartment as if to sleep, and directs his women to strangle him;
and after he expires they destroy all things which belonged to him
or to themselves, and then kill one another. His son succeeds to
the government, and on the same terms.
Q. Give a concise description of the Giages and Annians.
A. The first inhabit a part of the Congo coast; the latter live
in the Macaco. The people are cannibals. They kill and eat their
first-born children; and their friends who die are eaten by their
relations. The king of Macaco resides in Monsol, where there is a
market in which human flesh is sold, although other meat exists in
plenty. They esteem it a luxury, and it is said an hundred prisoners
or slaves are daily killed for the king's table.
Q. What are the characteristics of the Hottentots?
A. They are the most abject of the human race. They besmear
their bodies with soot and grease, live upon carrion, old leather,
shoes, and everything of the most loathsome kind; dress themselves
in sheep's skins, untanned, turning the wool to their flesh in the
wdnter, and the other side in the summer. Their dress serves them
for a bed at night, for a covering by day, and for a winding-sheet
when they die.
Q. What is the temper of the New England people?
A. They are frank and open, bold and enterprising. The women
470 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY December
are educated to house- wifery, excellent companions, and house-
keepers; spending their leisure time in reading books of useful infor-
mation.
Q, What are their diversions?
A. Dancing is a favorite one of both sexes. Sleigh-riding in
winter, and skating, playing ball, gunning, and fishing are the
principal; gambling and horse-jockeying are practiced by none but
worthless people who are despised by all persons of respectability,
and considered as nuisances in society.
Q. Are there any slaves in Massachusetts?
A. NONE.
One geography that had a marked individuality of its own was a
thick little volume, mostly in verse, entitled The Monitor's Instructor^
published at Wilmington, Delaware, in 1804. Speaking of himself
in the third person in the introduction the author says, ** Unpractised
in poetry in a great degree, he has ventured thereupon supposing
it to be, in general, rather more taking, with youth, than prose; and
though not the most flowery cast, it will, he hopes, answer the end.''
Now let the muse some incense bring.
As we the works of nature sing,
is the way he begins, and below are extracts culled here and there
from succeeding pages:
America (our native) streams,
Shall first awhile become our themes.
Both lakes and rivers, great and small.
Which in th' Atlantic Ocean fall.
After naming the more important coast rivers, the book remarks:
Now o'er these streams thus havmg glanc'd.
And hastily, thus far advanc'd,
Not having left the sounding shore,
Next their main sources shall explore;
And on the wing which poets feign.
Soar to each mount, skim o'er the plain,
To find the Uttle purling rill.
And which the largest rivers fill.
One river, of enormous size.
To west of Mississippi lies. . .
The river this call'd Missouri,
LATER GEOGRAPHIES 47 I
And tow'rd south-east its courses lie,
This river, from what I can see,
Can't less than the Ohio be.
Skipping to where the book is describing leading towns, we find
these lines:
An island is well known to fame,
Manhattan is this island's name. . . .
On sou'west end New York doth stand,
Investing all that point of land. . . .
Not fully regular it's plann'd,
Yet very elegant and grand. . . .
The streets present diversity,
And suited to conveniency,
The Broadway has still more of taste
Than any street in all the place. . . .
A street three-score and ten feet wide,
And gently rising from the tide,
Its edifices bold and grand,
Present themselves on either hand;
The most magnificent of all,
Known by the name of Fecl'ral Hall,
For pleasantness, it is agreed,
And health, few places this exceed.
In summer come, on every side,
The cooling breezes from the tide.
For winter mildness few excel
This city, of same parallel.
In the prose portion of the book are several curious *' paradoxes."
Here is one of them:
Three men went on a journey, in which, though their heads trav-
elled 12 yards farther than their feet, all returned alive, with their
heads on.
The Solution explains that *'If any person should travel round
the globe, the space travelled by his head will exceed that his feet
travelled " by about the number of yards mentioned.
The next geography from which I make selection is by Benjamin
Davies. It was published in 1813. The first two paragraphs quoted
come under the heading **New Holland." This was the accepted
name of Australia until the middle of the nineteenth century. The
Dutch discovered the continent in 1616, but its size and shape were
only vaguely known until Captain Cook explored most of the coast
in 1770.
Some suppose that this extensive region, when more thoroughly
472 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY December
investigated, will be found to consist of two, three or more vast islands
intersected by narrow seas.
