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nejOURNALof 

GEOGRAPHY 


An  illustrated  monthly  magazine  devoted  to  the  interests  of  teach- 
ers of  geography  in  Elementary,  Secondary,  and  Normal 
Schools.    Successor    to   the  Journal    oif   School 
Geography,  Vol.   V,  and    the    Bulletin 
of   the   American   Bureau   of 
Geography,   Vol.   n 


£D/ro/^s 
RICHARD  E.  DODGE 

Professor  of  Geography ^  Teachers  College^  Columbia  University^  New  York  City 

EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS 

Frofessor  of  Geography^  State  Normal  School,  iVinona^  Minnesota 


VOLUME  III 
1904 


OFFICB  OF  PUBLICATION 

The  JOURNAL  of  GEOGRAPHY 

Room  560*  160  Adams  St..  Cbiaico,  IlHnoU 

tun  1 1  Mardi  19,  IMS.  »t  Cbkactt,  HI.,  m  weoad-clMS  nttn.  udcr  Art  of  Coaffim  af  lUnh  S,  18Tt 


The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

PUBUSHED  MONTHLY,  EXCEPT  JULY  AND  AUGUST 

An  lilttstrat^d  Magasin9  D9Vot9d  to  tht  inffsts  of  T^achtrs  of  C^ographp  in 
EUm9ntarw»  Smcondary,  and  fiormat  Schools 

Successor  to  tYke  Journal  of  School  Geography^  Vol.  V.,  and  the  Bulletin  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  Geography^  VoL  II. 


EDITORS 

RICHARD  E.  DODGEr 

Professor  of  Geography .^  Teachers  College^  Columbia  University^  New  York  City, 

EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTd 

Professor  of  Geography^  State  Normal  School^  Winona^  Minnesota. 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

CYRUS  C.  ADAMS Geographical  Editor,  N.  Y.  Sun 

OTIS  W.  CALDWELL  .  Professor  of  Botany,  Stale  Normal  Sc/iool,  Charleston,  J II. 
JAMES  F.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Prof  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
HENRY  C.  COWLES  .  .  .  Associate  in  Botany,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 
WILLIAM  M.  DAVIS.  Professor  of  Geology,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
N.  M.  FENNEMAN  .  .  Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  H'^is. 
J.  PAUL  GOODE,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geography,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 
GEORGE  B.  HOLLISTER,  Hydrographer,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 
M.  S.  W.  JEFFlS.KSO'ii,  Professor  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Ypsilanti,Mich. 
EMORY  R.  JOHNSON,  Asst.  Prof  of  Transportation  and  Commerce,  Univ.  of  Penna, 
EDW.  D.  JONES,  Asst.  Prof  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Univ.  of  Mich.,  Ann  Arbor 
VERNON  L.  KELLOGG,  Prof  of  Entomology,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

CHARLES  F.  KING Master  of  Dearborn  Sclu>ol,  Boston,  Mass. 

S.  J.  Maclean,  Asst.  Prof,  of  Economics,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 
FOREST  RAY  MOULTON,  Assistant  Professor  of  Astronomy,  University  of  Chicago 

JACQUES  W.  RED  WAY Author,  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

ELLEN  C.  SEMPLE Writer  in  Anthropogeography,  Louisville,  Ky. 

FREDERICK  STARR,  Associate  Prof  of  Anthropology,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 
RALPH  S.  TARR,  I^ofessor  of  Physical  Geography,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

SPENCER  TROTTER Professor  of  Biology,  Swarthmore  College,  Pa. 

ROBERT  Dec.  WARD  .    .  Assistant  Professor  of  Climatology,  Harvard  University 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  FOR  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  CANADA 

A.  J.  HERBERTSON,  Lecturer  in  Regional  Geography,  Oxford  University,  England 

•  JOHN  A.  DRESSER Prince  Albert  School,  St.  Henry  de  Montreal,  Quebec 


TERMS  OF  SUBSCRIPTION 

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TNB  JOURNAL    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

Room  560,  x6o  Adams  Street,  Chicago,  111.,  or  Winona,  Minn. 


Copyright,  1904,  by  E.  M.  Lehnerts. 


THE  CONTENTS 


JANUARY 

PAGE 

Wind  Effects Mark  S.   W.  Jefferson       3 

A  Scheme  of  Geography William  M.   Davis     20 

Geographical  Notes:  Some  Facts  About  Panama,  32 — The  Ship 
Canals  of  the  World,  34— Dalney,  The  Township,  38 — ^The  Bag- 
dad Railway  and  German  Commerce  in  Asia  Mmor,  41 — A  Plan 
Which  Interested  a  Geography  Class,  42 — Addition  to  the  List 
of  Geographical  Societies  of  America,  44 — Current  Articles  on 
Commerce  and  Industry,  44. 

Geographical  Queries 47 

Editorial:     Signs  of  the  Times,  51. 

Reviews:  Field  and  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Physical  Geography. 
Chamberlain  (C.  B.  K.),  83. 

Recent  Publications 53 

News  Notes 54 


FEBRUARY 

The    Geography    Course    in    the    Chicago    Normal    School. 

Part  I Frank   W.    Darling   and  Elizabeth  Smith     55 

Map  Making  and  Map  Reading Robert  Marshall  Brown     65 

Inductive  Method  of  Teaching  Change  of  Seasons.  .  .  .R.  S.  Holway     75 

MEDii«VAL  Trade  and  Trade  Routes C.  Raymond  Beazley     79 

Geographical  Notes:  The  Production  of  Sugar  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  89 — The  World's  Maritime  Statistics,  90 — Area,  Popu- 
lation, and  Density  of  Population  of  the  South  American 
Republics.  90 — Manufacture  of  Ice  in  Palestine,  90 — Raising 
Crops  in  the  Far  North,  91 — Standard  Time  in  South  Africa,  91 
— Manufacture  of  Perfumes  in  Grasse,  92 — Destruction  of 
Cork  Forests  in  Italy,  92 — Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and 
Industry,  93. 

Geographical  Queries 94 

Editorial:     Geography  Teaching  in  Normal  and  Training  Schools,  95. 
Reviews:     The  Geography  of  Commerce,  Trotter,  (E.  D.  J.),  97 — 
Elementary  Geography,  King,  (L.  W.  H.),  97. 

Recent  Publications q8 

News  Notes 100 


MARCH 

The  Republic  of  Panama Col.  G.  E.  Church  loi 

Transportation.     Part  I John  Thorn  HoldswortH  112 

Authors  are  personally  responsible  for  opinions  and  statements  expressed 
in  the  JOURNAL, 


%^^*t\ 


IV  THE  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

The    Geography    Course    in    the      Chicago  Normal    School. 

Part  II Frank  W.  Darling  and  Elizabeth  Smith  122 

Geographical  Notes:  Controlling  Sand  Dunes  in  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  131 — Climate  of  San  Francisco,  134 — Cur- 
rent Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry,  136. 

Geographical  Queries 137 

Editorial:     The  Geographic  Congress  and  the  School  Teacher,   138. 

Recent  Publications 139 

News  Notes 140 


APRIL 

The  Motions  of  the  Earth.     Part  I Forest  R.  Moulton  145 

Transportation.     Part    II John    Thorn    Holdsworth   150 

The    Course    in    Geography    in    the    State    Normal    School    at 

Salem,  Mass William  Charles  Moore  163 

Geographical  Notes:  Plans  for  Home  Geography  Study,  179 — 
The  Effective  Teacher  of  Geography,  182 — The  Eastern  Shore 
of  Virginia.  184 — An  Interesting  Atmosoheric  Phenomenon, 
185 — Standard  Times,  186 — The  English  Mile  Compared  with 
Otner  European  Measures,  187 — Decisions  of  the  L  .  S.  Board 
on  Geographical  Names;  Approved  January  6.  1904,  187 — 
From  Paris  to  Pekin  by  Rail,  188 — Snow  Cr>'stals.  188. 

Editorial:  Is  Geography  Receiving  Sufficient  Attention  in  Ele- 
mentary Schools?  i8g. 

Reviews:     Commercial  Geography,  Redway  (E.  D.  J).  191. 

News  Notes *. ' 192 


MAY 

Summer    Courses    in    Geography Edward   M.    Lehnerts  193 

The  Delta  of  the  Mississippi Francis  E.  Lloyd  204 

The  Motions  of  the  Earth.     Part  II Forest  R.  Moulton.  ...    213 

The  Functions  of  Geography  in  the  Elementary  School:     A  Study 

in    Educational    Values William    Chandler   Bagley  222 

Geographical  Notes:     Wind-Blown  Trees.  27,7, — Our  Proportion 

of  the  World.  234 — Primary'  Geography,  234 — Current  Articles 

on  Commerce  and  Industry,  235. 
Editorial:     Geography  for  Teachers  During  the  Coming  Stmimer,  237. 
Reviews:     New   Physical  Geographv,   Tarr   (W.   R.   C),    238 — A 

Laboratorv  Manual  for  Phvsical  (geography.  Darling  (C.  B.  K.), 

239 — The  Yellowstone  National  Park.  Chittenden  (R.  E.  D.), 

240. 
Recent  Publications 240 


JUNE 

The  Geographic  Importance  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase 243 

Albert    Perry    Brigham 

The  Surface  and  Climate  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.   A'.  //.  Darton  251 

Explorations  Within  the  Louisiana  Purchase \.  C.  Howland  261 


THE  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Present  Industries  Within  the  Louisiana  Purchase 270 

Spencer  Trotter 
The  Value  and  Development  of  Irrigation  in  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase Tract George  B.  HoUister 278 

Geographic  Influences  in  the  Development  of  St.  Louis 290 

Ellen  Churchill  Sent  pie 

Denver,  the  Queen  City  of  the  Plains C.  E.  Chadsey  300 

Geographical  Xotes:  Area  and  Population  of  States  and  Terri- 
tories within  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  304 — Rank  of  Principal 
Manufactures  in  the  Several  Louisiana  Purchase  States.  1900, 
304 — Agriculture  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  305 — Grazing  in 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  Territory',  1900.  305 — Localization  of 
Industries  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  305 — Bibliography  of  the 
Purchase,  305 — Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry', 
306. 
Editorial:     The  Louisiana  Purchase,  307. 

Recent  Publications 308 

News  Notes 309 


SEPTEMBER 

The    First    American    Geography Clifton    Johnson  311 

The  School  Excursion  and  the  School  Museum  as  Aids  in  the 

Teaching  of  Geography I).  (\  Ridgeley  322 

The  Human  Response  to  the  Physical  Environment.  .J.  Paul  Goode  333 
Geographical    Notes:     ''Sensible    Temperatures,"    343 — Public 
Schools  in   Russia,   348 — Cost  of  Construction   of  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway,  348 — Advisable  Omissions  from  the  Elemen- 
tary  Curriculum,    349 — Current    Articles   on    Commerce    and 
Industry,  349 — Economic  Importance  of  the  Coffee  Industry, 
351 — The  Climate  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  352 — Map  Draw- 
ing in  Histor\',  353 — Commercial  Japan  in  igo4,  354. 
Editorial:     The  Emphasis  of  Details  in  School  Geography,  354. 
Reviews:     Geology.     Chamberlin  and  Salisbury,  Vol.  I.  (J.  P.  G.), 
356 — The  Indians  of  the  Painted  Desert  Region.     James,  356. 

Recent  Publications 357 

News  Notes 358 


OCTOBER 

Geography  and  History  in  the  United  States 359 

Albert  Perry  Brigham 

Emphasis  Upon  Anthropo-Geography  in  Schools 366 

Ellen  Churchill  Sentplc 

Practical  Work  in  School  Geography R.  H.  Whitbcck  374 

Physical  Geography  in  High  Schools Mary  I.  Piatt  379 

Geographical  Notes:  State  Geography — Cause  and  Effect — 
Search  Questions,  387 — The  Geographical  Field  in  Indiana, 
389 — Cotton  Cultivation,  392 — The  Winter  of  1903-04  in  the 
Great  Lakes  Region,  393 — Bermuda,  393 — Poultry  and  Eggs, 

395. 

4 


VI  THE  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Editorial:     Clubs  of  Geography  Teachers,  400. 

Reviews:     Commercial    Gcograohy    of    the    World    Outside    the 

British  Isles.     Herbertson  (R.  E.  A.),  401— The  Land  of  Little 

Rain.     Austin  (R.  E.  D.),  402. 
Recent  Publications 402 


NOVEMBER 

Excursions   in   College   Geography William   Harmon  Norton  40^ 

Response  to  Surroundings — A  Geographic  Principle 409 

R.  H.  Whitbeck 

Transportation,     Part     III John    Thorn    Holdsworth  413 

What  a  Child  Should  Gain  From  Geography R.  P.  Ireland  421 

What  the  Child  Should  Know  of  Geography  at  the  End  of  His 

Grade  Course Amos  W.  Farnham  424 

Geographical  Notes:  Geographic  Features  of  Alaska,  427 — A 
Great  Tunnel,  432 — British  India,  433 — The  Practical  Use  of 
the  Globe  in  Teaching  Geography,  436 — First  Lessons  in  Geog- 
raphy, 440 — Acclimatization  of  the  White  Race  in  the  Tropics, 
443 — Forests  and  Climate  in  Texas,  444. 
Editorial:  Home  Geography,  445. 
Review:     North  America,  446. 


DECEMBER 

Final  Results  in  the  Study  of  Geography.  .  .  Jacques  W.  Redway  447 
Results  of  an  Elementary  Course  in  Geography  Philip  Emerson   '50 

Foundational  Experiences Arthur  P.  Irving  454 

What  Should  (tRaduates  from  Elementary  Schools  Know  About 

Geography Isaac  O.  Winslow  458 

Commercial  Importance  of  Continents George  D.  Hubbard  462 

Later   Geographies Clifton  Johnson  467 

Geographical  Notes:     Trade  and  Commerce  in  Persia,  486. 
Editorial:     What  a  Child   Should  Gain  from  His  School  Course 

in  Geography,  487. 
Reviews:     Handl){>ok  of  Commercial  Geography.     Chisholm  (Geo. 

G.),  487— Stories  of  Discovery.     Hale  (Edward  E.),  488. 
News  Notes 488 


THE  INDEX 


Agriculture,     A      Text-book     of     the 
Physics  of,   F.   H.   King  (review), 

309 
Agriculture  in  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase (note),  305 
Agriculture,     New     Elementary,     for 

Rural  and  Graded  Schools  (review). 

358 
Alaska,     Geographic     Features     of 

(note),  427 
Anthropo-Geographv   in  Schools, 

Emphasis  Upon,  Ellen  C.  Seniple, 

366 
Argentine  Republic,  The  Climate 

of  the  (note),  352 
Around  the  World  in  the  Sloop  Spray, 

Capt.  J.  Slocum  (review),  309 
Asia    Minor,  The   Bagdad  Railway 

and  German  Commerce  in  (note), 

41 
Atmospheric  Phenomenon,  An  In- 
teresting (note),  185 
Austin,    Mary,    The   Land   of   Little 

Rain  (review),  99,  402 


Bagdad  Railway  and  German 
Commerce  in  Asia  Minor  (note), 

41 

Baglev,  William  Chandler,  The 
Functions  of  Geography  in  the 
Elementary  School,  222 

Beazley,  C.  Raymond,  Mediceval 
Trade  and  Trade  Routes,  79 

Bermuda  (note),  393 

Bibliography  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase (note),  305 

Blair,  Emma  H.,  and  Robertson 
James  A.,  Tlw  Philippine  Islands 
(review),  99,  139,  240 

Brigham,  a.  p..  Geographic  Impor- 
tance of  the  Louisiana  Purchase, 
The,  243 

Brigham,  Albert  P.,  Geography  and 
History  in  the  United  States,  359 

Brown,  Robert  M.  (note),  192    • 

Brown,  Robert  Marshall,  Map  Mak- 
ing and  Map  Reading,  65 

Bulletin  of  tne  American  Geograph- 
ical Society  (note),  144 


Caribbean  ami  Across  Panama, 
Around  the,  Nicholas  (review),  54 

Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader:  A  us- 
tralia.  Our  Colonies,  and  Other 
Islands  of  the  Sea,  F.  G.  Carpenter, 

357 

Chadsey,  C.  E.,  Denver — The  Queen 
City  of  the  Plains,  300 

Chamberlain,  James  F.,  Field  and 
Laboratory  Exercises  in  Physical 
Geography  (review),  53 

Chamberlin,  Thomas  C.,  and  Salis- 
bury, Rollin  D.,  Geology  (review), 
308,  356 

Chisholm,  George  G.,  Handbook  of 
Commercial  Geography  (review), 
98,  487 

Chittknuen,  Hiram  M.,  The  Yellow- 
stone National  Park  (review),  99, 
240 

Church,  Col.  G.  E.,  The  Rei)ublic  of 
Panama,  101 

Climate,  Forests  and,  in  Texas 
(note),  444 

Climate    of   San    Francisco    (note), 

134 

Climate,  The,  of  the  Argentme  Re- 
j)ublie   (note),   352 

Climate,  The  Surface  and,  of  the 
Louisiana   Purchase,    Darton,    251 

Coffee  Industry,  Economic  Im- 
portance of  (note),  351 

Commerce  and  Industry,  Current 
Articles  on,  44,  93,  136,  235,306, 

349 
Commerce    in   Asia    Minor   and   the 
Bagdad   Railway,   German   (note), 

41 

Commerce,  Trade  and,  in  Persia 
(note),  486 

Commercial  Geography,  Handbook  of, 
Chisholm  (review),  98,  487 

Commercial  Geography  of  the  World 
Outside  the  British  Isles,  Herbert- 
son  (review),  401 