Inhabitants. The black bushy beards of the men and the bone
or reed which they thrust through the cartilage of the nose gives
them a disgusting appearance ; which is not improved by the practice
of rubbing fish oil into their skins as a protection from the air and
moskitos; so that in hot weather the stench is intolerable. The
women are marked by the loss of the two first joints of the little
finger of the left hand; as they are supposed to be in the way when
they coil their fishing lines.
Manners and Customs in the United States. Travellers have
observed a want of urbanity, particularly in Philadelphia; and in
all the capital cities, an eager pursuit of wealth, by adventurous
speculations in commerce, by land-jobbing, banks, insurance offices,
and lotteries. The multiplication of inns, taverns and dram shops,
is an obvious national evil that calls loudly for legislative interfer-
ence; for in no country are they more numerous or more universally
baneful. Schools are spread everywhere through the well-settled
parts of the country, yet the domestic regulation of children and
youth is not duly regarded.
Language. The English language is the general one of the union,
and is cultivated with great assiduity in all the principal cities and
towns. All the classical authors in the English language have been
reprinted in America, many of them have passed through several
editions, some with great elegance and correctness.
Boston is built in a very irregular manner, on a peninsula, at the
bottom of Massachusetts bay.
Southern Manners and Customs. The inquisitive traveller
as he progresses southward no longer beholds so great a proportion
of hardy, industrious and healthy yeomanry, living on terms of
equality and independence; their domestic economy neat and com-
fortable; their farms well stocked; and their cattle sleek and thriving.
On the contrary he discovers the farmhouses more thinly scattered,
some of them miserable hovels; the retreats of small proprietors,
who are too indolent or too proud to labor; here and there a stack of
corn-fodder, and the cattle looking as miserable as their ow^ners.
A few miles distant perhaps he finds a large mansion house, the prop-
erty of the lord of two or three thousand acres of land, surrounded
by 50 or 100 negro-huts, constructed in the slightest manner; and
about these cabins swarms of black slaves. But it is just to observe
that many of the gentry are distinguishable for their polished manners
and education, as well as for their great hospitality to strangers.
Cummings's Geography, 1814, apologizes in its preface for adding
another ''to the number of geographies, already so great as to obstruct,
rather than promote improvement.'' This preface is very long, and
X904
LATER GEOGRAPHIES 473
is chiefly made up of directions "designed to assist teachers, who
have had but imperfect, or no geographical instruction." It advises
them to **let the pupils always set with their faces towards the north.'*
Then with their maps before them they will be in pro[)er pi>sitJon to
get the points of the compass straight in their minds.
Early in the lessons we are informed that the **Alleganies are in
some places immense masses of rocks, pileil one above another in
frightful precipices, till they reach the height of more than lO.(HH)
feet above a level with the ocean." In reality not a peak reaches
7,000 feet.
During the previous decade Lewis and Clark had made their
journey across the continent, and we now find mention of the ** Stony
Mountains." It was a number of years before the name Rocky wi\s
substituted for Stony. On the maps they were sometimes labelled
the Chippewan Mountains, and Workman's Geography, in 1805, says
the ranges **that lie west of the river St. Pierre are called the Shining
Mountains, from an infinite number of chrystal stones of an amazing
size with which they are covered, and which, when the sun shines
full upon them, sparkle so as to be seen at a very great distance."
In the descriptions of the states, we learn from Cummings that
the western part of Pennsylvania abounds with excellent coal, but
we get no hint of its having any commercial importance. Indeed,
coal mining as an industry did not begin until 1820 Before that
time coal was in the same category as were petroleum and natural
gas, which the book calls '* curiosities."
Concerning the Andes in South America, we are told, ** These
amazing mountains, in comparison with which the Alps are but little
hills, have fissures in some places a mile wide, and deep in proportion ;
and there are others that run under the ground, and resemble in
extent a province."
When we come to Europe, we are made to realize the intense cold
of the Lapland winters by the statement that, "In attempting to
drink the lips are frequently frozen to the cup." It is affirmed, too,
that if there is a crust on the snow, '^The Laplander travels with
his reindeer in a sledge two or three hundred miles a day." Another
queer bit is this about the roads in Flanders, an old-time province,
which included all the coast region of Belgium and extended into
France and Holland. **They are generally a broad causeway, and
run several miles in a straight line till they terminate in a view of some
magnificent building." These views no doubt gave pleasure, but I
think I should have preferred to have the roads continue.