Commercial  Importance  of  Conti- 
nents, Hubbard.  462 

Cork  Forests  in  Italy,  Destruction 
of  (note),  92 

Cornell  Summer  School  of  Geog- 
raphy, The  (note),  358 


VIU 


THE    INDEX 


Cotton  Cultivation  (note),  392 

Course  in  Geography  in  the  State 
Normal  School  at  Salem,  Mass., 
Moore,  163 

Course  of  Geography  in  the  Chi- 
cago Normal  School,  The,  Darling 
and  Smith,  55,  122 

Courses    in   Geography,   Summer, 

193 
Crops  in  the  Far  North,  Raising 

(note),  91 

Cumberland  Road,  The,  Hulbert  (re- 
view), 130 

Current  Articles  on  Commerce 
and  Industry,  44,  93,  136,  235,  306, 
349 


Dalny,  The  Township  (note),  38 

Darling,  Frank  W.,  A  Laboratory 
Manual  for  Physical  Geography 
(review),  139,  239 

Darling,  Frank  W.,  and  Smith, 
Elizabeth,  The  Geographv  Course 
in  the  Chicago  Normal  Scliool,  55, 
122 

Darton,  N.  H.,  The  Surface  and  Cli- 
mate of  the  Louisiana  Purchase, 

251 

Davis,  William  M.,  A  Scheme  of 
Geography,  20 

Decimal  System,  The  (note),  489 

Delta  of  the  Mississippi,  The, 
Lloyd,  204 

Denver — The  Queen  City  of  the 
Plains,  Chadsey,  300 

Descriptive  Chemistry,  Newell  (re- 
view), 99 

Descriptive  Geography  from  Original 
Sources:  Australia  and  Occanica, 
Herbertson  and  Herbertson  (re- 
views), 54 

Discovery,  Stories  of,  Hale  (review), 
488 

Dopp,  Katharine  E.,  The  Tree-Dwell- 
ers (review),  139 

Dubois  and  Kergomard,  Precis  de 
Geographie  Economique  (review), 
98 


Early    Western    Travels,    1 748-1846, 

(review),  308,  402 
Earth,  The  Motions  of  the,  Moulton, 

Editorials,   51,   95,   138,   189,   237, 

307.  354,  400,  445,  487 
Eggs,  Poultry  and  (note),  395 
Elementary  Curriculum,  Advisa- 
ble Omissions  from  the  (note),  349 


Elementary  Geography,  King  (re- 
view), 54 

Emerson,  Philip,  Results  of  an  Ele- 
mentary Course  in  Geography,  450 

English  Mile  Compared  with  Other 
European    Measures,    The    (note), 

Excursion  and  the  School  Mu- 
seum as  Aids  in  the  Teaching  of 
Geography,  The  School,  Ridgeley, 
322 

Excursions  in  College  Geogra- 
phy, Norton,  403 

Explorations  within  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  Rowland,  261 


Farnham,    a.    W.,    What    a    Child 

Should  Know  of  Geography  at  the 

End  of  His  Grade  Course,  424 
Field    and    Laboratory    Exercises    in 

Physical   Geography,    Chamberlain 

(review),  53 
Final   Results   in   the   Study   of 

Geography,  Redway,  447 
First  American   Geography,  The, 

Johnson,  311 
Forests    and    Climate    in    Texas 

(note),  444 
Foundational  Experiences, Irving, 

454 

Geographen-Kalender  (review),  357 
Geographic  Congress,  The  Eighth 

International  (note),  140,  309 
Geographic    Congress    and    the 

School    Teacher,    The    (editorial), 

138 
Geographic     Importance     of     the 

Louisiana  Purchase,  The,  Brigham, 

243 

Geographic  Influences  in  the  De- 
velopment of  St.  Louis,  Semple, 
290 

Geographic  Names;  Approved  Jan- 
uary 6,  1904,  Decisions  of  the 
U.  S.  Board  on  (note),  187 

Geographic  Names,  Rules  for 
(note),  488 

Geographic  Principle  —  Response 
to  Surroundings,  Whitbeck,  409 

Geographical  Field  in  Indiana, 
The  (note),  389 

Geographical  Societies  of  Amer- 
ica, Addition  to  the  List  of  (note), 

44 
Geographies,   Later,   Johnson,   467 
Geography     and     History     in     the 

United  States,  Brigham,  359 


THE    INDEX 


IX 


Geography,   Excursions  in  College, 

Norton,  403 
Geography,    Final    Results    in    the 

Study  of,  Red  way,  447 
Geography,  First  Lessons  in  (note), 

440 
Geography  for  Teachers  During  the 

Coming  Summer  (editorial),  237 
Geography    in    the    Elementary 

School.  The  Functions  of,  Bagley, 

222 
Geography,  Primary  (note),  234 
Geography,  Results  of  an  Elemen- 
tary Course  in,  Emerson,  450 
Geography,  State  (note),  387 
Geography,    Summer     Courses    in, 

193 
Geography,    The    First    American, 

Johnson,  311 
Geography,    The    Cornell    Summer 

School  of  (note),  358 
Geography  Teaching  in  Normal  and 

Training  Schools  (editorial),  95 
Geography,   What   a   Child   Should 

Gain  from,  Ireland,  421 
Geography,   What  a   Child   Should 

Know  of,  at  the  End  of  His  Grade 

Course,  Famham,  424 
Geography,  What  Should  Graduates 

from    Elementary    Schools    Know 

About,  Winslow,  458 
Geography  Course    in  the  Chicago 

Normal  School,   The,  Darling  and 

Smith,  51;,  122 
Geology,  Chambcrlin,    Thomas    C, 

and  Salisbury,  RoUin  D.  (review), 

3o«.  356 

Glacial  Period,  The  Cause  0}  the,  True 
(review),  gg 

Globe,  The  Practical  Use  of  the,  in 
Teaching  Geograj>hy  (note),  436 

(jRAZIng  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
Territory  (note),  305 

Great  Lakes  Region,  The  Winter 
of  1903-04  in  the  (note),  393 

Goode,  J.  Paul,  The  Human  Re- 
sponse to  the  Physical  Environ- 
ment, 333 


Hale,    E.    E.,    Stories   of   Di scolder y 

(review).  488 
Hatfield,  H.  R.,  Editor.  Lectures  on 

Contftterce  (review),  308 
Hawaiian    Islands,   Production    of 

Sugar  in  the  (note),  89 
Herbertson,     a.     J.,     Commercial 

Geography  of  the  World  Outside  the 

British  Isles  (review),  401 


Herbertson,  A.  J.  and  F.  D.,  De- 
scriptiiw  Geography  from  Original 
Sources:  Australia  and  Oceanica 
(review),  54 

High  Schools,  Physical  Geography 
in,  Piatt,  379 

History,  A  Brief,  of  Rocky  Mountain 
Exploration,  with  EspecicU  Refer- 
ence to  the  Expedition  of  Lewis  and 
Clark,  Thwaites  (review),  357 

History,  Geography  and,  in  the 
United  States,  Brighara,  359 

History,    Map    Drawing   in    (note), 

353 

Hitchcock,  Ripley,  The  Louisiana 
Purchase  (review),  309 

Holds  WORTH,  John  Thorn,  Trans- 
portation, 112,  150,  413 

HoLLiSTER,  G.  B.,  The  Value  and  De- 
velopment of  Irrigation  in  Louisi- 
ana Purchase  Tract,  278 

HoLWAY,  R.  S.,  Inductive  Method  of 
Teaching  Change  of  Seasons,  75 

Home  Geography  (editorial),  445 

Home  Geography  Study,  Plans  for 
(note),  179 

Howland,  a.  C,  Explorations  with- 
in the  Louisiana  Purchase,  261 

Hubbard,  George  D.,  Commercial 
Importance  of  Continents,  462 

HuLBERT,  Archer  B.,  The  Cumber- 
land Road  (review),  139 

HuLBERT,  Archer  Butler,  Waterways 
of  Western  Expansion  (review),  53 

Human  Response  to  the  Physical 
Environment,  The,  J.  Paul  Goode, 
333 


Ice  in  Palestine,  Manufacture  of 
(note),  90 

India,  British  (note),  433 

Indiana,  The  Geographical  Field  in 
(note),  389 

Indians  of  the  Painted  Desert  Region, 
James  (review),  54,  356 

Inductive  Method  of  Teaching 
Change  of  Seasons,  Holway,  75 

Industries  in  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase,    Localization    of     (note), 

305 

International  Congress  of  Geog- 
raphy, Educational  Papers  of  the 
(note),  192 

International  Geographic  Con- 
gress, Washington,  1904,  Eighth 
(note),  140,  309 

IrrELAND,  R.  P.,  What  a  Child  Should 
Gain  from  Geography,  421 


THE   INDEX 


Irrigation,  The  Value  and  Develop- 
ment of,  in  Loiiisiana  Purchase 
Tract,  HoUister,  278 

Irving,  A.  P.,  Foundational  Experi- 
ences, 454 

Italy,  Destruction  of  Cork  Forests 
in  (note),  92 

James,  George  Wharton,  Indians  of 
the  Painted  Desert  Region  (review), 

54.  356 
Japan,  Commercial,  in   1904  (note), 

354 

Jefferson,  Mark  S.  W.,  Wind  Ef- 
fects, 3 

Johnson,  Clifton,  Later  Geographies, 
467 

Johnson,  Clifton,  The  First  Ameri- 
can Geography,  311 

Johnson,  William  Henry,  Pioneer 
Spaniards  in  North  America  (re- 
view), 98 

King,  Charles  F.,  Elementary  Geogra- 
phy (review),  97 

King,  F.  H.,  A  Text-Hook  of  the  Phys- 
ics of  Agriculture  (review).  309 


Land  of  Little  Rain,  The,  Austin 
(review),  99,  402 

Later  Geographies,  Johnson,  467 

Lectures  on  Commerce,  edited  by  Hat- 
field (review),  308 

Lloyd,  Francis  E.,  The  Delta  of  the 
Mississip[)i,  204 

Louisiana  Purchase,  The,  Ripley 
Hitchcock  (review),  309 

Louisiana  Purchase,  Agriculture 
in  (note),  305 

Louisiana  Purchase,  Area  and  Pop- 
ulation of  the  States  in  the  (note) , 

304 

Louisiana  Purchase,  Bibliography 
of  (note),  305 

Louisiana  Purchase,  Explorations 
within  the,  Howland,  261 

Louisiana  Purchase,  Localization 
of  Industries  in  the  (note),  305 

Louisiana  Purchase,  Present  In- 
dustries within  the,  Trotter,  270 

Louisiana  Purchase,  The  Geo- 
graphic Importance  of  the,  Brig- 
ham,  243 

Louisiana  Purchase,  The  Surface 
and  Climate  of  the,  Darton,  251 

Louisiana  Purchase  States,  Rank 
of  Principal  Manufactures  in  the 
Several  (note),  304 


Louisiana  Purchase  Territory, 
Grazing  in  the  (note),  305 

Louisiana  Purchase  Tract,  The 
Value  and  Development  of  Irriga- 
tion in,  Hollister,  278 


MacClintock,  Samuel,   The  Philip- 
pines (review),  99 
McFee,  Inez  N.,  Outlines  in  United 

States  Geography  (review),  402 
M  c  M  u  R  R  Y  ,    Charles   A.,   Special 

Method  in  Geography  (review),  53 
Mann,  C.  E.,  Manual  of  Geography 

and  Language  (review),  98 
Manual  of  Geography  and  Language, 

Mann  (review),  98 
Manufactures     in     the     Several 

Louisiana    Purchase   States, 

Rank  of  Principal  (note),  304 
Map  Drawing  in  History  (note),  353 
Map    Making    and    Map    Reading, 

Brown,  65 
Maps,  Introduction  of  the  Fractional 

Scale  on  (note),  489 
Maritime   Statistics,   The   World's 

(note),  90 
MEDiiBVAL    Trade    and    Trade 

Routes,  Beazley,  79 
Method  in   Geography,   Special,   Mc- 

Murry  (review),  53 
Moore,  William  Charles,  The  Course 

in  Geography  in  the  State  Normal 

School  at  Salem.  Mass.,  163 
Motions  of  the  Earth,  The,  Moul- 

ton,  145,  213 
Moulton,  Forest  R.,  The  Motions  of 

the  Earth,  145,  213 
Museum,  The  School  Excursion  and 

the  School,  as  Aids  in  the  Teaching 

of  Geography,  Ridgeley,  322 


National  Educational  Associa- 
tion in    1904,   Meeting  of  (note), 

54,  144  .  J     , 

Nicholas,  Francis  C,  Around  the 
Caribbean  and  Across  Panama 
(review),  54 

North  America,  Russell  (review^,  358, 
446 

North  Pole,  A  New  Trial  for  the 
(note),  100 

Norton,  W.  H.,  Excursions  in  Col- 
lege Geography,  403 


Outlines  in  United  States  Goegraphy, 
McFee  (review),  402 


THE    INDEX 


XI 


Panama,  Some  Facts  About  (note), 

32 
Panama,     The     New     Republic     of 

(note),  54 
Panama,  The  Republic  of,  Church, 

lOI 

Papers  on  Geography  at  the  Na- 
tional Educational  Association 
(note),  310 

Paris  to  Peking  by  Rail,  From 
(note),  188 

Perfumes  in  Grasse,  Manufacture 
of  (note),  92 

Persia,  Trade  and  Commerce  in 
(note),  486 

Philippine  Islands,  The,  Blair  and 
Robertson  (reviews),  qq,   139,  240 

Philippiftes,  The,  MacClintock  (re- 
view), 9Q 

Photographs,  Publication  of  (note), 
492 

Physical  Environment,  The 
Human   Response  to  the,   (joode, 

Physical  Geography,  A  Laboratory 
Manual  j or.  Darling  (review),  139, 

239 

Physical  Geography,  Field  and  Labo- 
ratory Exercises  in.  Chamberlain 
(review),  53 

Physical  Geography  in  High 
Schools,  Piatt,  379 

Physical  Geography,  Xew,  Ralph  S. 
Tarr  (review),  99,  238 

Platt,  Mar>'  I.,  Physical  Geography 
in  High  Schools,  379 

Plan  Which  Interested  a  Geog- 
raphy Class,  A  (note).  42 

Poultry  and  Eggs  (note),  395 

Practical  Work  in  School  Geog- 
raphy, Whitbeck,  374  , 

Precis  de  Geographic  Ecotu^ntique, 
Dubois  and  Kergomard  (review), 
98 

Present  Industries  within  the 
Louisiana  Purchase,  Trotter,  270 


Questions,  Search  (note),  387 


Redway,    Jacques    W.,    Commercial 

Geograpfty  (review),  191 
Redway,  J.  W.,  Final  Results  in  the 

Study  of  Geography,  447 
Republic  of  Panama,  The,  Church, 

lOI 

Republic    of    Panama,    The    New 
(note),  54 


Results  of  An  Elementary 
Course  in  Geography,  Emerson, 

450 

Ridgeley,  D.  C.  (note),  192 

RiDGELEY,  D.  C,  The  School  Excur- 
sion and  the  School  Museum  as 
aids  in  the  Teaching  of  Geography, 
322 

Robertson,  James  H.,  and  Blair. 
Emma  H.,  The  Philippine  Islands 
(review),  99,  139,  240 

Russell,  I.  C,  North  America 
(review),  ^58,  446 

Russia,  Public  Schools  in  (note), 
348 


St.  Louis,  Geographic  Influences  in 

the  Development  of,  Semple,  290 
Salisbury,  RoUin  D.,  and  Chamber- 

lin.  Thomas  C,  Geology  (review), 

308,  356 
Sand  Dunes  in  the  U.  S.  and  Europe, 

Controlling  (note),  131 
Scheme  of  Geography,  A,   Davis, 

20 
School  Geography,  Practical  Work 

in.  Whitbeck,  374 
Schools,  Emphasis  upon  Anthropo- 

Gcography  m,  Semple,  366 
Schools,    Public,   in    Russia,  (note) 

348 
Sea  of  Azov,  The  (note),  192 
Semple,    Ellen    C,    Emphasis   upon 

Anthroi)o-Geography    in    Schools, 

366 
Semple,  Ellen  C.  Geographic  Influ- 
ences in   the   Development  of  St. 

Louis,  290 
Sensible  Temperatures  (note),  343 
Ship  Canals  of  the  World  (note),  34 
Signs  of  the  Times  (editorial),  51 
Slocum,  Capt.  J.,  Around  the  World 

in  the  Sloop  Spray  (review),  309 
Smith,  Elizabeth,  and  Darling,  Frank 

W.,  The  Geography  Course  in  the 

Chicago  Normal  Schools,  55,  122 
Snow  Crystals  (note),  188 
South  American  Republics,  Area, 

Population,  and  Density  of  (note), 

90 
Spaniards  in  North  America,  Pioneer, 

Johnson  (review),  98 
Standard    Time    in    South    Africa 

(note),  91 
Standard  Times  (note),  186,  490 
State  Geography  (note),  387 
Sugar  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 

The  Production  of  (note),  89 


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■/f  New  Boofc  Which  CorreJates  Ceonraphv  and  Historg 

Geographic  Influences  in  American  Histiiy 

By  Albert  Perry  Bric.iiam,  Professor  of  Gfo/oiry  in  Coli^ate  University. 
Cloth.    366  pages.     Illustrated.     List  price,  $1.35. 

IN  this  new  book  Professor  Brigham  has  presented  vividly  and  clearly  those  physio- 
graphic features  of  America  which  have  been  important  in  guiding  the  unfolding 
of  our  industrial  and  national  life.  The  arrangement  is  mainly  geographicaf 
Among  the  themes  receiving  special  treatment  are:  The  Eastern  Gateway  of  the 
United  States,  The  Appalachian  Barrier,  the  Great  Lakes  and  American  Commerce, 
the  Civil  War,  and  Mines  and  Mountain  Life.  Closing  chapters  deal  with  the  unity 
and  diversity  of  American  life,  and  with  physiography  as  affecting  American  destiny. 

An  opinion  from  JAMES  F.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Teacher  of 
Geography,  State  formal  School,  Los  Angeles,  Cat, 

I  consider  Brigham's  ''Geographic  Influences  tn  American  History*' 
a  very  strong  hook.  It  will  be  of  great  value  to  all  teachers  of  history  because 
it  shows  clearly  the  vital  influence  which  geographic  environment  exerts  upon 
the  history  of  a  people.  It  will  be  very  helpful  to  teachers  of  geography 
because  it  brings  out  the  very  core  of  the  subject. 

GINN  &  COMPANY.  Publishers 

Boston      New  York      Chicago      London      San  Francisco      Atlanta      Dallas      Columbus 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

RULES  OF  PUBLICATION 

The  Journal  of  Geography  is  an  Illustrated  Monthly  Magazine  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  teachers  of  geography  in  elementary,  in  secondary,  and  in  normal  schools.  It  is 
published  the  fifth  of  every  month,  excepting  July  and  August. 

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Letters  should  be  addressed  : 

THE    JOURNAL    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

Room  560,  x6o  Adams  St.,  Chicago,  Illinois 


xu 


THE    INDEX 


Summer    Courses    in    Geography, 

193 
Surface  and  Climate  of  the  Loui- 
siana Purchase,  The,  Darton,  251 


Tarr,  Ralph  S.,  New  Physical  Geog- 
raphy (review),  99,  238 

Temperatures,  Sensible  (note).  343 

Texas,  Forests  and  Climate  in  (note) , 
444 

Thwaites,  R.  G.,  a  Brief  History  of 
Rocky  Mountain  Exploration  with 
Especial  Reference  to  the  Expedition 
of  Lewis  and  Clark  (review),  357 

Trade  and  Commerce  in  Persia 
(note),  486 

Transportation,   Holdsworth,    112, 

150.  413 
Trans-Siberian   Railway,   Cost  of 

Constniction  of  the  (note),  34S 
Tree- Dwellers,    The,    Dopp    (review), 

139 

Trees,  Wind-Blown  (note),  233 

Tropics,  Acclimatization  of  the 
White  Race  in  the  (note).  443 

Trotter,  Spencer,  Present  Indus- 
tries Within  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase, 270 

Trotter,  Spencer,  The  Geography  of 
Commerce  (review),  97 

True,  H.  L..  The  Cause  of  the  Glacial 
Period  (review),  99 

Tunnel,  A  Great  (note),  432 


Value  and  Development  of  Irri- 
gation in  Louisiana  Purchase 
Tract,  Hollistcr,  278 

Virginia,  The  Eastern  Shore  of 
(note),  184 


Waterways  of  Westward  Expansion, 
Hulbert  (review),  53 

WiiiTBECK,  R.  H.,  Practical  Work  in 
School  Geograi)hy,  374 

Whitbeck,  R.  H.,  Response  to  Sur- 
roundings— A  Geographic  Prin- 
ciple, 409 

Whitbeck,  R.  H..  Slate  Geography, 
Cause  and  Effect — Search  Ques- 
tions (note),  387 

White  Rack,  Acclimatization  of  in 
the  Tropics  (note),  443 

Wind  Effects,  Jefferson,  3 

Winslow,  1.  ().,  What  Should 
Graduates  from  Elementary 
Schools  Know  About  Geography? 
458 

Winter  of  1903-04,  The,  in  the 
Great  Lakes  Region  (note),  393 

World,  Commrrcial  Geography  of  the. 
Outside  the  British  Isles,  Herbert- 
son   (review),  401 

World,  Our  Proportion  of  the  (note), 

234 
World's  Maritime  Statistics,  The 
(note)  ,'90 


United     States,    -Geography 
History  in  the,  Brigham,"359 


and       Yclioicstonc     Xational     Park,      The, 
Chittenden  (review),  99,  240 


■/f  New  Boofc  Which  Correlates  Geography  and  History 

Geographic  loflveoces  io  Inericaii  IlistoiT 

By  Albert  Perry  Bri(;ham,  Professor  of  Gto/oj^y  in  Colgate  University. 
Cloth.    366  pages.     Illustrated.     List  price,  $1.35. 

IN  this  new  book  Professor  Brigham  has  presented  vividly  and  clearly  those  physio- 
graphic features  of  America  which  have  been  important  in  guiding  the  unfolding 
of  our  industrial  and  national  life.  The  arrangement  is  mainly  geographicaL 
Among  the  themes  receivMng  special  treatment  are:  The  Eastern  Gateway  of  the 
United  States,  The  Appalachian  Barrier,  the  Great  Lakes  and  American  Commerce, 
the  Civil  War,  and  Mines  and  Mountain  Life.  Closing  chapters  deal  with  the  unity 
and  diversity  of  American  life,  and  with  physiography  as  affecting  American  destiny. 

An  opinion  from  JAMES  F.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Teacher  of 
Geography,  State  formal  School,  Los  Angeles,  CaU 

I  consider  Brigham' s  ** Geographic  Influences  tn  American  History** 
a  very  strong  book.  It  will  be  of  great  value  to  all  teachers  of  history  because 
it  shows  clearly  the  vital  influence  which  geographic  environment  exerts  upon 
the  history  of  a  people.  It  will  be  very  helpful  to  teachers  of  geography 
because  it  brings  out  the  very  core  of  the  subject. 

GINN  &  COMPANY.  Publishers 

Boston      New  York      Chicago      London      San  Francisco      Atlanta      Dallas      Columbus 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

RULES  OF  PUBLICATION 

The  Journal  of  Geography  is  an  Illustrated  Monthly  Magazine  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  teachers  of  geography  in  elementary,  in  secondary,  and  in  normal  schools.  It  is 
published  the  fifth  of  every  month,  excepting  July  and  August. 

Price  — The  subscription  price  is  one  and  one-half  dollars  a  year,  payable  in  advance. 
Twenty  cents  a  copy. 

Postage  is  Prepaid  by  the  publishers  for  all  subscriptions  in  the  United  States,  Hawai- 
ian Islands,  Philippine  Islands,  Guam,  Porto  Rico,  Tutuila,  Samoa,  Canada,  and 
Mexico.  For  all  other  countries  in  the  Universal  Postal  Union  add  forty  cents  for 
postage. 

Change  of  Address  —  When  a  change  of  address  is  ordered,  both  the  new  and  the  old 
address  must  be  given.  The  notice  should  be  sent  one  week  before  the  change  is  to 
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KING'S 

Geographies 

By  C.  F.  King,  Master  of  the  Dearborn  Public  School,  Boston,  and  President 
of  the  Teachers'  Geography  Club,  Boston. 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY 

ADVANCED  GEOGRAPHY. 


Price,  66  Cents. 
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THE  ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY  assigns  to  the  subject  of  home  geography 
its  proper  and  important  place  in  the  first  year  of  the  geography  course.    The 
work  of  the  first  two  years,  as  geographies  go,  has  always  been  the  driest  of 
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and  interest  by  making  it  thoroughly  concrete,  and  by  selecting  a  few  geographical 
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"Journey  Geography"  is  a  strong  feature  of  the  book,  and  contributes  to  the 
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continued,  and  adds  to  the  interest. 


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Home  Geography 

T  IS  THE  TASK  OF  THE 
TEACHER  OF  HOME 
GEOGRAPHY  TO  FIRST, 
GIVE  THE  CHILD  AN 
ELEMENTARY  KNOWL- 
EDGE OF  THE  STATE 
AND  CONDITIONS  OF 
HIS  HOME;  SECONDLY, 
TO  LET  HIM  GAIN  IN  THIS  WORK  SUCH  AN 
ELEMENTARY  ACQUAINTANCE  WITH  THE 
PRINCIPAL  OBJECTS,  PROCESSES,  AND  LAWS 
OF  GEOGRAPHY  AS  MAY  SERVE  AS  A  BASIS 
FOR  THE  INTELLIGENT  STUDY  OF  THE 
WORLD  IN  HIGHER  GRADES;  THIRDLY,  TO 
LEAD  HIM,  THROUGH  THE  OBSERVATION 
AND  REPRODUCTION  OF  REAL  OBJECTS,  TO 
AN  UNDERSTANDING  OF  THE  CONVENTIONAL 
LANGUAGE  OF  CARTOGRAPHY,  THAT  HE  MAY 
READ  IT  AS  HE  WOULD  THE  WORDS  IN  A 
BOOK,  TO  GAIN  FROM  THE  MAP  ALL  THE 
INFORMATION  WHICH  HE  NEEDS  AND  WHICH 
IT    CAN    GIVE    ISXA.— MARTHA    KRUG   GENTHE. 


The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  JANUARY,  1904  No.  i 

WIND  EFFECTS 

BY    MARK    S.    W.    JEFFP:RS0N 
ProfeMor  of  Geography,  State  Normal  College,  Ypnilanti,  Mich. 

THE.  following  study  is  the  outcome  of  attempts  to  improve  the 
teaching  of  cHmates  by  basing  climatic  features  more  and 
more  on  weather  or  other  concrete  phenomena.  We  may 
regard  climate  as  ideal  and  weather  as  concrete,  just  as  spheres  are 
ideal  and  balls  are  concrete.  In  teaching  geometry,  a  good  deal 
of  difficulty  arises  from  lack  of  specific  effort  on  the  teacher's  part  to 
help  the  beginner's  mind  to  the  ideal  and  abstract  conceptions  dealt 
with.  And  climate,  as  taught  in  many  schools,  amounts  to  little 
more  than  words  to  be  memorized,  because  of  utter  lack  of  grounding 
in  the  real.  The  facts  of  the  weather  arc  real,  concrete,  and  observable 
everywhere.  If  these  facts  are  observed  and  studied,  the  features 
may  be  learned  that  characterize  our  climat(».  The  drawing  of  infer- 
ences from  the  facts,  however,  involves  mental  processes  in  which 
the  beginner  needs  training.  The  reasoning  ])rocess  should  carry 
conviction.  How  often  we  hear  a  young  thinker  say,  ''Yes;  I  see  that; 
but  it  does  not  seem  as  if  it  could  be  so."  Familiarity  with  the  induc- 
tive method  is  needed  to  give  faith  in  it,  and  there  is  especial  need 
of  ever}^  possible  test  of  the  results.  For  this  reason  it  is  desirable 
to  come  to  our  conclusions  by  as  many  roads  as  we  can  find. 

Supposing  it  is  desired  to  get  the  student  to  believe  in  our  westerly 
winds  as  an  important  climatic  feature.  We  may  work  along  three 
lines: 

1.  Observe  the  weather  vane  and  after  some  months  find  which 
wind  has  blown  oftenest. 

2.  Study  the  weather  map  and  make  out  on  it  the  procession  of 
highs  and  lows  to  eastward. 

3.  Look  at  the  trees  that  have  grown  exposed  to  the  force  of  the 
winds  for  indication  of  thrust  in  one  direction  rather  than  in  others. 

Copyrights  igo4,  by  E.  M.  Lehnerts 


r     -.-rfrt'sj.  ffaiatttj,  hH^kiiff  ursl. 


1904 


WIND  EFFECTS 


Of  the  two  pictures  given,  the  first  is  a  yellow  birch  in  the  Belknap 
Mountains  in  New  Hampshire.  The  trunk  is  a  little  inclined  to  the 
west,  owing  to  the  common  gravitative  creep  of  the  soil  downhill, 
but  the  growth  of  the  branches  suggests  a  strong  eastward  movement 
of  the  air,  although  there  was  no  wind  at  the  time  of  the  exposure. 
The  whole  tree  makes  one  think  of  the  hill  as  a  wind-swept  height. 
Such  trees  are  not  infrequently  represented  from  mountains.*  One 
thinks  of  westerly  storms  as  driving;  these  trees  out  of  shape.     So  of 


Fig.  3.    Laurel,  Central  Park.  Havana,  looking  west. 

the  windward  side  of  the  volcanic  Caribbees,  Hill  says,  ''The  trade 
^ind  sweeps  them  with  such  ferocity  that  the  vegetation  all  bends 
in  a  cringing  position  towards  the  land.^t 

The  laurel  of  the  second  view  stands  over  the  road  from  Cabanas 
fortress.  There  is  no  especial  reason  for  speaking  of  violent  winds 
here.  The  tree  is  near  sea  level,  though  exposed  to  the  trade  winds 
heightened  in  the  daytime  by  the  heating  of  the  land.  The  "ferocity" 
of  the  trades,  in  Mr.  Hill's  language,  is  suggested  rather  by  the  striking 
effect  than  by  the  winds  themselves.  The  trades  are  strong  rather 
than  violent.  From  this  same  point,  by  the  entrance  to  Havana  harbor, 
an  avenue  called  the  Prado  leads  off  a  little  west  of  south,  and  down 

*  Chun,  Atis  den  Tiejen  des  Weltmeers,  p.  160.     The  pines  near  Cape  Town, 
t  Hill,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  etc..  p.  328. 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


this  again  are  seen  many  notable  examples  of  the  tnie-.sided  growth 
of  the  vegetal iuD.  This  is  well  shown  in  the  laurels  and  franihoyaiies 
of  the  Central  I'ark  at  the  end  of  the  Tratlo.     lli^ure  3  is  typieaK 

But  continuity  of  direction  in  even  rnnderate  winds  leaves  reeord 
as  definite  and  unnnstakalde  as  niountain  storms.  Our  prevalent 
westerly  wlruls  are  recorded  in  the  <::rowth  of  tht^  uiap!f*s  from  New 
England  to  MichijLran.  When  the  tree  is  in  leaf  tlie  restdt  is  a  tnie- 
sided  growth,  weJl  displayed  in  Figure  4,  while  in  the  twi*!  the  effeet 
is  still  clearer,  as  in  tlte  al>solutely  typical  cxa tuple  froni  Ypsilanti. 
Figure  5. 

About  Y|)silaTdi  the  white  poplar  points  its  branches  in  unison 
down  the  wirul,  as  does  a  fine  exanii>le  of  the  same  tree  in  the  Boston 
Public  Gardc'u.     figure  6  is  a  poplar  at  Ypsilanti, 


The  distinction  between  ef^ustant  and  (UfvahiU  wiuds  ( riters  largely 
intcj  the  difTereure  la'tvveen  liie  climates  of  the  trades  ami  westerly 
wind  l>elts.  which  l>cHwe(4i  them  urcupy  the  greater  portion  of  the 
earth.  In  the  traifps  arc  clear  skies,  even  teni[>enrtures,  -And  winds 
always   in   the  same  <|Uarter.   rising  and   falling   with   some  swinii   in 


WIND   EFFECTS 


Fk;.  o.     White  poplar,   YpsiUimi.  lookiufi  north. 


direction  at  the  .shore;  in  the  westerlies,  spells  of  fine  and  spells  of 
stormy  weather,  with  winds  veering  and  backing  through  all  the  points  of 
the  compass.  To  teach  this  pro])erly,  we  must  begin  with  the  westerlies 
about  us.  But  the  westerlies  are  only  an  average,  only  an  excess  of 
one  wind  direction  over  others,  and  a  difficulty  for  beginners  lies  at 
this  point. 

Suppose  that  we  have  gathered  observations  like  those  of  the 
accompanying  table,  the  percentages  of  the  whole  year  that  the  wind 
is  in  each  direction,  at  Detroit,  for  instance. 

l)rR.\TioN  OF  Each  Wind  Direction  in  Percentages  of 
THE  Whole  Year 


iMtitude 

N 

NE 

E 

SE 

S 

SW 

W 

xw 

Calm 

Boston 

42° 

8 

9 

10 

4 

7 

20 

23 

19 

0 

Detroit 

42° 

5 

15 

9 

7 

5 

31 

13 

15 

0 

San  Francisco 

38° 

6 

4 

3 

8 

8 

38 

23 

9 

1 

Dodge  City 

38° 

13 

15 

5 

24 

18 

6 

4 

15 

0 

Key  West 

25° 

9 

22 

28 

22 

6 

5 

2 

6 

0 

Santiago,  Cuba 

20° 

18 

28 

4 

10 

17 

10 

2 

4 

7 

Santo  Domingo 

18° 

46 

9 

4 

18 

7 

2 

1 

11 

2 

San  Juan,  P.  R. 

18° 

1 

8 

39 

36 

6 

5 

1 

•) 

3 

Barbados 

13° 

1 

30 

48 

19 

1 

1 

0 

0 

(> 

Curasao 


12^        0        9    79      11       1        0       0 


8 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHV 


jAQuary 


That  is,  for  59  |>er  cent  of  the  tiine  the  wind  at  Detrfnt  is  either 
ill  the  NW,  W,  or  S\V.  Yet  a  faet  tlnit  always  looks  very  large  to  a 
beginner  is  that  the  wind  is  NE  a.s  often  as  NW,  and  oftener  than  it 
is  west.  Morenver  50  per  rent  is  only  a  little  nKure  than  half  the 
time.  If  ho  has  access  to  the  other  numbers,  he  may  find  some 
r(?assurance  in  the  data  for  Boston  and  San  Francisco,  but  he  will  l>e 
certain  to  seize  on  Dotl^^^e  City  as  giviiijtc  the  whole  case  away.  Here 
is  a  place  in  the  latitntle  of  the  westerlies  with  more  east  winds  than 
west!     All  that  this  means  is  that  concrete  details  have  a  reality  thai 


Fig.   7,     i  choatiUi  paltu^  tii  .':n,iuiu  t  ru. 


■i".'  !huTSl. 


is  not  possessed  in  like  degree  by  the  conclusions  drawn  from  them. 
If,  however,  we  can  now  coTiHrm  these  eonchisions  in  any  way,  we 
shall  strengthen  the  reasoning  ]>r<»cess.  A  map  of  the  United  States 
on  whicli  are  laid  dr»wn  the  average  directions  of  all  the  wintls  at  all 
places  adds  defi  nit  en  ess  here.  But  as  the  effects  of  an  excess  of  one 
\\4nd  direction  are  al^sfthilel}*  real  ami  definite^  the  evi<lence  of  the 
trees  that  have  been  inHuejiced  by  it  in  their  growth  is  of  the 
greatest  value  in  teaching. 