474
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
Deccmbor
Presently we find the following paragraph:
III the neean ihere are many dangerous whirlpools. That called
the Marlsiroom, iipun the euast of Norway, is cotisidereil as the must
dreadful and voracious in the wtirld. A minute dpscription of the
internal parts is not to be expected, sinee none, \vh<i were there, ever
returned to l>nug back information. The body of the waters, that
forn^ this whirl pool, is extended in a circle about thirteen miles in
circumferenee. In the midst of this stands a rork agaijist winch the
tide in its ebl> is dashed with ineoneeivable fury. At this time
it instantly swallows u[) everything that conies within the sphere
of its violence. No skill in the niariner, nor strength of rowing, can
work an escape; the vessel's motion, th<mgh slow in the beginning,
becomes every moment more rapid, it goes around in circles still
narrower and narrow, till at last it is dashed against the rocks and
instantly rlisappears. Nor is it seen again for six hours; till, the tide
flowing, it is thrown forth with the same violence \nth which it was
drawn in. The noise of this dreailful vortex still farther contributes
to increase its termr, whicli, with the dashing of the waters, makes
one of the \mM tremeodoiis objects in nature.
Ojnntr\f ikon, tzMltUn^ tkt FroJncKPfU of Variola Q>tuilritt.
FronO^piece.
Froiw^^ "ll-^rd's Geography for B^ginnmSt 1826.
In another geography tif the period we learn that even "the bel-
lowing struggles of the whale have not always redeemed him from
the danger/' and that **the bottom is full of craggy spires," The
real maelstrom is caused by the current of the (Ireat West Fiord
rushing between two of the Loffoden Isles. Ordinarily it can be
traversed without apprehension, but when the wind blows directly
f
LATER GEO(iRAPHIES
475
against the current, the sea around for several miles is violently
agitated and extremely dangerous.
Adams's Geography, 1818, is divided into three parts — Part I,
''Geographical Orthography/' consisting of ten pages of names of
states, rivers, towns, etc., to be used as spelling lessons; Part II,
*'A Grammar of Geography," fifty pages, being an epitome of main
facts "to be committed to memory''; Part III, ''A Description of
Cakiract of J^ia§rarff.
From Worcester's Elements of Geography, 1828.
the Earth,'' making up the body of the book, ''to be read in classes."
The first four excerpts are from Part II, the rest from Part III.
A Mountain is a vast protuberance of the earth.
Europe is distinguished for its learning, poUteness, government,
and laws; for the industry of its inhabitants, and the temperature
of its climate.
The White Mountains are the highest not only in New Hampshire,
but in the United States.
Switzerland is a small romantic country, lying upon the Alps, and
is the highest spot in Europe. St. Gothard is the highest mountain.
Navigation on the Mississippi is attended ^vith many difficulties
and dangers, from the sudden crooks and bends in the river, the falling
in of its banks, and more especially from the sawyers, so called,
which are trees whose roots have by some means become fastened
to the bottom of the river, in such a manner, that, from the continual
pressure of the current, they receive a regular vibratory motion from
the resemblance of which to a saw-mill, they have derived their name.
Their motion is sometimes very quick, and if they strike a boat, it
476
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
December
is immediately upset or dashed to pieces. \'cssels are from five to
thirt}^ days on their passage up to New Orleafis, 87 miles; although
with a favorable wind, they will sometimes descend in 12 hours.
From New Orleans to Natchez^ 310 ndles, the voyage requires from
60 to 80 days. Ships rarely ascend alxive that place. It is navigable
for boats, carrying abtnit 40 tons, and roweil by 18 or 20 men to the
falls of SL Anihofiif.
The number of post-oflices in the United States in ISll, was 2,043.
The mail w^as carried 46,.'iSU miles in stages, and 61,171 miles in
sulkies and on horseback.
J^aiurai Bridgt f>f Virginia.
Prom Wurc esters Ekmcnts of Gi,X'gTaphy, iKjH.
Several mineral springs break forth in different parts of the United
States. The most celebrated are those of Saratoga an*l Ballstown
in the state of New York. The latter place is much frequented by
gay and fashionable people j as well as by invalids.
Beer is the common drink of the inhabitants f»f New York Stole,
The ft»rests abound with l.jears, wolves, deer, and elks.
Many of the towns and plantations in Maim are destitute of any
settled minister Missionaries sent among them have been affection-
ately recei%^ed.
Water is brought to Philadelphia in a subterraneous canal, from
the SchuVlkilk and is then raised bv steam 30 or 40 feet to a reservoir
I
1904
LATER GEOGRAPHIES
477
on the top of a circular edifice, from which it is distributed by bored
logs to the different parts of the city.
Pittsburg is supplied with foreign goods chiefly by land from Phil-
adelphia and Baltimore. The price of waggon carriage this distance
is from 5 to 6 dollars a hundred pounds weight. The number of
inhabitants, in 1810, was 4,768.
A decade later, when Pittsburg had a population of seven thou-
sand, the geographies speak of it as ''one of the greatest manufac-
turing towns in the Union."
I quote further from Adams, beginning with what he has to say
of ''the floating mills for grinding corn, which are frequently seen
on the Ohio River."
Whale Fishing.
From Worcester's Elements of Geography, 1829.
[ The mill is supported by two large canoes, with the wheel between
them; this is moored wherever they can find the strongest current,
nearest to the shore, by the force of which alone the mill is put in
operation. It is floated up and down the river whenever a customer
calls.
The exports from OhiOy consisting of flour, corn, hemp, flax, beef,
pork, smoked hams of venison, whiskey, peach brandy, and lumber
are mostly sent down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Those boats
which descend with the produce rarely return, but on arriving at New
Orleans, are taken to pieces and sold for lumber.
Cincinnati is a pleasant, flourishing town. It contains about
3,000 inhabitants. In this town is fort Washington, which com-
mences the chain of forts extending to the westward.
478
THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY
December
Detroit J the capital of Miebigau Territ iiry, i« a place of considerable
trade J which con.sists phiefly in a l>arter of coarse European goods
with the iiative.H for funs. The town is surruuncled by a strong block-
ade, through which there are four gates. The streets are generally
i^-«S;.^
f^^J^^
Treck-ShHft.
I' nun WMrcf?ili.T's EfifffKHls of Gcogriiphy, tSjr^
iTfJwed witli Indians in the day time; but at night they are all shut
out of the town, except such as get admittance into private houses,
and the gates are cloned.
St. Louis ^ the capital of the Territory of Louisiana, contains about
200 houses and is well fortified.
The people of Norway are justly fanie^l for honesty and industry,
■r>
Bridges in Chili.
From Wood ridge's Rudimtnts of Geography, 18*9,
and retain their strength so long, that a Norwegian is not supposed
incapable of labour, till he is upwards of 100 years old. The inhabi-
tants in some of the interior parts it is said live till weary of Ufe.
LATER GEOGRAPHIES
479
Jri all the luirthern puris ui Russia the winter eohl is very terrible,
iirds in the act of flying liave sometimes been known to drop dowu
dead from the atniosphere in consequence of it; drivers of carriaj^es
are frequently frozen to tleath upon their seats without being able
to change their position. At Petersburg, only two months in the
year are entirely free from snow.
The Condor i» undoubted the largest bird that pervades the air.
When it alights on the grountl, or arises from it, the noise it makes
FETER FARLEY
Going to tell &bout Geo^aphj.
'im
Ttke dre tliere ! take care bojs I if you mn against my toe,
1*11 cot tell you anotlier etofy 1
Frontispiece tu PcUr Parky' 5 G<rot:raphy, i8jo
with it8 wings is stich as to terrify and almost to deafen any one who
happens to be near the plaee.
Among the animuls peculiar to South America, the most extraor-
dinary is tlic Sloth, or as it was called by the way of derision, the
swift Petrc. It is about the size of an ordinary monkey, but of a
most wretched appearance. It never stirs unless impelled by hunger;
it is said to be several minutes in moving one of its legs. Every
effort is attended with a niost dismal cry. When this animal finds
48o
THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY
December
no wild fruits on the ground, he looks out with a great deal of pain for
a tree well loaded, which he ascends moving and crying, and stopping
by turns. At length, having mounted, he plucks oflf all the fruit and
throws it on the ground, to save himself such another troublesome
journey ; and rather than be fatigued in coming down the tree, gathers
himself in a bunch, and with a shriek drops to the ground.
A similar description of the sloth in Dwight's Geography includes
the statement that *'It is so many days travelling from one tree to
another, that it frequently grows lean during the journey."
Peter Parley^ s Method of telling about Geography, 1829, was a thin,
square little book with leather back and flexible pasteboard sides.
For years it had an immense circulation. The style is simple and
Engliflh.