Spells  of  cyclonic  and  anti-cyclonic  weather  shoulii  be  watched 
as  they  go  by,  with  the  help  f>f  the  daily  weather  map,  though  they 
have  not  for  the  beginner  so  nuich  reality. 

That  iempirav  zouv  is  a  niisiK>mer  for  the  1>e]t  of  westerly  winds 
has  long  been  known.  Probably  there  is  nothing  characterizes  these 
regions  so  sharply  as  their  wiiuis.  i>revailing  westerly,  but  interrupted 
by  winds  from  all  other  ct^mpass  jioints  in  succession.     Nrjthing  will 


WIND   KP^FECTS 


give  a  better  notion  of  trade-wind  weather  than  an  absence  of  these 
fluctuations.  Figures  such  as  those  for  Curat/ao  and  Barbados  in  the 
table  may  be  contrasted  with  the  figures  for  Boston  or  Detroit  to  get 
this  idea.  It  is  easier  to  grasp  the  average  conditions  in  the  trades 
since  they  occur  daily.  The  other  points  for  w^hich  wind  directions 
are  given  in  the  table,  however,  have  their  average  less  distinct.  Local 
influences  such  as  the  direction  of  the  coast  line  are  plainly  influential 
here.  What  approach  to  these  facts  could  be  more  real  than  such 
pictures  as  Figure  7? 

Where  sea  and  land  breezes  alternate,  the  excess  in  strength  of  the 
sea  breeze  comes  out  well  in  the  growth  of  trees  along  shore.  In  some 
way,  it  is  desirable  to  get  the  picture  of  these  effects  into  the  pupil's 
mind.     A  need  for  an  explanation  will  then  arise. 

All  this  is  antipodal  to  the  method  by  which  climates  were  taught 
first,  and  the  weather  never  reached  in  teaching  it  all.  As  a  result, 
the  ideal  thing,  climate,  existed  in  our  minds  as  a  lot  of  disconnected 
phrases  that  burdened  the  memory  and  left  no  more  definite  conceptions 
than  that  the  Nile  rose  in  summer  or  winter — one  did  not  certainly 
remember  which.  The  naming  our  zone  Temperale  seems  only  to 
rest  on  the  climatic  conception  of  our  average  temperature,  some  60°, 
which  sounds  mild  and  temperate.  Yet  the  actual  weather  could 
hardly  be  less  temperate,  ranging  through  temperatures  from  100° 
to  -  40°.  Nowadays  we  like  to  look  for  vigor  and  bracing  for  deeds 
in  these  immoderate  ranges.  It  is  in  the  belt  of  westerlies,  with  weather 
in  spells,  that  civilization  is  taking  the  greatest  strides  in  history,  and 
there  it  seems  Hkely  to  make  others. 

Civilization  began  in  Babylonia  and  Egypt,  in  the  belt  that  on 
sea  is  characterized  by  trade  winds.  It  failed  there,  to  try  again  in 
Mediterranean  countries,  on  the  border  of  the  trade  and  w^esterly 
belts.  There,  too,  a  few  centuries  of  progress  ended  in  the  shock  with 
barbarism  and  collapse.  With  the  revival  of  learning  came  men  who 
accomplished  things  in  the  belt  of  westerlies,  and  there  has  been 
more  of  human  progress  in  a  few  hundred  years  than  in  all  the  long  past 
of  the  race. 

Spain,  the  land  that  lay  across  the  border  of  the  belts,  lingered  in 
power  into  the  daw^ning  of  the  new  epoch.  The  trade  winds  bore 
Columbus  to  America  almost  irresistibly,  when  once  his  mind  w^as 
made  up  to  go.  Clear  skies  with  fair  and  balmy  winds  accompanied 
him  all  across  the  Atlantic.  There  was  no  obstacle  to  his  progress 
but  the  fear  of  the  great  unknown  ocean  that  opened  out  wider  and 


lO  THE  JOCRXAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Jaattarj 

wi/Jer  Vjf'forf  thfrn  day  after  flay.  Down  the  coa^^t  of  Africa  to  the 
Canaries  and  Cajje  N'erde.  and  thence  straight  acrtiss  to  the  Antilles, 
the  unfailing  brer-ze*  wafted  horde>  of  Spanish  conc|uistadores  to  Mexico 
and  Feni-  The  return  was  less  easy,  but  any  Spanianl  who  could  buy 
a  ve«i«el  and  get  together  a  crew  Ijecame  at  once  a  sea  captain  and 
made  his  way  to  the  new  world  of  gold  and  opportunities. 

A  little  farther  north,  where  the  English  lived,  other  winds  blew. 
The  Englishman  that  cn^.seii  the  Atlantic  did  so  in  the  face  of  \iolent 
gales.  Onlys^'amen  dare<l  re|>eat  the  trip.  Presently,  when  the  In\in- 
cible  Armada  apfx-ared  in  the  English  Channel,  and  the  English  came 
out  in  their  trim  seafaring  ships,  snug  and  stanch  and  well-handled, 
as  the  Spanish  shifts  were  not  and  could  not  Ix*.  the  wind  had  only  to 
rise  to  destroy  Spain's  pretense  at  naval  power  forever.  The  English 
had  beffu  to  the  lx*st  of  schools  of  seamanship.  The  Spanish  had  lived 
by  a  tranquil  s<'a.  with  all  this  schooling  omitteil.  In  Asia,  India  has 
given  promise,  but  a  lK»tter  fulfillment  seems  reserveil  for  Japan,  and, 
perhafw,  China,  in  the  westerlies.  In  the  new  world,  too,  all  the  early 
hopes  were  founded  on  the  trade-wind  countries  in  the  West  Indies. 
Mexico,  and  Peru.  To-f lay's  fulfillment  is  all  beyond  in  the  westerly 
belt,  here  in  our  country,  in  Chile,  and  the  Argentine  Republic,  as  in 
South  Africa,  New  Zealand,  and  southern  Australia. 

The  typical  wind  effect  is  not  an  inclination  of  the  trunk.  The 
willow  often  has  its  trunk  inclined  to  the  east  and  its  western  branches 
fairly  over  the  base  of  the  tree.  But  this  may  be  in  some  part  due  to 
the  softness  of  the  wet  ground  that  this  tree  affects,  which  may  yield 
somewhat  to  the  force  of  the  wind  pulling  on  the  roots.  On  the  St. 
Clair  Flats,  Michigan,  the  delta  of  the  St.  Clair  River,  willows  have 
been  planted  along  the  l)anks  of  the  United  States  ship  canal,  and  here 
and  there  about  the  buildings  along  the  banks  of  natural  channels. 
These  willows,  by  their  wind  effect,  enable  the  traveler  to  follow  the 
windings  of  the  canal  as  readily  as  a  compass  in  hand.  The  electric 
road  from  Port  Huron  to  Detroit,  on  the  land  just  to  the  west  of  the 
St.  Clair  River  and  Lake,  touches  at  the  town  of  Algonac  on  the  Flats 
and  then,  to  continue  to  Detroit,  has  to  make  a  long  detour  to  west 
and  north.  During  a  first  trip  over  the  line,  while  the  motor  rendered 
the  compass  useless,  the  growth  of  the  I^ombardy  poplars  along  the 
roadside  seemed  unintelligible.  Upon  examining  a  map,  however,  it 
became  clear  that  they  all  showed  an  admirable  wind  effect  to  NE. 
The  Lombardy  poplar  often  grows  erect  in  the  wind. 

In  orchards,  too,  the  trunks  are  usually  inclined  when  the  ground 


WIND   EFFECTS 


I  I 


beneath  is  cultivated,  so  that  in  the  Michigan  Fruit  Belt  it  is  the  cus- 
tom to  set  out  the  trees  with  a  lean  to  the  southwest,  that  they  may 
be  straightened  by  the  wind.  Here  again  it  is  possible  that  the  cul- 
tivation softens  the  ground  so  as  to  allow  the  inclination  in  question. 


Fig.  8,     Willow,  Ypsilanti,  looking  south. 

No  trees  in  groves  show  really  typical  wind  effects,  since  the  outer 
trees  protect  those  within.  In  dense  forest  growth  this  causes  light 
effects  to  acquire  especial  importance.  The  outer  trees  develop 
strongly  in  every  direction  away  from  the  center,  and  those  within 
reach  up  vertically  for  the  light,  pruning  away  the  lower  branches  by 
failing  to  nourish  them  and  their  leaves.  The  best  trees  to  examine 
are  those  that  have  grown  in  isolated  fields,  or  in  open  order  along 
roadsides.  The  typical  effect  is  a  bending  or  inclining  of  the  Uvigs 
to  leeward,  and  for  this  reason  the  best  season  for  these  studies  is  after 
the  fall  of  the  leaf.  When  trees  are  leaved  out  the  main  effect  is  a 
one-sidedness  of  the  top.  Not  every  tree  standing  alone  has  grown 
alone.     Southern   Ontario   has   many  single  trees,  elms,  and  others. 


12 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


January 


along  the  line  of  tht*  Michigan  Central  Railn^ad,  which  seem  exce|> 
tionally  regular  in  growth.  Their  naturally  pruned  trunks  and  the 
abiindaut  .stunips  about,  however,  indicate  that  these  trees  grew  in  a 
wood  ami  were  protected  from  the  wind.  Mo8t  trees  that  grow  in  the 
open  brancli  frojii  near  the  ground  up,  and  by  this  they  may  l>e  known. 
The  residts  of  this  infidification  of  free  growtli  are  in<iividual  with 
each  kinil  of  tree.  Cotton  woods  in  the  country  about  Ypsilanti  seem 
to  grow  uninfluenced  by  the  wind,  however  exposed  their  situation. 
Figure  9  is  a  fair  example.  Yet  all  the  cottonwoods  in  the  Boston 
Public  (la nien,  though  less  exposed  to  the  wind  than  many  of  the  trees 
at  Ypstlanti,  incline  their  branches  off  distinctly  to  the  east.  In  the 
West  Indies  the  royal  palm  stands  vertical  and  columnar,  though  in 
this  case,  strangely  enough^  the  newest  leaf,  rolled  into  a  tight  cane 
at  the  summit  of  the  tree,  leans  slightly  against  the  wind,  as  if  some 
force  that  availed  to  keep  the  trunk  nprigVit  against  the  wind-thmst, 
bent  this  lender  shoot  over  backward.     In  tlie  picture,  Figure  10,  the 


*#*'i 


^  #» 


Fig.  0.     Cottotituood  at  wesi  t-uJ  ,'    (  'ro::s  >fr.,.'  brjd)^i\  Ypsihfiti,  htokirin  north. 

leaves  are  actually  driven  to  one  side  by  the  trade  \viml  which  is  blowing, 
and  the  new  leaf  or  penacho  of  each  tree  is  incUned  to  the  northeast, 
from  which  direction  the  wind  was  blowing.  This  w^as  found  to  be 
an  almost  invariable  ni!e  with  thousands  of  these  trees  examined  this 


L 


M 


WIND  EFFECTS 


13 


Fig.   10,     Royal  palms  near  Cardenas,  Cuba,  looking  northwest. 


summer  in  Cuba.  While  the  oottonwood,  at  least  about  Ypsilanti,  is 
thus  resistant  to  wind  effects,  its  cousin,  the  white  i)oplar,  shows  them 
in  a  high  degree.  Indeed,  while  a  careful  observer  has  no  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  the  two  trees,  a  novice  would  ask  no  better  guide 
than  the  degree  in  which  they  yield  to  the  influence  of  the  wind. 

In  the  poplar,  curves  are  strongly  developed.  On  the  east  side  of 
the  tree,  the  branches  form  curves  concave  to  the  ground.  On  the 
west,  vertical  lines  would  cut  not  a  few  branches  in  two  points  w^th 
the  curve  between  concave  to  the  east,  so  strongly  are  they  bent  to 
leeward  as  they  grow\  (See  Figure  6.)  In  this  case  it  is  a  branch 
effect  rather  than  a  twig  effect,  while  the  individuality  of  the  poplar 
comes  out  in  the  curve.  The  Ypsilanti  poplars  show  these  forms, 
even  when  poorly  exposed  to  the  wind,  and  reference  has  already  been 
made  to  the  one  in  the  Boston  Public  Garden. 

The  maple  succeeds  better  in  rearing  its  greater  branches  vertically 
into  the  air.  There  is  a  djstinct  curving  here,  too,  in  the  more  slender 
branches,  but  much  less  in  degree.  The  maple  runs  to  slender  and  hair- 
like twigs,  and  the  development  of  the  twigs  is  almost  horizontal  on 
the  east  side  of  the  tree  and  vertical  on  the  west,  as  if  they  had  been 
combed  upward  on  one  side  and  outward  on  the  other.  (See  Figure  5 
and  the  tailpiece.)  Maples  give  excellent  wind  effects  everywhere 
that  I  have  observed  them.  If  there  are  any  about  Dodge  City,  Kansas, 
it  would  be  of  interest  to  know  how  they  grow. 

Elms,  too,  are  available  for  observation  through  a  wide  stretch 


Fio.  II,     Elm.  sQUtliiL'ist  cornef  of  Boston  Cc^mmmi   looking  north  across  BoylstQn  Street. 

of  this  country.  The  elm  branches  grow  longer  to  eastward  than  to 
wTstwardy  whieli  enables  the  slender  ends  to  hang  nearer  the  groivnd 
on  the  east.  The  trunk  stands  almost  in%'ariably  to  west  of  the  mid 
tree-top.  A  fine  example  stands  near  the  oKl  burial  ground  on  Boston 
Common,  The  twig  effect  on  the  elm  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  maple, 
but  the  greater  length  of  the  pendulous  end  twigs  takes  away  the 
appearance  of  combing  upward  on  the  w-est  side.  The  tips  of  the 
lower  limbs  on  both  sides  hang  directly  dtnvnward,  but  toward  the 


I 


WIND  EPPECTS 


'5 


top  of  the  tree  tlie  efTects  are  alniost  identical  with  those  observeil  mi 
the  maple.  The  crown  of  the  elm,  however,  is  flat.  The  Boston  elm 
was  photographed  in  September  while  still  in  leaf.  Figure  12  is  an 
example  in  twig,  A  pliotograph  of  the  same  tree  from  the  west  is 
quite  symmetrical. 


Fu>    I?.     Ehn  at  YfisHnnti.  lookinf!  h<tt//i. 

The  oak  and  the  hickory  show  the  same  excess  in  h^nglh  of  eastern 
over  western  branrhes,  and  the  eastern  ones  also  nsnally  spring  out 
more  nearly  horizontally.  This  appears  very  well  in  Figures  13  and 
14,  wliieh  arc  tyi>icaL  Orcasiunally  the  oak  shows  a  curving  of  its 
branches,  but  the  type  is  stilT,  crooking  a  little  on  either  side  of  straight 
lines.  The  hickory  brancli  is  excessively  crnf>ked.  Another  crooked 
Vjranched  tree  is  the  sycamore,  or  buttonw(»od,  as  shown  in  the  tail- 
piece.  Hut  the  crooks  of  the  s^^amore  are  rather  in  the  smaller  twigs. 
and  the  twigs  are  more  of  the  combed  type,  as  in  the  maple,  having  a 
considerable  approach  to  parallelism,  while  the  twigs  of  the  hickory 
present  a  mere  tangle.  The  \vind  effect  on  the  liiekory  is  thus  a  matter 
of  one-sided ness,  dependent  on  length  of  branch.  In  the  sycamore 
it  is  equally  evident  in  the  ilirection  of  the  twigs. 

The  bhick  walnut  also  usually  shows  a  greater  development  of  top 
to  leeward.     A  tulip  tree   east  of  the  soldiers*  monument  in  Boston 


this  sort  by  standing  in  the  middle  of  a  .street  that  ruri8  north  and 
south  and  looking  along  the  street.  It  will  be  found  in  this  eomitry 
that  tlie  meeting  of  the  branc^hes  overhead  is  well  to  east  of  the  middle 
of  the  road.  The  Charles  Street  mall  of  Boston  Common  offers  a 
trood  ilhiytration.  The  Ceiba  or  silk  cotton  tree  is  regarded  In*  the 
Cubans  as  their  national  tree.  It  gri»ws  alone  in  the  plains,  with 
trunk  rhbiii  naked  a  considerable  height  to  tfie  thick  top  whieh  is 
always  strongly  developed  to  leeward. 

Our  pines  and  spruees  comtnonly  grow  in  woods  or  clusters  and  so 
are  little  atifected  by  tlie  winds.  Even  in  the  Now  Hampshire  fulls 
only  excejitioiial  examjvles  were  found.  Creole  pines  may  be  seen 
planted  in  ttie  gar<lens  about  Havana  showing  admirable  effects.  The 
arbor  vitaes  (thuyas)  in  the  garden  at  Cardenas  all  lean  to  westward. 
But  tliis  garden  is  a  new  one,  cornnnMUorating  with  its  monument  the 
dead  of  the  recent  war.  So  the  trees  have  probably  been  planted 
within  the  last  four  or  hve  years,  and  may  have  l»een  simply  pushed 
to  one  side  before  the  roots  got  a  firm  hold  on  the  grouinL  It  is  curious 
that  the  wind-thrust  on  these  trees  has  Iteen  from  the  east,  as  in  all 
cases  near  the  shore  at  Cartlenas,  while  the  northeast  side  of  each  tree 
has  a  blighted  look,  as  if  the  l:>ranehes  f>n  that  side  had  been  killed  by 
some  storm  from  the  northeast.  S^nnething  of  this  IjUghted  hiok  may  be 
seen  in  the  picture. 