A Chinese selling Rats and Puppies
for pies.
From Peter Parley's Geography, 1820.
colloquial; there are numerous pictures and a variety of maps and
diagrams. Perhaps the portion best remembered by those who
studied the book is a rhymed review of the earlier lessons, beginning —
The world is round, and like a ball
Seems swinging in the air,
A sky extends around it all,
And stars are shining there.
Pains are taken to inculcate good morals and religion, and we
find in treating of Asia considerable Bible history with appropriate
comments. ''This history,'' the author says, ''is exceedingly interest-
ing, and is all true. A great part of the history of almost all other
nations is false; but the Bible tells us nothing but what is worthy
of belief.''
Z904
LATER GEOGRAPHIES
481
The MaUe-Brun Geography y 1831, was also written by "Peter
Parley," but the materials for the book were drawn chiefly from
the large work by the noted French geographer, whose name gives
the book its title. Selections that show something of the character
of the book and of the times follow:
Norwegian.
From Peter Parley's Geography.
Occasional bands of white hunters and trappers range the Missouri
Territory for furs. Some of them extend their expeditions to the
foot of the Rocky mountains, and some to the shores of the Pacific.
JVfute Bear.
From Olney's A Practical System of Modern Geography, 1831,
The herds of buffaloes that are seen in this territory sometimes amount
to 10,000 each. When the herd is moving, the ground trembles,
and the grumbling and bellowing of the multitude is heard for miles.
window. *^Upon ray wor<l/' said he, '*that^s a strange-looking
beast and travels desperate fast for such a short-le^c^ged crittur/'
Piter Parki/s Kaiionai Geography^ 1845, was the earliest, I believe^
to take the large, flat quarto shape. This form enabled it to include
1904
LATER GEOGRAPHIES
485
good-sized maps and do away with the necessity for a separate atlas ;
and in a few years the 12mos had been entirely abandoned. The
chapters of the National Geography were enlivened with poetical
introductions, and there were occasional other verses. The follow-
ing selection, the last I have to make from the geographies of our
forefathers, is this jingle description of **a general custom of moving,
in the city of New York, on the first of May."
Bustle, bustle! Clear the way!
He moves, they move, we move, to-day; —
Pulling, hauling, fathers calling;
Mothers brawling, children squalling,
Coaxing; teasing, whimpering, prattling;
Pots and pans and kettles rattling;
Tumbling bedsteads, flying bedspreads,
Broken chairs, and hollow wares.
Strew the streets — 'Tis momng day!
^^r^
.^f^
fc
~7^-:m.
k^^J^ -^i^gg
J^Z'^^^^i M^aI
iinSiSfe^
mmmemmm^,
W^
\l^% •ff'^
iT-
Battle of Lenngton.
From Mitchell's A System of Modern Geography, 1850.
486 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES
Trade and Commerce in Persia.— Persia at the present time, with
the exception of the carpet trade and, to a very limited extent, printed
and plain cotton goods, is without manufactures. This means that
nearly all the products of the mine and loom are of foreign make and
composition. This provides a market of considerable extent for
imported goods, which has been, and is even now, monopolized to a
great extent by England and Russia. Other countries are repre-
sented, but to a much smaller extent. American goods reach Persia
through the organized channels of European trade, with foreign labels
and trade-marks, the extent of which cannot therefore be ascertained.
American lamps, clocks, watches, and locks have a steadily increas-
ing sale in the Teheran bazaars, especially locks, which excel in
mechanical complexity, combined wdth lightness and convenience of
handling (important considerations), anything hitherto put on sale.
Phonographs and electric fans are curiosities in demand. American
hand pumps and cooking and warming stoves find appreciative pur-
chasers and should, with proper management and competitive enter-
prise, soon monopolize the market. Our exploiters of the trade of
Persia should aim at creating demands by the supply of novelties,
of which we have a great variety; and by the use of new means and
machinery reproduce old lines of goods at less cost than others and,
if possible, in more attractive designs and appearance. This could
include both vegetable and mineral raw materials. There is no com-
petition from within worth mentioning, except in carpets, w^hich
should never be imported, for in the beauty of the dyes, the purity
of taste in design, the harmonizing and shading of colors, and the
durability in the wear the native article is unapproachable.
Agricultural machinery of a simple, portable make, such as horse-
power threshing machinery, winnowing and chaff-cutting machines,
plows, and harrows, will meet with a considerable sale as soon as their
utility and advantage over present methods are known. Much more
interest is now being evinced in tilling the land and nourishing, har-
vesting, and threshing out the crops than was the case in former
times. American manufacturers and merchants can, mth the vast
and diverse sources of supply at their disposal, outstrip any other
country in stimulating and meeting Persian demands. — Consular
Reports, March, 1904.
GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES 487
EDITORIAL
WHAT A CHILD SHOULD GAIN FROM HIS SCHOOL COURSE IN
GEOGRAPHY
THE papers appearing in this and the preceding numbers of the
JorKXAL. and devoted to the problem of what a child ought
to gain from his school geography work, are the first of a series
which win be continued later. The Editors of the Jourxal have felt
that this topic was one of the most important in school geography,
and have therefore secured the assistance of a number of geography
teachers, geographers, superintendents, and authors of schor>l text«.
We have been «liscussing the content of school geography and the
methods to be followed for many years, but there has hieen but little
consideration of the end- to be attained!. Each worker haft ma/Ie
hi? own decisions as to the aim-* of hi-f schr^/I ^e^>graphy work, and
has endeavore<i to have hL- cour^ niea.^ure up w^II to the definition
of geography a.- generally adopter I. f'nforrfiriately. however, not
enough consideration ha> been ziv^ri to the irr^ff^.r^rir f^/inr. a.* Ut
what of permaneriT. value ^frt/graphy -r.fidy rKo A'l 'rof^f.ribute f// a
chil*i'* training. \\V riav*- rj^r^n arixi'-^f;.- to have eA/rh ye^if^f 'Aork
effective in promotifiz a p'ipii'r scer^e.'-al Ir.forrfiariof. rot^fr^fdn;/: the
world, we hav*r nrie^i 'o rr^ke •K^ v^ric >.r*'r^-''*.'r.3r aM thought
inspiring. r>"it Tc<r h^v^ .'.ezle^'^i ^I^/'^srerr^-r V/-, rr. ."r. rr^- 'tit^^linary
si«ie and r.he iLd:^ .:* Tilr.I.'.z ^* •''^ r.^ •' v. ^a.'r. ;;y.fe ^(*ri^*phy
after tLe ^h\»., -^.-.■.•i^- -« :^^r '>r;..;. - Vmt r.ji .*: t.';fy.^: i^jc v.^ f>re?i;^rr**
and to* er.^>-j:r. :',• T.e : r ,t^
ing nhie •.rer.-: '.c ••.■-,>./;-.• *.-r.r..'./ >"V->r' ^* •^ vr,;^;* x^.^zyr,} ♦Kr,';i^
do for ;K ^r..^: •■.rjr^**' "-^ *'- - :..<^-.'^.'. '. ' '/ •'•^jf "f.^M*. ».., •>!:
REVIfeTS
488 THE JOURNAL OP GEOGRAPHY December
Primarily a reference volume for advanced students, it is too advanced and
inclusive for school use. It is, however, a volume which is of great assistance to
any teacher of general geography and a necessary oade mecum for any worker in
commercial geography. The introduction and the first sixty-three pages of the
text form a splendid summary of the principles of geography, which determine or
influence commercial conditions, and should be read by every student of geography.
The rest of the book first treats of the different products involved in commerce
and then of the conmiercial geography of the different countries. Under the topical
treatment the conditions are described that make for the success or failure of the
product concerned; this is foUow^ed by a statement of the geographical distribution
of the product, and usually by a comparative statement of the status of the product
in the different countries. In the regional treatment a full and valuable considera-
tion is first given to the general geography of the country, followed by an adequate
treatment of the commercial conditions. This fonn of treatment makes the book
valuable for reference by the student of general as well as commercial geography,
and is a very strong factor in a generally satisfactory book.
An appendix contains a comprehensive series of statistical and other reference
tables available for comparative study. Unfortunately some of these statistics are
not as new as the date of the edition would warrant. R. E. D.
Stories of Discovery. By Edward E. Hale. Pp. vi and 292. New edition,
revised. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1905.
A new edition of Doctor Hale's well-tried volume of Stories of Discover}^ is a
welcome addition to the available and trustworthy volumes for supplementary^ work
in history and geography. The eleven chapters summarize the work of Columbus,
Da Gama, Magalhaens, and Drake; the voyages to the Atlantic Coast, in the Pacific,
to the source of the Nile, and to the mouth of the Niger; give the historj' of the voy-
ages in the Arctic and the Antarctic, while one chapter is devoted to the conditions
in the early history of the Mississippi Valley.