In  fact  J  both  east  and  northeast  winds  prevail  in  northern  Cuba. 
From  an  examination  of  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather 


1 


WIND  EFFECTS 


19 


Bureau  at  Havana  for  the  years  1900,  1901,  and  1902,  it  appears  that 
the  wind  is  in  the  east  fifteen  hours  a  day  and  in  the  northeast  the 
rest  of  the  time.  This  is  true  summer  and  winter.  The  seasonal 
differences  are  slight.  But  it  appears  that  the  greatest  force  is  during 
the  time  that  the  northeast  wind  is  blowing,  so  that  five  or  six  more 
miles  of  wind  go  by  during  the  briefer  period.  It  is  from  11  a.  m.  to 
7  p.  M.  that  the  Brisa  blows,  when  the  sun  has  heated  up  the  ground. 
It  is,  therefore,  to  be  regarded  as  a  true  sea  breeze.  Occasionally  a 
land  breeze  springs  up  during  the  night.  At  other  times  it  merely 
falls  off  in  velocity  and  settles  back  into  the  east.  The  following 
table  gives  the  data  for  every  other  hour: 

Average  Wind  Direction  and  Velocity  at  Havana, 
1900,  1901,  \ND  1902 

a.  m.  p.  m. 

Time  13579     11         135         79     11 

Direction  E       E     E       E     E     NE     NE  NE  NE     NE     E     E 

Miles  per  hour    7.7    7.3    7.2    7.4  10.1  13.2  15.1  16.6  15.5  12.6  10.3  8.9 


Fig.   17.     White  birch  on  the  west  slope  of  Baldfacc,  Gilford. 


looking,  north-northwest. 


The  east  wind  has  an  average  velocity  of  8.4  miles  an  hour;  the 
northeast,  14.6.  The  vegetation  suggests  the  northeast  winds  for 
most  points  between  Havana  and  Cardenas,  but  shore  places  at  Cardenas 
and  Matanzas  indicate  easterly  winds.     Such  studies  may  afford  a 


20  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

method  of  determining  prevalent  winds  in  regions  meteorologically 
unexplored. 

Light  effects  on  tree  growth  are  of  much  interest  in  connection  with 
these  wind  studies.  Trees  tend  to  grow  strongly  toward  the  light.  A 
singular  example  of  an  elm  on  the  flood  plain  of  the  Huron,  south  of 
Ypsilanti,  i^dth  a  strong  top  growth  to  the  northwest,  was  found  to 
have  alongside  it  the  stump  of  a  cut-away  mate  that  had  prevented 
it  from  developing  to  eastward.  But  more  has  been  attributed  to 
light  effect  than  observation  warrants.  White  poplars  may  be  found 
close  to  the  west  of  a  house,  but  growing  strongly  toward  it.  Such 
observations  as  have  l>een  made  seem  to  justify  the  statement  that 
light  usually  has  less  effect  on  trees  fairly  exposed  to  the  wind  than 
the  wind  does.  When  they  work  in  opposite  directions  the  light 
effect  is  masked  by  that  of  the  wind.  It  is  not  certain  that  the  direct 
sunlight  has  more  influence  on  tree  growth  than  the  diffuseil  light  of 
the  sky.  If  it  were,  east  and  west  rows  of  trees  should  have  a  greater 
development  to  the  south.     Is  this  observed? 

An  interesting  persistence  of  wind  effect  is  seen  in  Figure  17.  Appar- 
ently hillside  creep  has  caused  the  trunk  to  lean  downhill,  as  the  earth 
yielded  beneath  it.  As  there  was  free  exposure  to  Hght  and  wind  the 
twigs  have  continued  to  grow  over  to  eastward.  There  is  no  sign  of 
a  stump  or  branch  lost  from  the  east  side. 

I  ])eheve  school  teachers  who  are  willing  to  go  out-of-<.ioors  will 
find  value  in  observations  like  these. 


r  -I- 


V.' 


A  SCHEME  OF  GEOGRAPHY *~ 

BY    WILLIAM    M.    DAVIS, 
I*rofe»9or  of  Geology.  Harvard   Unireraity,  Cambridge,  Mom. 

THERE  is  a  certain  profit  in  looking  forward  to  the  time  when 
the  Earth  and  its  inhabitants  shall  have  been  so  well  studied 
that  if  all  then  known  about  them  were  put  in  print,  the  volumes 
thus  formed   would   include  the  whole  content   of  geography.     The 
material  there  gathered  might  be  arranged  follo\\ing  either  one  of  two 

♦  Reprinted  by  permission  of  the  author  from  The  Geographical  Journal,  October, 
1903. 


I904  A  SCHEME  OF  GEOGRAPHY  2  1 

plans.  According  to  one  plan,  everything  about  a  certain  country 
would  be  brought  together;  this  would  make  a  treatise  on  regional 
geography.  According  to  the  other  plan,  all  things  of  the  same  kind 
would  be  brought  together;  this  would  constitute  a  treatise  on  sys- 
tematic geography.  Under  either  plan,  convenience  would  be  served 
by  adopting  some  reasonable  scheme  that  might  be  invented  for  the 
arrangement  of  the  parts  into  which  the  subject  might  be  divided. 
Under  regional  geography,  for  example,  the  arrangement  might  be 
according  to  the  continents  and  their  political  subdivisions.  Under 
systematic  geography,  the  arrangement  might  follow  the  usual  order 
of  globe,  atmosphere,  oceans,  lands,  inhabitants.  Under  each  plan, 
use  would  be  made  of  the  other  as  a  secondary  guide.  All  the  items 
under  Mexico  in  a  regional  treatise  should  follow  a  systematic  order 
of  presentation;  while  all  examples  of  a  certain  kind  of  lakes  in  a  sys- 
tematic treatise  should  follow  a  regional  order  of  presentation. 

A  complete  geographical  treatise,  regional  or  systematic,  would 
be  inconveniently  bulky.  Abbreviated  editions  would  be  in  demand, 
and  they  might  be  abbreviated  in  several  ways.  In  one  way,  unim- 
portant or  inconspicuous  items  would  be  omitted,  and  important  or 
conspicuous  items  retained,  wherever  or  whatever  they  might  be.  Tn 
another  way,  remote  items  might  be  omitted  and  home  items  retained. 
In  a  third  way,  difficult  items  would  be  omitted  and  elementary  items 
retained.     Thus  hand  books  and  school  books  would  be  developed. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  abbreviated  or  simplified  editions 
would  gain  in  value  with  the  approach  to  completeness  of  the  treatises 
on  which  they  were  based,  as  well  as  with  the  competence  of  their 
authors.  A  hundred  years  ago  the  best  geographies  were  necessarily 
silent  concerning  the  then  extensive  unexplored  parts  of  the  world. 
To-day  the  best  geographies  contain  a  much  larger  body  of  information 
than  their  predecessors,  but  they  are  still  silent  concerning  many  of 
the  more  advanced  problems  of  geography.  A  hundred  years  hence 
there  may  be  still  much  to  learn,  but  great  progress  will  by  that  time 
have  been  made  in  the  more  philosophical  phases  of  geography,  to 
which  attention  is  not  yet  sufficiently  directed.  It  is  with  the  object 
of  calling  attention  to  some  of  these  phases  that  this  note  is  written. 

The  direction  in  which  geographical  progress  is  to  be  made  in  the 
next  hundred  years  may  perhaps  be  forecast  from  the  direction  of 
progress  in  the  last  hundred.  Geography  used  to  be  a  ''study  of  the 
Earth  and  its  inhabitants."  Items  were  brought  together  in  great 
number;   they  were  described  more  or  less  empirically;   but  there  was 


22  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  January 

no  sufficient  effort  made  to  explain  and  to  correlate  them.  Correlation 
was  greatly  promoted  by  Ritter  and  his  followers.  Geography  then 
became,  not  simply  a  study  of  independent'  items,  but  a  study  of  the 
Earth  and  its  inhabitants  in  their  mutual  relations.  With  the  advance 
of  science  in  general,  the  description  of  geographical  items  became 
more  and  more  explanatory;  but  progress  in  the  larger  problems  of 
correlation  was  retarded  for  half  a  century  by  the  prevalence  of  a 
teleological  philosophy,  and  until  this  was  replaced  by  the  doctrine 
of  evolution,  the  modern  phase  of  geography  could  not  be  reached. 

In  its  present  modern  phase,  geography  is  essentially  concerned 
with  the  rational  correlation  of  the  items  that  fall  under  its  two  parts: 
on  the  one  hand,  the  items  of  inorganic  conditions  that  constitute  the 
physical  environment  of  living  forms ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  items 
of  organic  response  made  by  living  forms  to  their  environment.  The 
first  of  these  two  parts  is  commonly  called  physical  geography.  In 
the  United  States  this  term  is  coming  to  be  condensed  into  physiog- 
raphy.* The  second  part  has  no  name;  it  includes  certain  phases  of 
political  and  commercial  geography,  and  it  goes  much  further  than 
either,  because  it  is  concerned  with  all  forms  of  life  instead  of  only 
with  man  and  what  is  useful  to  him.  It  will  here  be  called  ontography; 
the  main  root  of  the  word  corresponding  to  that  of  paleontology,  and 
the  termination  agreeing  with  that  of  physiography  and  of  geography. 

Thus  understood,  geography  is  concerned  with  the  combination  of 
physiography  and  ontography;  that  is,  with  the  correlation  between 
inorganic  environment  and  organic  response.  Individual  items,  such 
as  the  course  of  an  ocean  current,  the  path  of  a  valley,  the  area  of  a 
forest,  the  population  of  a  village,  fall  under  the  physiographic  or  the 
ontographic  division  of  tlie  subject,  and  must  there  be  studied  as 
carefully  and  rationally  as  possible ;  but  they  will  fail  to  attain  a  truly 
geographic  quality  as  long  as  they  are  treated  independently,  instead 
of  being  brought  into  proper  correlation  with  their  fellows.  The 
physiographic  items,  regarded  as  elements  of  controlling  environment, 
must  be  associated  in  thorough-going  geographical  work  with  the 
ontographic  responses  that  they  have  evoked.  The  ontographic  items, 
regarded  as  responses  to  environing  conditions,  must  be  associated 
with  the  physiographic  controls  by  which  they  have  been  governed. 
The  course  of  a  current  will  affect  the  distribution  of  living  forms  or 


*  Thus  employed,  physiography  is  not  directly  concerned  with  astronomy  and 
geology,  or  with  physics  and  chemistry,  as  it  has  come  to  be,  unfortunately,  in  my 
opinion,  in  England. 


A  SCHEME  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


23 


the  lines  of  navigation;  the  path  of  a  valley  will  determine  the  location 
of  roads  and  villages;  the  area  of  a  forest  is  the  response  to  latid  form, 
chmate,  and  soil ;  the  population  of  a  village  depends  on  many  environ- 
ing factors. 

No  full  measure  of  geographical  treatment  will  be  reached  by  the 
student  who  restricts  his  work  either  to  the  inorganic  or  to  the  organic 
half  of  the  subject.  Those  who  wish  to  train  themselves  to  be  fully 
equipped  geographers  should  gain  not  only  the  capacity,  but  also  the 


habit  of  giving  due  attention  to  ontography  and  physiography  com- 
bined. The  best  geographical  works  to-day  clearly  enough  exhibit 
the  beginning  of  this  double  consideration  of  their  subject,  but  they 
usually  fall  short  of  carrying  the  treatment  thoroughly  and  uniformly 
over  all  aspects  of  the  subject,  and  they  commonly  fail  to  show  that 
their  plan  of  treatment  has  been  adopted  in  accordance  with  a  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  view  of  geography  as  a  whole.  It  is  still  usual 
in  the  best  modem  books  to  find  many  facts  described  as  if  they  were 
lonesome,  individual  occurrences,  instead  of  members  of  a  recognized 
class,  and  to  find  their  description  closed  before  they  have  been  sys- 
tematically correlated  with  their  responses  or  their  controls. 

The  quality  of  geography,  as  a  whole,  may  be  presented  and  empha- 
sized by  a  simple  graphic  device  that  experience  has  shown  to  have 
some  value.     Imagine  the  four  frameworks,  E,  A,  0,  L,  Figure  1,  to 


24  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

stand  in  a  vertical  plane  over  the  line  EL,  and  to  contain  compartments 
for  all  the  topics  of  systematic  physiography  under  the  larger  headings 
of  the  Earth  as  a  globe,  tfie  atmosphere,  the  oceans,  and  the  lands. 
The  compartments  may  be  taken  to  represent  types,  with  respect  to 
which  actual  examples  arc  classified.  It  may  be  briefly  pointed  out, 
although  it  is  not  intended  to  delay  here  in  explaining  all  the  practical 
value  of  this  part  of  the  device,  that  the  observer  is  greatly  aided  in 
his  work  if  he  carries  mentally  into  his  field  of  study  a  well-arranged 
framework  on  which  the  types  that  embody  the  results  of  all  previous 
investigations  are  carefully  defined  and  arranged;  for  there  can  be  no 
question  that  the  habitual  treatment  of  every  observed  physiographic 
item  as  far  as  possible  as  a  member  of  a  known  class,  is  a  most  practical 
and  serviceable  aid  in  field  observation  and  record.  The  framework 
must  not  be  imagined  to  represent  a  rigid  and  unchangeable  scheme; 
it  should  be  elastic  and  adjustable,  constantly  modified  in  response 
to  accepted  suggestions  for  improvement  as  investigation  progresses. 

Physiography  is,  to-day,  relatively  well  developed;  and  the  classi- 
fication of  its  parts  representablo  in  a  framework  is  fairly  well  advanced, 
although,  for  that  matter,  there  is  yet  by  no  means  so  general  an 
agreement  among  physiographers,  with  respect  to  the  systematic  sub- 
division and  arrangement  of  the  items  with  which  they  have  to  deal, 
as  there  is  among  botanists  and  zoologists  with  respect  to  the  syste- 
matic classification  of  plants  and  animals.  Some  physiographers,  for 
example,  treat  rivers  and  oceans  in  one  division  apart  from  the  lands; 
others  treat  oceans  and  coasts  together,  before  the  lands  have  been 
studied;  but  both  these  plans  are  fortunately  unusual.  Ontography, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  hardly  any  recognized  scheme  of  treatment; 
it  has  still  to  be  systematically  studied.  The  framework  on  the 
farther  side  of  Figure  2,  by  which  a  classification  of  organic  responses 
is  here  roughly  indicated,  must  therefore  be  taken  for  the  present  as 
suggesting  what  may  yet  be  done  ratlier  than  as  representing  what 
has  already  })cen  done  in  this  direction. 

Even  the  limits  of  ontography  are  not  yet  agreed  upon,  and  in 
considering  with  historians,  zoologists,  and  botanists  how  far  this 
division  of  geography  may  be  reasonably  extended,  it  is  sometimes 
the  case  that  one  encounters  certain  indications  of  jealousy  and  accu- 
sations of  trespass.  Here,  however,  as  in  other  sciences,  it  is  not  so 
much  the  object  studied  as  the  relation  in  which  it  is  studied  that 
determines  its  place  in  a  scientific  classification.  The  same  object 
may  be  studied  in  its  varied  relations  under  several  different  sciences. 


1904 


A  SCHEME  OF  GEOGRAPHY  25 


Surely  history,  zoology,  and  botany  make  use  of  geographical  items 
so  often  that  there  can  be  httle  ground  of  just  complaint  if  geography 
finds  occasion  to  examine  facts  that  are  comm.only  associated  with 
these  other  divisions  of  knowledge. 

The  most  reasonable  method  of  determining  the  limits  of  ontography 
seems  to  be  the  following:  Select  certain  examples  of  undoubtedly 
ontographic  facts,  and  then,  under  the  principle  of  continuity,  follow 
the  lead  of  the  classes  to  which  these  facts  belong  as  far  as  they  can 
be  traced;  otherwise  the  limits  must  be  arbitrary  or  conventional. 
Thus  there  will  be  found  certain  facts  that  are  indisputably  and  cen- 
trally ontographic,  while  others  are  peripheral,  and  are  more  or  less 
shared  with  other  sciences;  but  in  the  latter  case,  all  the  sciences 
concerned  are  equally  trespassers.  These  abstract  considerations  may 
be  illustrated  to  advantage  by  some  concrete  examples. 

The  location  of  a  village  at  the  head  of  a  bay  on  the  sea-coast  must 
be  considered  by  every  one  to  be  a  geographic  item,  and,  according  to 
ihe  plan  here  presented,  it  will  fall  under  the  ontographic  half  of  the 
subject.  In  old-fashioned  geography,  such  an  item  would  have  been 
empirically  stated,  without  explanation  of  its  meaning;  in  more 
modem  geography,  it  would  be  rationally  described  as  an  example  of 
a  class  of  responses  in  which  man\s  way  of  doing  things  is  determined 
by  his  physiographic  surroundings.  Need  having  arisen  of  interchange 
between  land  and  sea  (this  itself  being  an  important  ontographic  matter), 
the  coast  line  gains  importance  because  it  separates  two  kinds  of 
activities;  and  protected  points  on  the  shore  line,  such  as  bay  heads, 
become  of  exceptional  importance,  because  here  the  interchange 
between  the  two  kinds  of  activities  can  be  effected  with  the  least 
difficulty.  Now,  the  essential  quality  of  this  item  is  that  certain 
organic  inhabitants  of  the  Earth  have  found  it  to  their  advantage  to 
be  guided  in  certain  actions  by  the  conditions  of  their  inorganic  environ- 
ment. Hence,  under  the  principle  of  continuity,  every  other  item  in 
which  an  organism  is  thus  guided  to  act  in  certain  ways  is  also  of  an 
essentially  ontographic  quality.  Tt  matters  not  whether  the  organism 
is  man,  animal,  or  plant,  whether  the  action  is  conscious  or  unconscious, 
whether  it  is  of  great  or  little  importance;  the  essential  feature  is  that 
the  item  must  involve  a  response  or  reaction  of  organism  to  environ- 
ment. It  is  only  by  adopting  an  arbitrary  limit  for  ontography,  and 
hence  also  for  geography,  that  anj-'thing  narrower  than  this  broad 
definition  can  be  regarded  as  indicating  its  field. 

The  whole  content  of  ontography,  thus  broadly  defined,  is  not 


26  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

known,  because  its  field  has  not  yet  been  carefully  examined;  but 
enough  is  already  known  to  show  that  the  subject  is  of  great  and 
varied  interest.  It  may  be  reviewed  in  two  ways:  All  kinds  of  itenois 
found  in  the  physiographic  framework  may  be  examined  as  to  their 
responses  in  the  organic  world;  or  all  kinds  of  organisms  may  be  exam- 
ined to  see  how  far  their  structures,  actions,  and  distribution  are 
responses  to  physiographic  controls.  For  example,  in  response  to  the 
important  physiographic  control  of  gravity,  one  finds  the  development 
of  dorsal  and  ventral  structures  in  many  animals ;  those  which  escape 
this  control  are  the  minute  organisms  that  are  wafted  about  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  jelly-like  organisms  that  float  indifferently  in 
one  attitude  or  another  in  water.  Again,  one  finds  many  details  of 
bony  structure  and  muscular  arrangement  adapted  to  support  the 
body  against  the  pull  of  its  weight.  The  habit  of  building  walls  ver- 
tical, and  of  grading  railroads  nearly  horizontal  come  under  the 
same  control.  Even  language  is  affected  indirectly,  as  in  such  adjec- 
tives as  grave  and  upright,  in  their  figurative  meanings.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  finds  in  the  growth  of  trees  the  responses  to  many  controls — 
to  gravity  and  the  search  for  ground  water  in  the  growth  of  the  roots; 
to  gravity  and  the  search  for  light  and  air  in  the  growth  of  the  stem; 
to  form  of  land  surface  and  depth  and  character  of  soil,  as  well  as  to 
various  elements  of  climate  in  the  determination  of  distribution. 

It  is  evident  that  in  most  cases  the  responses  above  mentioned  are 
not  the  result  of  the  immediate  adjustment  of  organism  to  environ- 
ment, but  of  a  gradual  adjustment  through  long  periods  of  past  time, 
perpetuated  through  inheritance,  provided  the  controlling  conditions 
and  need  of  adjustment  still  persist.  The  use  of  oxygen  in  respiration, 
universal  in  all  plants  and  animals,  is  a  case  in  point.  This  habit 
must  be  taken  as  indicating  the  presence  of  free  oxygen  in  the  ocean 
(dissolved)  or  in  the  atmosphere  since  the  earliest  geological  periods 
from  which  fossils  are  preserved;  the  habit  persists  because  the  need 
and  the  opportunity  still  endure.  The  fur  of  many  land  mammals 
is  a  response  to  chmatic  controls;  but  in  the  marine  mammals,  that 
are  in  all  probability  descended  from  fur-bearing  ancestors,  the  fur  is 
replaced  by  blubber.  Examples  of  more  immediate  adjustment  are 
chiefly  found  in  actions,  as  when  horses  and  cattle  on  the  western 
semi-arid  plains  of  the  United  States  wear  paths  from  pasturing  uplands 
to  watering-places  in  the  valleys,  and  yet  here,  as  before,  habit  formed 
through  long  inheritance  is  the  mainspring  of  action. 

The  classification  employed  in  the  ontographic  framework  may, 


X904 


A  SCHEME  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


27 


in  view  of  what  has  now  been  said,  be  imagined  to  follow  either  one  of 
two  plans.  In  one  plan,  all  the  responses  to  one  kind  of  control  are 
gathered  in  a  single  compartment,  and  there  would  be  as  many  onto- 
graphic  as  physiographic  compartments;  this  plan  is  followed  in  Figure 
2.  In  the  other  plan,  each  compartment  would  correspond  to  a  kind 
of  organism,  and  there  would  be  as  many  compartments  as  might  be 
needed  to  contain  the  subdivisions  of  the  vegetable  and  animal  king- 
doms.    Whichever  plan  is  adopted,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  when 

fllJtIife 


3*5  si 


riG.  2. 

ontography  is  as  well  developed  as  physiography,  geography  will  be 
greatly  advanced.  That  stage  of  the  development  of  our  subject  may 
be  represented  in  Figure  3,  in  which  the  correlation  of  physiographic 
and  ontographic  items  is  indicated  by  lines  that  stretch  across  from 
one  framework  to  the  other,  the  first  of  the  above-mentioned  two  plans 
for  ontographic  classification  being  here  again  illustrated.  The  con- 
scious recognition  and  discussion  of  the  correlations  thus  indicated 
graphically  by  the  cross-lines  is  indispensable  for  the  full  development 
of  modern  geography. 

It  should  be  noted  in  passing,  but  for  the  present  only  in  the 
briefest  manner,  that  there  are  innumerable  correlations  to  be  found 
also  among  the  items  of  each  framework,  considered  alone.  For  exam- 
ple, London  markets  are  to-day  supplied  with  meat  products  from 


28 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


January 


Argentina  and  Australia,  where  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep  find 
cheap  pasture  on  broad  plains  fit  for  few  other  uses  than  grazing: 
these  are  correlations  among  items  on  the  ontographic  framew^ork. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  cliffs  of  Cornwall  result  from  the  interaction 
of  waves  driven  by  winds  excited  by  sunshine  and  of  currents  involved 
in  tides  excited  by  lunar  attraction,  on  the  rocky  structures  exposed 


FIG.   3. 


along  the  present  coast  line  by  crustal  movements.  Again,  in  a 
maturely  dissected  region,  such  as  the  Piedmont  belt  of  North  Carolina, 
one  may  recognize  the  wonderfully  delicate  interdependence  of  hillside 
slopes,  soil  creep,  stream  wash,  and  river  work  that  is  involved  in  the 
thoroughly  organized  condition  of  the  drainage  systems  there  estab- 
lished. Both  these  examples  exhibit  correlations  of  items  on  the  physi- 
ographic framework.  None  of  those  correlations  are,  however,  shown 
in  the  diagrams,  for  fear  of  too  great  a  confusion  of  lines.  With  this 
digression,  we  may  return  to  the  consideration  of  Figure  3. 

Imagine  now  a  vertical  piano,  MN,  parallel  to  the  planes  of  the  two 


I904  A  SCHEME  OF  GEOGRAPHY  29 

frameworks  and  midway  between  them.  This  new  plane  will  be 
intersected  by  all  the  cross-lines  of  correlation,  and  the  summary  of 
all  the  points  of  intersection  may  be  taken  to  exhibit  the  whole  content 
of  systematic  geography.  The  plane  may  be  shifted  towards  one  of 
the  other  frameworks,  if  it  is  desired  to  give  greater  emphasis  to  one 
or  to  the  other  part  of  geography,  but  the  well-balanced  geographer 
will  doubtless  prefer  to  hold  a  plane  midway  in  a  position  as  here 
indicated.  In  case  the  biological  classification  of  ontographic  items 
were  adopted,  the  lines  of  correlation  would  not  be  parallel;  a  group 
of  lines  would  radiate  from  each  kind  of  physiographic  control  in  the 
framework  to  all  of  its  ontographic  responses,  and  various  lines  from 
numerous  kinds  of  controls  would  be  focused  on  the  kind  of  organism 
in  the  further  framework  that  responded  to  them. 

It  was  stated  above  that  this  graphic  device  has  been  found  by 
experience  to  have  some  value  in  indicating  the  compound  nature 
of  geography,  as  it  is  here  defined,  and  in  illustrating  the  relation  of 
its  parts.  It  has  a  further  value,  namely,  an  aid  in  the  practical 
analysis  of  a  geographer's  work.  If,  in  the  course  of  exploration  or  other 
study,  an  item  of  physiographic  nature  is  found,  the  geographer  must 
at  once  seek  to  place  it  in  its  proper  relation  to  all  other  physiographic 
items,  and  to  discover  all  the  ontographic  responses  that  it  has  excited. 
If  an  ontographic  item  is  discovered,  its  physiographic  controls  must 
be  sought  for.     The  correlations  between  the  two  must  be  studied  out. 

This  may  seem  so  simple,  so  manifest,  that  it  is  hardly  worth  the 
saying;  yet  if  any  standard  work  on  geography  is  examined  and  ana- 
lyzed, it  will  be  found  far  from  complete  in  the  sense  of  completeness 
here  indicated.  The  work  undoubtedly  will  give,  more  or  less  explicitly, 
many  examples  of  correlation  betw^een  controlling  environment  and 
responding  organism,  and  it  will  thus  confirm  more  or  less  clearly  the 
compound  nature  of  geography  here  exposed;  but  it  will  be  only  by 
way  of  rare  exception  that  both  phases  of  the  subject  are  systemat- 
ically presented,  and  that  the  correlations  between  them  are  consciously 
and  completely  analyzed.  Exploration,  in  so  far  as  matters  of  occur- 
rence and  location  are  concerned,  has  now  been  w^ell  advanced;  explo- 
ration, in  so  far  as  thorough  analysis  of  cause  and  effect,  is  concerned, 
still  affords  plentiful  opportunity  for  the  investigator.  There  can  be 
little  question  that  studious  observation  and  thorough  record  will  be 
greatly  aided  when  some  such  method  of  analysis  as  is  here  indicated 
shall  have  become  familiar  and  habitual. 

A  few  illustrations  may  be  given  to  exhibit  the  breadth  of  geography, 


30  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

when  it  is  expanded  by  the  due  consideration  of  its  many  parts.  One 
is  taken  from  an  account  of  the  oasis  of  Suf,  in  the  Algerian  Sahara, 
by  Brunhes  of  Freiburg.  This  obser\'er  points  out  a  relation  between 
the  sandy  surface  of  the  oasis  and  the  character  of  the  people,  as  follows: 
Every  walking  animal  leaves  its  track  in  the  sand,  and  from  this  follows 
an  extraordinary  skill  on  the  part  of  the  natives  in  tracking  men  and 
beasts;  individual  footprints  can  be  recognized  and  followed  through 
a  confusion  of  crossing  trails,  where  the  untrained  eye  of  a  European 
would  be  unable  to  distinguish  one  track  from  another.  As  a  result, 
theft  is  said  to  be  less  common  in  the  sandy  Suf  than  in  the  stony  oases; 
the  thief  is  so  surely  tracked  and  found  that  thie^dng  is. unprofitable. 

Another  example  is  furnished  by  Lug^on  of  Lausanne,  who  describes 
the  relation  between  villages  and  alluvial  fans  in  the  higher  valleys 
of  the  Alps.  The  fans  offer  the  best  sites  for  occupation ;  nearly  every 
fan  has  its  own  village,  each  with  its  own  organization,  and  the  distri- 
bution of  villages  depends  closely  upon  the  distribution  of  fans.  As 
most  of  the  fans  are  of  small  area,  most  of  the  villages  must  be  of  small 
size.  An  earher  writer  has  instanced  the  development  of  these  small 
village  communities  as  illustrating  the  innate  spirit  of  independence 
in  the  Swiss  people;  But  Lug(5on  points  out  that  small  communities 
necessarily  result  from  the  small  fans,  and  then  aptly  inquires  whether 
the  spirit  of  independence  is  not  more  probably  a  consequence  than  a 
cause  of  the  subdivision  of  village  communities. 

Instances  of  this  sort  might  be  given  in  great  number.  Baku,  the 
petroleum  port  on  the  arid  shores  of  the  Caspian,  has  rapidly  grown 
to  a  population  of  something  like  one  hundred  fifty  thousand  souls  in 
consequence  of  the  discovery  and  exploitation  of  rock  oil  near  by. 
So  large  a  population  needs  an  abundant  water-supply,  not  easily  to 
be  had  in  a  region  of  so  dr>^  a  climate  as  that  of  western  Asia.  Water 
could  be  brought  at  a  considerable  expense  from  a  river  over  fifty  miles 
away,  but  capitalists  hesitate  to  undertake  the  construction  of  so  long 
an  aqueduct  for  a  city  whose  population  will  mostly  move  away  when 
the  oil-wells  give  out;  hence,  at  present,  the  local  supply  from  wells  of 
unsatisfactory  quality  is  supplemented  by  distillation  from  the  brackish 
Caspian,  oil  fuel  being  very  cheap,  and  an  ingenious  system  of  boiling 
and  condensation  producing  four  pounds  of  distilled  water  for  one 
pound  of  fuel.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  a  distillery  nm  on  so  large 
a  scale  and  w'th  so  temperate  an  object !  And  who  shall  say  that  Baku's 
rapid  growth  and  uncertain  life,  as  well  as  its  peculiar  water-supply, 
are  not  ontographic  items? 


1904  A  SCHEME  OF  GEOGRAPHY  ^l 

It  is  not  intended  to  assert  that  all  the  examples  of  cause  and  con- 
sequence that  might  be  given  are  established  beyond  dispute,  but 
rather  that  they  show  the  importance  of  making  a  thorough  collection, 
a  careful  analysis,  and  a  systematic  classification  of  all  such  examples 
in  order  to  carry  forward  the  development  of  geography  and  to  discover 
its  entire  content.  Evidently  errors  may  be  made  in  speculations  of 
this  kind;  for  example,  it  does  not  seem  safe  to  follow  the  statement 
of  a  famous  geographer  to  the  effect  that  the  (supposed)  taciturnity 
of  the  American  Indian  resulted  from  the  darkness  of  the  forest  in 
which  he  lived.  It  is  on  the  careful  analysis  of  abundant  observations, 
rather  than  on  the  refusal  to  speculate  as  to  cause  and  consequence, 
that  geography  will  thrive. 

It  is  desirable  that  geography  should  be  presented,  even  to  beginners, 
as  a  subject  involving  the  correlation  of  physiographic  and  ontographic 
items.  When  the  globular  form  of  the  Earth  is  taught,  that  is  the  time 
to  point  out  how  largely  the  modern  development  of  commerce  results 
from  the  nearly  level  form  that  a  globe  alone  possesses.  When  the 
size  of  the  Earth  is  taught,  that  is  the  time  for  telling  about  the  effects 
of  its  size  in  isolating  savage  races,  and  thus  producing  differences  of 
language  and  customs,  as  well  as  for  showing  how  greatly  modern  means 
of  transportation  and  communication  have  overcome  the  earlier  effects 
of  isolation.  With  the  form  and  rotation  of  the  Earth  there  should  be 
immediately  associated  the  modern  habit  of  laying  out  the  boundaries 
of  unsurv^eyed  territories,  as  in  North  America,  Australia,  and  Africa, 
along  the  meridians  and  parallels;  and  so  on  through  the  whole  subject. 
Thus  the  young  student  may  be  thoroughly  infected  with  the  idea  of 
correlation,  and  from  such  an  introduction  to  geography  he  may  more 
probably  contribute  afterwards  to  its  advancement  than  if  he  has  been 
taught  in  the  old-fashioned  empirical  way,  or  in  the  more  modern 
method  of  imperfectly  developed  correlation. 

The  most  important  steps  towards  the  fuller  development  of  geog- 
raphy, therefore,  seem  to  be:  First,  the  formation  of  the  habit  of  looking 
for  correlations  of  physiographic  and  ontographic  items;  and,  second, 
the  development  of  a  well-considered  classification  of  all  items,  physio- 
graphic and  ontographic,  so  that  all  may  be  considered  in  reference  to 
their  fellows. 


32  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  January 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Some  Facts  About  Panama. — The  commerce  of  Panama  amounts 
to  about  three  million  dollars  per  annum;  its  population  to  about  three 
hundred  thousand,  and  its  area  to  31,571  square  miles,  or  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  the  State  of  Indiana.  These  figures  are  the  latest  available 
data  on  commerce,  population,  and  area.  Those  of  commerce  are  from 
the  reports  of  the  United  States  consuls  at  Panama  and  Colon,  which 
have  just  been  received,  and  not  yet  published;  those  of  population  are 
based  upon  the  latest  official  estimate,  which  shows  the  population  in 
1881,  and  was  based  upon  the  census  of  1871 ;  while  the  figures  of  area 
are  from  accepted  geographical  authorities  and  are  those  of  the  area  of 
the  "Department  of  Panama"  of  the  Colombian  Repubhc.  The  prin- 
cipal ports  are  Panama,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  Colon,  on  the  Atlantic 
side,  and  these  ports  are  visited  annually  by  more  than  one  thousand 
vessels,  which  land  over  one  million  tons  of  merchandise  and  nearly 
one  hundred  thousand  passengers,  chiefly  for  transfer  over  the  Panama 
Railway,  forty-seven  miles  in  length,  connecting  the  Pacific  port  of 
Panama  with  the  Atlantic  port  of  Colon. 

Colon,  or  Aspinwall,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  has  a  population  of 
about  three  thousand  persons.  The  city  of  Panama  has  a  population 
of  about  twenty-five  thousand.  It  was  founded  in  1519,  burned  in 
1671,  and  rebuilt  in  1673,  while  Colon  is  of  much  more  recent  date, 
having  been  founded  in  1855. 