Recent discoveries in the Far North are only mentioned, the current expeditions
in Antarctica are not even alluded to, and even the work of Stanley is only men-
tioned as having been brought into public light because of the recent death of the
eminent discoverer. These deficiencies are deeply to be regretted, for they make the
new edition more new in name than in fact. R. E. D.
NEWS NOTES
Resolutions Adopted by the Eighih International Geographic Congress,
September 13, 1904.
Rules for Geographic Names. — Local names are, as far as possible,
to be preserved not only in those regions where already established,
but also in wild regions. They should, on this account, be determined
with all the accuracy possible.
Where local names do not exist or cannot be discovered, the names
applied by the first discoverer should be used^until further investiga-
NEWS NOTES 489
tion. The arbitrary altering of historical, long existent names, well
known not only in common use but also in science, is to be regarded
as extremely unadvisable, and every means should be employed to
resist such alterations. Inappropriate and fantastical names are to be
replaced, as far as possible, by local and more appropriate names.
The above rules are not to be rigorously construed, yet they should
be followed to a greater extent than heretofore by travelers and in
scientific works. Their publication in periodicals as the opinion of
the Congress will probably prove of great weight. Although in recent
years many official systems of determination of geographic names have
been enunciated, we have still evidence of the very slight influence
which the wishes of the International Geographic Congresses exert
over the decision of the official authorities To this geographical
societies are urged to give wide publicity.
Introduction of the Fractional Scales on Maps. — The Seventh Inter-
national Geographic Congress expressed the urgent wish that upon all
charts, including those published by the lands still employing the
English and Russian systems of measurement, along with the scale of
geographic co-ordinance, that the scale of reduction should be ex-
pressed in the usual fractional form, l:x, and that the latter be added
to all lists of charts covering land and sea, and requests the executive
committee of the Congress to bring this decision to the attention of
all governments, geographical societies, and establishments engaged
in the publication of charts.
The advantage to be derived from the support of this resolution,
which has its origin with the editor of Peterman^s MittheUungeriy and
the extensive dissemination of the resolution, is at once evident. In
English publications a custom has arisen of adding a statement of the
ratio 1 : X to the usually employed x miles to one inch. In America
the custom has arisen of going even a step beyond this, namely: The
addition of the ratio of reduction has led to the direct application of
the decimal system in the units of measure adopted upon the charts.
To this geographical societies are urged to give wide publicity.
The Decimal System. — The Eighth International Geographic Con-
gress expresses itself in favor of a uniform system in all geographical
researches and discussions, and it recommends for this purpose the
employment of the metric system of weights and measures, as also the
employment of the centigrade thermometric scale.
It is moreover highly desirable that there should always be added
490 THE JOURNAL OF GEOGRAPHY December
to statements of the Fahrenheit and the Reaumur scales their equiva-
lent upon the scale of Celsius.
Similar is this question of the metric system which reaches even
more deeply than the former into the well-established customs of
daily life, and has proved not without value in promoting international
uniformity and simplicity. Although the metric system of weights
and measures has made slow progress, and this alone through the por-
tals of scientific work, its application to geophysics and geography has
already made a fair beginning. In England a special organization,
entitled the Decimal Association, has taken charge of the matter. The
Commonwealth of Australia has entrusted the subject to a commission.
We are without knowledge of the efforts in this direction thus far
made in Russia.
To this geographical societies are urged to give wide publicity.
Standard Time. — Resolved, In view of the fact that a large majority
of the nations of the world have already adopted systems of standard
time based upon the meridian of Greenwich, as prime meridian, that
this Congress is in favor of the universal adoption of the meridian of
Greenwich as the basis of all systems of standard time.
Publication of Photographs. — It is suggested by the lantern slides
shown by Mr. Siebcrs, and by the photographs by Mr. Willis, that it
is desirable that in these, and the cases of other exploring travelers,
photographs of geographical significance might be published, and
accompanied ])y short explanatory notes, so that they may form col-
lections of representative physical features of different parts of the
world.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION LIBRARY.