The  population,  which,  as  already  indicated,  amounts  in  number 
to  about  three  hundred  thousand,  is  composed  of  various  elements — 
Spanish,  Indian,  Negro,  and  a  limited  number  of  persons  from  the 
European  countries  and  the  United  States,  especially  those  engaged  in 
commerce  and  transportation,  and  the  operation  of  the  Panama  railway. 
A  considerable  number  of  the  population  is  composed  of  persons 
brought  to  the  isthmus  as  laborers  for  the  construction  of  the  canal, 
and  of  their  descendants.  Since  the  abohtion  of  slavery  in  Jamaica^ 
a  considerable  number  of  blacks  and  mulattoes  have  settled  on  the 
isthmus  as  small  dealers  and  farmers,  and  in  some  villages  on  the 
Atlantic  side  they  are  said  to  be  in  the  majority,  and,  as  a  result,  the 
English  language  is  much  in  use,  especially  on  the  Atlantic  side.  Some 
of  the  native  population  have  retained  their  customs,  speech,  and 
physical  type,  especially  those  in  the  western  part  of  the  province,  and 


X904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


claim  to  be  descendants  of  the  natives  found  in  that  section  by  the 
Spaniards  when  they  discovered  and  conquered  the  country. 

Of  the  commerce  of  Panama,  the  United  States  supplies  a  larger 
share  than  any  other  country.  The  importations  at  the  port  of  Colon 
during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1903,  as  shown  by  the  report  of 
the  United  States  consul,  amounted  to  $952,684,  of  which  $614,179 
was  from  the  United  States,  $119,086  from  France,  $118,322  from 
England,  $76,386  from  Germany.  The  figures  of  the  fiscal  year  1903 
show  a  considerable  increase  from  those  of  1902,  in  which  the  value  of 
the  imports  at  Colon  were  $776,345.  Of  the  $614,179  imports  from 
the  United  States  at  Colon  in  1903,  $200,744  was  dry  goods,  $189,333 
provisions,  $59,890  coal,  $38,642  lumber,  $32,900  kerosene,  $30,400 
liquors,  and  $31,940  hardware.  The  value  of  the  importations  from 
the  United  States  in  1903  exceeded  those  of  1902  by  about  one  hundred 
sixty  thousand  dollars.  The  exports  to  the  United  States  from  Colon 
in  1903  amounted  to  $173,370,  of  which  $75,432  was  bananas,  $54,960 
cocoanuts,  $12,472  turtle  shells,  $9,400  ivory  nuts,  $6,460  hides,  and 
$5,924  coffee. 

From  the  port  of  Panama  the  exports  to  the  United  States  in  the 
fiscal  year  1903  amounted  to  $193,342,  of  which  $56,767  was  hides, 
$49,974  india  rubber,  $27,805  cocobolo  nuts,  $16,598  ivory  nuts, 
$13,372  deerskins,  and  $6,908  coffee.  The  consul  at  Panama  states 
that  the  imported  articles  come  mostly  from  England,  Germany,  France, 
Italy,  and  the  United  States,  but  gives  no  statistics  of  the  imports. 

Panama  is  connected  with  San  Francisco  by  a  weekly  steamer 
schedule  operated  by  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  and  with 
Valparaiso  by  a  weekly  steamer  schedule  operated  by  the  Pacific  Steam 
Navigation  Company  and  South  American  Steamship  Company.  Two 
passenger  and  two  freight  trains  leave  Panama  daily  for  Colon,  and 
Colon  daily  for  Panama.  The  time  for  passenger  trains  over  the  forty- 
seven  miles  of  railway  is  three  hours. 

From  Panama  there  is  one  cable  line  north  to  American  ports, 
and  one  to  the  south.  The  actual  time  consumed  in  communicating 
with  the  United  States,  and  receiving  an  answer,  is  stated  by  the  consul 
to  be  usually  about  four  hours.  There  are  also  cable  lines  from  Colon 
to  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

The  money  of  the  country  is  silver,  the  rate  of  exchange  having 
averaged  during  the  past  year  about  150  per  cent. — Bureau  of  Statistics, 
Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 


34  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  January 

The  Ship  Canals  of  the  World. — The  ship  canals  of  the  world  are 
nine  in  number,  as  follows: 

(1)  The  Suez  Canal,  begun  in  1859  and  completed  in  1869. 

(2)  The  Kronstadt  and  St.  Petersburg  Canal,  begun  in  1877  and 
completed  in  1890. 

(3)  The  Corinth  Canal,  begun  in  1884  and  completed  in  1893. 

(4)  The  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  completed  in  1894. 

(5)  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  connecting  the  Baltic  and  North 
Seas,  completed  in  1895. 

(6)  The  Elbe  and  Trave  Canal,  connecting  the  North  Sea  and 
Baltic,  opened  in  1900. 

(7)  The  Welland  Canal,  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  Lake  Ontario. 
(8  and  9)  The  two  canals,  United  States  and  Canadian,  respectively,. 

connecting  Lake  Superior  with  Lake  Huron. 

THE    SUEZ    CANAL 

The  Suez  Canal  is  usually  considered  the  most  important  example 
of  ship  canals,  though  the  number  of  vessels  passing  through  it  annu- 
ally does  not  equal  that  passing  through  the  canals  connecting  Lake 
Superior  with  the  chain  of  great  lakes  at  the  south.  In  length,  how- 
ever, it  exceeds  any  of  the  other  great  ship  canals,  its  total  length 
being  ninety  miles,  of  which  about  two-thirds  is  through  shallow  lakes. 
The  material  excavated  was  usually  sand,  though  in  some  cases  strata 
of  sohd  rock,  from  two  to  three  feet  in  tliickness,  were  encountered. 
The  total  excavation  was  about  80,000,000  cubic  yards  under  the 
original  plan,  which  gave  a  depth  of  twenty-five  feet.  In  1895,  the 
canal  was  so  enlarged  as  to  give  a  depth  of  thirty-one  feet,  a  width 
at  the  bottom  of  108  feet,  and  at  the  surface  of  420  feet.  The  original 
cost  was  $95,000,000,  and  for  the  canal  in  its  present  form  slightly  in 
excess  of  $100,000,000.  The  number  of  vessels  passing  through  the 
canal  in  1870  was  486,  with  a  gross  tonnage  of  654,915  tons;  in  1875, 
1,494  vessels,  gross  tonnage,  2,940,708  tons;  in  1880,  2,026  vessels, 
gross  tonnage,  4,344,519  tons;  in  1890,  3,389  vessels,  gross  tonnage, 
9,749,129  tons;  in  1895,  3,434  vessels,  gross  tonnage,  11,833,637  tons; 
and  in  1900,  3,441  vessels,  with  a  gross  tonnage  of  13,699,237  tons. 
The  revenue  of  the  canal  is  apparently  large  in  proportion  to  its 
cost,  the  Statesman's  Yearbook  for  1901  gi\ing  the  net  profits  of  1899 
at  54,153,660  francs,  and  the  total  amount  distributed  among  the 
shareholders  51,538,028  francs,  or  about  10  per  cent  of  the  estimated 
cost  of  $100,000,000. 


lyn  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  35 

The  canal  is  without  locks,  being  at  the  sea  level  the  entire  distance. 
The  length  of  time  occupied  in  passing  through  the  canal  averages 
about  eighteen  hours.  By  the  use  of  electric  Hghts  throughout  the 
entire  length  of  the  canal,  passages  are  made  at  night  with  nearly 
equal  faciUty  to  that  of  the  day.  The  tolls  charged  are  9  francs  per 
ton  net  register,  "Danube  measurement/'  which  amounts  to  slightly 
more  than  $2  per  ton  United  States  net  measurement.  Steam  vessels 
passing  through  the  canal  are  propelled  by  their  own  power. 

THE   KRONSTADT   AND    ST.    PETERSBURG   CANAL 

The  canal  connecting  the  Bay  of  Kronstadt  with  St.  Petersburg  is 
described  as  a  work  of  great  strategic  and  commercial  importance  to 
Russia.  The  canal  and  sailing  course  in  the  Bay  of  Kronstadt  are 
about  sixteen  miles  long,  the  canal  proper  being  about  six  miles  and 
the  bay  channel  about  ten  miles,  and  they  together  extend  from  Kron- 
stadt, on  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  to  St.  Petersburg.  The  canal  was  opened 
in  1890  with  a  navigable  depth  of  20i  feet,  the  original  depth  having 
been  about  nine  feet ;  the  width  ranges  from  220  to  350  feet.  The  total 
cost  is  estimated  at  about  $10,000,000. 

THE    CORINTH    CANAL 

The  next  of  the  great  ship  canals  connecting  bodies  of  salt  water, 
in  the  order  of  date  of  construction,  is  the  Corinth  Canal,  which  connects 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth  with  the  Gulf  of  /Egina.  The  canal  reduces  the 
distance  from  Adriatic  ports  about  175  miles  and  from  Mediterranean 
ports  about  100  miles.  Its  length  is  about  four  miles,  a  part  of  which 
was  cut  through  granitic  soft  rock  and  the  remainder  through  soil. 
There  are  no  locks,  as  is  also  the  case  in  both  the  Suez  and  Kronstadt 
Canals  already  described.  The  width  of  the  canal  is  seventy-two  feet 
at  bottom  and  the  depth  26J  feet.  The  work  was  begun  in  1884  and 
completed  in  1893  at  a  cost  of  about  $5,000,000.  The  average  tolls 
are  18  cents  per  ton  and  20  cents  per  passenger. 

THE    MANCHESTER    SHIP    CANAL 

The  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  which  connects  Manchester,  England, 
with  the  Mersey  River,  Liverpool,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  was  opened 
for  traffic  January  1,  1894.  The  length  of  the  canal  is  35^  miles,  the 
total  rise  from  the  \vater  level  to  Manchester  being  sixty  feet,  which 
is  divided  between  four  sets  of  locks,  giving  an  average  to  each  of  fifteen 
feet.  The  minimum  width  is  120  feet  at  the  bottom  and  averages  175 
feet  at  the  water  level,  though  in  places  the  width  is  extended  to  230  feet. 


36  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

The  minimum  depth  is  twenty-six  feet,  and  the  time  required  for  navi- 
gating the  canal,  from  five  to  eight  hours.  The  total  amount  of  excava- 
tion in  the  canal  and  docks  was  about  45,000,000  cubic  yards,  of 
which  about  one-fourth  was  sandstone  rock.  The  lock  gates  are  operated 
by  hydraulic  power;  railways  and  bridges  crossing  the  route  of  the 
canal  have  been  raised  to  give  a  height  of  seventy-five  feet  to  vessels 
traversing  the  canal,  and  an  ordinary  canal,  whose  route  it  crosses,  is 
carried  across  by  a  springing  aqueduct  composed  of  an  iron  caisson 
resting  upon  a  pivot  pier.  The  total  cost  of  the  canal  is  given  at 
$75,000,000.  The  revenue  in  1901,  according  to  the  Statesman's 
Yearbook,  was  £621,128,  and  the  working  expenses,  £483,267.  For 
the  half  year  ending  June  30,  1900,  the  canal  yielded  £16,488  toward 
paying  the  £112,500  of  interest  which  the  city  of  Manchester  has  to 
pay  on  the  capital  invested  in  the  enterprise.  The  freight-paying  tolls 
on  the  canal  amounted  to  1,487.841  tons  in  the  half  year,  an  increase 
of  12  per  cent  over  that  of  the  corresponding  period  of  the  preceding 
year. 

THE    KAISER    WILHELM    CANAL 

Two  canals  connect  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas  through  Germany, 
the  first,  known  as  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  having  been  completed 
in  1895  and  constructed  largely  for  military  and  naval  purposes,  but 
proving  also  of  great  value  to  general  mercantile  traffic.  Work  upon 
the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  was  begun  in  1887,  and  completed,  as  above 
indicated,  in  1895.  The  length  of  the  canal  is  sixty-one  miles,  the 
terminus  in  the  Baltic  Sea  being  at  the  harbor  of  Kiel.  The  depth 
is  29i  feet,  the  width  at  the  bottom  seventy-two  feet,  and  the  minimum 
width  at  the  surface  190  feet.  The  route  lies  chiefly  through  marshes 
and  shallow  lakes,  and  along  river  valleys.  The  total  excavation 
amounted  to  about  100,000,000  cubic  yards,  and  the  cost  to  about 
$40,000,000.  The  number  of  vessels  passing  through  the  canal  in  1900 
was  21,571,  with  a  tonnage  of  4,282,258,  and  the  dues  collected 
amounted  to  2,133,155  marks. 

SHIP    CANALS    CONNECTING    THE    GREAT    LAKES    OF   NORTH    AMERICA 

Three  ship  canals  intended  to  give  continuous  passage  to  vessels 
from  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence 
River  are  the  Welland  Canal  originally  constructed  in  1833  and  en- 
larged in  1871  and  1900;  the  St.  Marys  Falls  Canal  at  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  Mich.,  opened  in  1855  and  enlarged  in  1881  and  1896,  and  the 
Canadian  Canal  at  St.   Marys  River,  opened  in   1895.     In  point  of 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  3/ 


importance,  measured  at  least  by  their  present  use,  the  canals  at  the 
St.  Marys  River  by  far  surpass  that  of  the  Welland  Canal,  the  number 
of  vessels  passing  through  the  canals  at  the  St.  Marys  River  being  eight 
times  as  great  as  the  number  passing  through  the  Welland,  and  the 
tonnage  of  the  former  nearly  forty  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  latter. 
One  of  the  important  products  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  iron  ore, 
is  chiefly  used  in  the  section  contiguous  to  Lake  Erie,  ^nd  a  large 
proportion  of  the  grain  coming  from  Lake  Superior  passes  from  Buffalo 
to  the  Atlantic  coast  by  way  of  the  Erie  Canal  and  railroads  centering 
at  Buffalo.  The  most  important  article  in  the  westward  shipments 
through  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  canals,  coal,  originates  in  the  territorv 
contiguous  to  TiSke  Erie.  These  conditions  largely  account  for  the 
fact  that  the  number  and  tonnage  of  vessels  passing  the  St.  Marys 
River  canals  so  greatly  exceed  those  of  the  Welland  Canal. 

The  Welland  Canal. — The  Welland  Canal  connects  Lake  Ontario 
and  Lake  Erie  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  river.  It  was  constructed 
in  1833  and  enlarged  in  1871  and  again  in  1900.  The  length  of  the 
canal  is  twenty-seven  miles,  the  number  of  locks  twenty-five,  the  total 
rise  of  lockage  327  feet,  and  the  total  cost  about  $25,000,000.  The 
annual  collection  of  tolls  on  freight,  passengers,  and  vessels  averages 
about  $225,000  and  the  canal  is  open  on  an  average  about  two  hundred 
and  forty  days  in  a  year. 

The  Satdt  Ste.  Marie  Canals. — The  canals  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich., 
and  Ontario,  are  located  adjacent  to  the  falls  of  the  St.  Marys  River, 
which  connects  I^ake  Superior  with  l^ake  Huron,  and  lower  or  raise 
vessels  from  one  level  to  the  other,  a  height  of  seventeen  to  twenty  feet. 
The  canal  belonging  to  the  United  States  was  begun  in  1853  by  the 
State  of  Michigan,  and  opened  in  1855, ^the  length  of  the  canal  being 
5,674  feet,  and  provided  with  two  tandem  locks,  each  being  350  feet 
in  length  and  seventy  feet  wide,  and  allowing  passage  of  vessels  drawing 
twelve  feet,  the  original  cost  being  $1,000,000.  The  United  States 
Government,  by  consent  of  the  State,  began  in  1870  to  enlarge  the 
canal,  and  by  1881  had  increased  its  length  to  1.6  miles,  its  width  to 
an  average  of  160  feet,  and  its  depth  to  sixteen  feet;  also  had  built  a 
single  lock  515  feet  long  and  eight}'^  feet  wide,  with  a  depth  of  seventeen 
feet  on  the  sills,  which  was  located  100  feet  south  of  the  State  locks. 
The  State  relinquished  all  control  of  the  canal  in  March,  1882.  In  1887 
the  State  locks  were  torn  down  and  replaced  by  a  single  lock  800  feet 
long,  100  feet  wide,  and  a  depth  of  twenty-two  feet  of  water  on  the 
sills.     This  lock  was  put  in  commission  in  1896.     The  canal  was  also 


38  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  January 

deepened  to  twenty-five  feet.  The  Canadian  canal,  IJ  miles  long,  150 
feet  wide,  and  twenty-two  feet  deep,  with  lock  900  feet  long,  sixty 
feet  wide,  with  twenty-two  feet  on  the  miter  sills,  was  built  on  the 
north  side  of  the  river  during  the  years  1888  to  1895.  The  number  of 
vessels  passing  through  the  United  States^canal  in  1902  was  17,588,  and 
through  the  Canadian  canal  4,204.  In  1900  the  number  of  vessels 
passing  through  the  United  States  canal  was  16,144,  and  through  the 
Canadian  canal  3,003,  showing  an  increase  of  1,200  in  the  number  of 
vessels  passing  through  the  Canadian  canal, 'and  a  slight  decrease  in  the 
number  through  the  United  States  canal,  the  increase  in  the  number 
passing  through  the  Canadian  canal  having  been  due  to  the  development 
of  the  Michipocoten  district.  The  tonnage  passing  through  the  United 
States  canal  in  1902  was:  Registered  tonnage,  27,408,021  tons;  in  1901, 
22,222,334  tons,  against  20,136,782  in  the  year  1900;  the  freight  tonnage 
in  1901  was  25,026,522  tons,  against  23,251,539  tons  in  1900.  The 
Canadian  canal  shows:  Registered  tonnage  in  1902,  4,547,561;  in  1901, 
2,404,642  tons,  against  2,160,490  in  1900.  A  marked  contrast  between 
the  business  of  the  St.  Marys  Falls  and  Welland  Canals  is  found  in  a 
comparison  of  their  figures  for  a  term  of  years.  The  number  of  vessels 
passing  through  the  Welland  Canal  in  1873  was  6,425,  and  in  1899, 
2,202,  a  reduction  of  more  than  one-half  in  the  number  of  vessels.  The 
number  of  vessels  passing  through  the  St.  Marys  Falls  Canal  in  1873  was 
2,517,  and  in  1902,  through  the  American  and  Canadian  canals,  22,659. 
— Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

Dalny,  The  Township. — The  township  of  Dalny  comprises  an  area 
of  75  square  versts  (21,000  acres),  and  during  the  current  year  it  is  pro- 
posed to  purchase  an  additional  tract  of  25  square  versts  (7,000  acres) 
on  the  northwest  of  the  township. 