MACELS SCHOOL
HISTORY 0/ the
UNITED STATES
FOR GRAMMAR GRADES
DV WILLIAM U. MACR
Pn^fiSHtr 4? 7 History iii 5truf i)5i,- t*iiiWr-
siiy. SjiWtKiiS^, X. W
Sapwrior io othrfs btcaast:
Its DRAMATIC STYLE seizes upon the
cliiJd*& tnCcTest ia wJut is live and bumfia.
lU ARRAKGEMEriTS IW PERIODS
kerpfi elenflT in the pupirs mm4 tne rr La-
tion of evtnts to the 4atgeT move men t of
which they are a part.
Its ARTISTIC APPEARANCE, secured
througii tr^p iJrge number oi pot t- nils,
illustration&i hhiI colored platen ^nd mtpSi
catches the scholar** flncnlii^n and rjilists
his tympalhies at oacc-
Fur mrre hifftrnuiiiou ni-'mtt llsi^ iT^Ti'
RAND, McNALLY & CO.
The
Overland
Limited
California
the most tuxufious train in the Wdrld.
Ieavi'5 C lii i c veo 8 .oo p. nw da i 1 y . Less
than thriL^L- days ttt San Frantitico.
Maunitii't^nf i?c|iiifi'ni*'ntr Solidlhroti^h
itaiu. Kh^vtuc hi^htfd thrLub^fntit.
rifr VEST or everything \
in^t !i,l!T p. Ml. tlliFv. wlib ttiroug^ i^rvicc ,
IQ S4a FfikncitcOp Lq« Angc^cA Add Pcrft- '
Chicafo & North -Western,
Union Pacifk and
Southern Pacific Railways
All iiff ni3 »ttl tlcketi via
llEutttntfr] tifKikied oa
ap|>UcB,HlDD tij
W. D. KNISIveK!^;
CIIICAG4J, IM.
ur S. L. LOMAX.
OMAHA. NEH.
OLiA
PHYSICAL MAPS
\TQV cannot ti'HLh pliyr^k-ul jc^ip^r:ipln- wit hi ait physisitl iiistps, Th<,-y :ire
ii nete^iihj' in the schwr>l and in the homt;. Tlit? physiiul maps issued
by Ratid, McXally & Campiiliyt of ChicBjC"' Nt'w \"ork, nnd Ltmdun,
have been rtfdugtiJKi^d fmr many ycar.s mlb the ''staiidnrd." Thi.»y shnw four
elevatjonsi of land and thrue di-pths of walur in sliitdinj;^^ i>f brnwn and bluq
according tfi the intcrPRtional color schi'me. W'uTm ocfun currents art
?<!hown in brown and cold currcntsi in blut?. The isiotherrnal lines fnr July
and January are in red and dcKref s of heat are shuwn in Uiv niiirijinsH
They are the f^nly phyj^lca] map;^ that hhow tM>rreL-t plant dii^tnbutiMns.
for North America, Europe, and Asia. Tht? maps art; 6?. x^ci and ^frx^'
incJiei; in stizt. The teacher's mnniml which accompanfes the strica wfl«
prepared by Dr. j. Paul lioode, of the L*niversity tjf Pennsylvania^ with an
Lntroducttnn by Dr, T. C. Chainbi^rlain, of the Universlt}^ nf ChicftK'^.
RAMD. McNALLY ^ COMPANY^ PUBLISHERS
Chicago N«w YcirH LfOndon
. /;? Important Book of Travet
AFRICA
!
FROM SOUTH TO NORTH
THROUGH MAROTSELAND
By MAJOR A. St. H. GIBBONS, F. R.G. S.
Author of ''Exploration and Hunting in Central Africa/"
^With Numerous Illustrations reproduced from Photo^
graphs, and MapH, .■.- •:: Octavo, 2 vols. 87.50 nt.t.
Major (SfMmis e/t'sr/ipiiofi of his Jnivtiis ti**vu^h fhe 'mkole li*tiji(th qf
the Afrkan imitineni is amgtj
fki$ ihfss of ii(eraiur£ §fibC
iniporianf features i^yift^ it
j^ambe^i River to its sdwhee
valuabie coutritiidtons t^
ent years. Amongst otkrr
is atj fU taunt af the tracini^ of ike
hkh hatt hitherto remainat itnJisunfert'd.
ORDER FORM
^(W_
7 0 JOHN LAXE, PMishtr,
6^ Fifth ^\ venue, Ne'^i* York City.
Pt£iue semi me "AFRICA FROM SOUTH TO XORTH
THROUGH MAROTSELAXD " /or-hfhith / emiose Sj-jO
Xitme . ^,. _-
Address
JOHN LANE, Publisher, 'l^ New York
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