The  lands  forming  the  townshij)  of  Dalny  were  purchased  in  1899 
by  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company  from  the  local  inhabitants 
at  a  price  fixed  by  a  committee  of  appraisers.  On  these  grounds  were 
formerly  several  small  Chinese  villages,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were 
principally  devoted  to  agriculture  and  fishing. 

The  city  of  Dalny  is  picturesquely  situated  in  an  extensive  valley 
which  slopes  gently  down  to  the  deep  and  wTll-protected  bay  of  Talien- 
wan,and  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  range  of  hills  rising  to  a  height 
of  800  feet.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts — The  Administration  City, 
the  European  and  Commercial  City,  and  the  Chinese  City. 

Administration  City. — The  Administration  City  borders  on  the  harbor 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  39 


and  bay  and  is  108  acres  in  extent.  All  space  in  the  administration 
quarter  is  reserved  for  the  use  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company 
and  its  officials.  In  this  section  are  the  residences  and  offices  of  the 
governor  and  other  officials  of  the  railway  company.  There  are  over 
200  buildings  erected,  besides  a  large  area  of  temporary  structures  for 
minor  employes  and  workmen. 

Among  the  principal  buildings  are  one  hundred  and  twelve  handsome 
brick  and  stone  residences,  the  Administration  Building,  the  port  office, 
the  seagoing-service  office,  the  Greek  church  and  school  buildings,  the 
railway  company's  hospital  (for  one  hundred  and  eighty-six  patients), 
the  post,  telegraph,  and  telephone  offices,  the  Service  Club  and  Concert 
Hall,  the  Yacht  Club,  Hotel  Dalny,  the  Russo-Chinese  Bank,  police 
office  and  jail,  the  electric  plant,  machine  shops,  and  the  principal  stores 
and  shops. 

The  city  is  supplied  with  water  and  electric  lights  throughout,  and 
has  an  adequate  police  force  and  fire  brigade,  which  extends  also  to 
the  Commercial  City. 

The  permanent  buildings  of  Dalny  are  at  present  confined  almost 
entirely  to  the  Administration  quarter. 

European  and  Commercial  City. — The  European  and  Commercial 
City,  which  has  an  area  of  1,100  acres,  borders  on  the  harbor  and  ex- 
tends to  the  range  of  hills  on  the  south  and  east. 

Along  many  of  the  principal  avenues  and  streets  of  the  Commercial 
City  a  large  number  of  shops,  stores,  hotels,  and  dwelling-houses  have 
been  built  for  the  accommodation  of  both  the  large  native  population 
and  foreigners.  Most  of  these  buildings,  however,  are  only  temporary. 
They  are  put  up  on  the  company's  land  with  permission  of  the  city 
authorities,  and  are  to  be  removed  in  case  the  lots  upon  which  they 
are  built  are  sold  or  leased. 

The  most  central  part  of  the  Commercial  City  is  Nicholas  place,  from 
which  ten  avenues  branch.  Around  this  circle  (which  is  700  feet  in 
diameter)  it  is  intended  that  the  public  buildings,  banks,  hotels,  and 
office  buildings  shall  be  erected.  Nicholas  place  is  connected  with  the 
piers  and  shipping  quarter  by  Moscow  avenue,  which  is  to  be  the  main 
business  thoroughfare  of  the  city. 

The  residential  section  is  to  be  on  the  elevated  ground  of  the  European 
City. 

Chinese  City. — The  Chinese  quarter  is  separated  from  the  Adminis- 
tration and  European  cities  by  the  town  park  and  nurseries,  which  are 
upon  the  site  of  an  old  Chinese  village. 


40  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  January 

Climale  of  Dalny. — The  climate  of  Dalny  is  agreeable,  healthful,  and 
dry.  According  to  the  weather  bureau  of  Dalny,  the  t<?mperature  in 
winter  for  the  last  four  years  has  not  been  below  19°  C.  (3°  F.  below 
zero).  During  very  severe  winters  the  bay  becomes  frozen,  but  ice 
breakers  are  to  keep  the  channel  and  harbor  open  for  navigation. 

Building  the  City. — In  the  construction  of  the  city  thousands  of 
Chinese  laborers  are  daily  engaged  in  the  enormous  excavations,  the 
making  of  streets  and  roads,  and  the  completion  of  the  work  on  the 
harbor.  Numerous  steam  and  tram  lines  are  used  for  the  conveying 
of  earth  and  stone  and  for  filling  in  the  piers  and  water  front. 

The  harbor  is  the  scene  of  the  greatest  activity  at  present.  The 
small  harbor  has  been  dredged  to  a  depth  of  18  feet,  and  the  pier  for 
coast  steamers  (which  has  been  in  use  for  over  a  year)  is  nearly  com- 
pleted and  has  a  railroad  to  its  end. 

The  work  on  the  large  dry  dock  is  progressing  rapidly;  the  cofferdam 
is  built  and  tlie  excavation  well  under  way.  This  dry  dock  is  to  be 
630  feet  long,  88  feet  wide,  and  28  fec^t  in  depth,  and  wnll  cost  about 
1,800,000  rubles  («927,00()). 

The  eastern  side  of  the  largo  pier  for  ocean  steamers  is  completed 
and  in  use  nearly  to  its  end ;  on  the  west  side  the  walls  are  nearing  com- 
pletion, and  one  of  the  iron  wharv(\s  for  light-draft  vessels  is  built. 
Three  railway  tracks  connecting  with  the  main  line  and  two  storage 
w^arehouses,  with  a  floor  area  of  19,600  square  feet  each,  are  completed. 
This  pier  is  1,925  feet  long  and  350  fo(^t  wide,  and  has  a  depth  of  water 
of  from  18  to  28  feet,  and  when  completed  will  contain  seven  railway 
tracks  and  nine  large  warehouses. 

One  can  judge  from  this  splendid  pier  how  thoroughly  and  substan- 
tially the  construction  of  the  harbor  is  i)eing  done.  The  foundation 
is  laid  with  50-ton  concrete  blocks  and  the  walls  finished  with  the  best 
of  dressed  granite. 

For  the  outside  pier,  the  foundation  only  is  laid.  The  wharf  between 
the  two  piers  is  completed  and  in  use.  The  foundation  of  the  break- 
water is  finished  for  a  distance  of  2,800  feet  and  the  sea  wall  along  St. 
Petersburg  quay  is  built. 

Work  A  ccomplished.  — 

Area  of  port  territory  filled  in,  square  yards 6,800,000 

Dredged  from  harbor,  cubic  yards 3,166,000 

Earth  excavated,  cubic  yards 12,916,000 

Stone  brought  by  rail,  cubic  yards 375,412 

Stone  brought  by  sea,  cubic  yards 882,210 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  4  I 


Length  of  streets  made,  yards 77,000 

Streets  macadamized,  yards 20,300 

Sidewalks  made,  miJes 6 

Suburban  roads  made,  miles 14 

Railway  Service. — The  branch  railway  connecting  Dalny  with  the 
main  line  of  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  at  Nangalin  was  built  and 
formally  operated  by  the  engineers  in  charge  of  the  construction  of 
Dalny.  At  the  beginning  of  the  current  year  this  branch  road  was 
given  over  to  the  control  of  the  main  line,  and  Dalny  was  connected 
by  daily  service  of  through  trains  with  Port  Arthur,  Harbin,  and  Man- 
churia. Prior  to  this,  the  Manchurian  trains  did  not  come  to  Dalny, 
passengers  and  freight  being  transferred  at  NangaHn.  Besides  the 
Manchurian  service,  there  are  now  two  daily  trains  between  Dalny  and 
Port  Arthur  and  two  weekly  express  trains  between  Dalny,  Moscow, 
and  St.  Petersburg. 

On  February  21,  1903,  the  first  passenger  express  train  from  St. 
Petersburg  and  Moscow  arrived  at  Dalny,  and  the  weekly  Trans- 
Siberian  express  service  was  inaugurated.  Tlie  demand  for  passages 
on  this  quick  and  comfortable  route  became  so  great  that  another 
train  was  soon  added. 

The  Trans-Siberian  express  leaves  Dalny  on  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays, 
making  a  trip  to  Moscow — a  distance  of  5,375  miles — with  a  change  of 
cars  at  Manchuria  Station  and  Baikal,  in  thirtecMi  and  one-half  days. 
The  'Hrain  de  luxe''  is  a  solid  vestibuled  train,  composed  of  coaches 
of  the  International  Sleeping  Car  and  Express  Train  Company,  having 
first  and  second  class  compartments  and  sleeping  car  and  dining  car. — 
Consular  Reports,  September,  1903. 

The  Bagdad  Railway  and  German  Commerce  in  Asia  Minor. — There 
exists  to-day  a  railroad  from  Constantinople  to  Konieh,  in  Asia  Minor, 
which  is  called  the  Anatolian  Railway.  It  has  branches  to  Smyrna 
and  Angora.  German  financiers  have  succeeded  in  getting  a  con- 
cession from  Turkey  to  continue  this  route  from  Konieh  to  Bagdad,  and 
eventually  through  to  Koeit,  on  the  Persian  Gulf.  A  corporation 
for  the  purpose  of  building  the  road  has  been  formed  in  Constantinople, 
under  the  name  of  the  Imperial  Ottoman  Bagdad  Railway  Company, 
with  a  capital  of  $3,000,000.  Its  president  is  one  of  the  managers  of 
the  German  Bank  in  Berlin.  The  Anatolian  line  to  Konieh  will  not 
be  merged  into  the  larger  concern,  but  its  cooperation  with  the  new 


42  .     THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  January 

enterprise  has  been  assured.  The  approximate  cost  of  the  railroad  is 
$90,000,000,  and  it  will  be  about  1,800  miles  in  length. 

It  is  claimed  that  when  the  enterprise  is  completed  it  will  bring 
India  three  days  nearer  London.  It  will  shorten,  by  fourteen  days, 
the  journey  by  camel  train  from  Aleppo  to  the  valley  of  the  Lower 
Euphrates,  where  ahnost  every  square  mile  of  land  has  its  interesting 
ruin  or  hidden  treasure.  Speaking  of  the  country  between  the  Euphra- 
tes and  Tigris,  the  Chemnitzer  Tageblatt  says:  The  railway  will  pass 
through  one  of  the  oldest  and  richest  countries  in  the  world.  The 
most  fruitful  part  of  what  was  once  ancient  Mesopotamia  is  that  part 
of  the  country  between  Urfa  and  Mosul.  So  regular  and  plentiful  are 
the  rains  that  out  of  every  six  or  seven  harvests  only  two  fall  short. 
In  other  portions  of  the  country  rain  is  not  so  frequent,  and  the  soil 
must  be  nurtured  by  irrigation.  The  land  is  adapted  to  raising  wheat, 
barley,  rice  and  cotton.  A  territory  as  large  as  Saxony  and  Italy 
together  will  be  opened  up  to  German  markets. 

To  find  the  shortest  way  to  India  is  an  achievement  which  has  occu- 
pied the  attention  of  European  commercial  nations  since  the  earliest 
times.  The  highway  built  by  the  Persian  satraps,  the  success  of  Vasco 
da  Gama  in  finding  a  water  way  around  Africa,  and  the  construction 
of  the  Suez  Canal  mark  epochs  in  the  development  of  European  com- 
merce with  India.  The  construction  of  the  Bagdad  Railway  will  prob- 
ably be  fraught  with  equally  great  results,  as  it  will  not  only  serve  as 
a  connecting  link  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  but  it 
will  tap  a  large  territory  which  in  recent  times  has  been  of  practically  no 
value  to  the  commercial  world  at  large. — Consular  Reports^  August,  1903. 

A  Plan  Which  Interested  a  Geography  Class. — While  teaching  in 
a  graded  country  school,  I  found  the  pupils  looked  upon  geography 
as  a  most  uninteresting  subject  of  study.  I  had,  from  a  child,  been 
fond  of  the  study  of  this  subject  and  determined  that  if  it  were  possible 
IJwould  awaken  in  these  children  a  love  for  geography. 

I  found  little  trouble  in  interesting  the  first,  second,  and  third 
grade  children,  but  found  it  more  difficult  with  the  fourth  grade. 
The  pupils  had  been  using  the  text-book  alone  for  their  material  of 
study.  I  examined  the  text  and  found  it  was  not  a  poor  one,  but  that 
the  children  had  grow^n  tired  of  using  it  as  a  reader  and  reciting  from 
it  in  the  same  manner  every  day.     I  decided  upon  another  plan  of  study. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  the  school  was  a  natural  clay  bed.  The 
children  of  this  class  and  I  went  there  one  afternoon  and  modeled  a 


X904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  43 

number  of  objects  until  each  child  was  interested  and  knew  it  would 
not  be  impossible  for  him  to  model  a  large  ball  or  globe.  We  chose 
the  best  of  the  clay,  and  cleaned  it  from  any  sticks  or  lumps.  Each 
child  carried  home  with  him  enough  clay  to  form  a  globe  nine  inches 
in  diameter.  The  children  were  instructed  how  to  make  their  globes 
solid,  how  to  place  them  to  dry,  and  how,  finally,  with  their  mother's 
permission,  to  bake  them  in  their  mother's  ovens. 

While  the  globes  were  drying,  the  children  prepared  papier  mache. 
This  was  done  by  tearing  paper  into  very  small  pieces  and  cooking. 
After  the  paper  had  been  cooked  and  had  cooled,  most  of  the  water 
was  poured  off  and  the  paper  kneaded  with  the  hands  until  it  became 
a  smooth  pulp.  Each  child  prepared  his  own  papier  mache  and  brought 
it  to  school  in  a  clean  cloth. 

Some  time  was  then  spent  in  studying  the  relief  maps  of  the  different 
continents  and  modeling  them  from  their  papier  mache.  None  were 
allowed  to  dry,  but  the  pulp  was  returned  damp  to  the  cloth. 

When  the  globes  had  been  dried  and  baked  and  were  brou'^ht  to 
school,  the  large  globe  on  the  teacher's  desk  was  studied  and  carefully 
compared  with  the  ones  they  had  made.  The  glol>e  was  studied  in  order 
to  learn  the  relative  positions  of  the  continents,  the  relative  amounts 
of  land  and  water,  and,  finally,  in  a  very  general  manner,  allowing  the 
pupils  to  speak  of  anything  about  the  globe  that  appealed  to  them. 

Many  of  the  globes  were  good  in  shape,  solid,  and  free  from  cracks. 
They  were  heavy  and  not  easy  to  handle,  but  the  pupils  were  delighted 
with  them,  and  protested  they  were  not  ''too  heavy."  After  the 
material  had  been  prepared,  the  study  of  the  book  and  globe  made,  we 
were  ready  for  the  final  work.  The  children  placed  their  globes  on 
their  desks  and  drew  the  zone  lines  and  a  few  meridians.  They  then, 
after  careful  measurement,  drew  an  outline  of  each  continent  in  its 
proper  place.  They  then  put  the  papier  mache  on,  and  modeled  the 
continents  in  relief.  This  was  allowed  to  dry,  and  when  the  globe  was 
completed,  each  pupil  had  a  relief  map  of  the  world.  Of  course  the 
bare  clay  represented  tlie  water  and  the  papier  mache  the  land.  The 
water  was  not  the  regulation  "blue."  and  as  we  had  no  water  colors  we 
managed  to  be  content  witli  a  dull  brown. 

Now,  of  course,  this  work  was  not  done  in  a  day,  week,  nor  month, 
nor  was  it  allowed  to  drag  along  until  pupils  grew  despondent  of  i-^eeing 
the  end  of  their  labors,  but  it  did  take  time  and  thought  on  the  part  of 
both  teacher  and  pupil.  Hut  the  device  proved  a  success  in  interestin<i 
the  pupils  in    the    study  of  geography. — The  InteUi{]ena. 

4 


44  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

Addition  to  the  List  of  Geographical  Societies  of  America. — ^The 

list  of  Geographical  Societies  published  in  the  September,  1903,  number 
of  the  Journal  of  Geography  failed  to  include  mention  of  the  Geo- 
graphical Society  of  the  Pacific,  one  of  the  oldest  societies.  Through 
the  courtesy  of  Professor  Davidson  of  the  University  of  Cahfornia,  I  am 
able  to  add  a  notice. 

THE    GEOGRAPHICAL   SOCIETY   OF   THE    PACIFIC 

The  Geographical  Society  of  the  Pacific  was  organized  March  16, 
1881,  by  citizens  interested  in  the  geography  and  exploration  of  the 
western  coast  of  America,  and  of  the  islands  and  lands  adjacent  to  the 
Pacific.  The  purpose  of  the  society  is  to  gather  geographical  informa- 
tion for  publication,  to  conduct  lectures  by  travelers  and  explorers,  to 
pubUsh  material  of  interest  to  geographers,  and  to  form  a  library  of 
geographical  works,  maps,  and  charts.  The  society  was  incorporated 
January  5,  1892.  It  has  a  well- chosen  library  of  books  and  charts,  and 
exchanges  publications  with  135  homo  and  foreign  geographical  soci- 
eties. Meetings  are  held  monthly  and  bulletins  are  published.  The 
membership  of  the  societies  consists  of  fellows,  associates,  honorary  and 
corresponding  members.  Honorary  members  are  chosen  on  account  of 
their  distinction  in  the  science  of  geography,  and  not  more  than  two 
of  them  are  elected  in  one  year.  Corresponding  members  are  chosen 
from  those  who  have  added  to  the  advancement  of  geography,  and 
not  more  than  three  of  them  are  elected  in  one  year.  Associates,  cor- 
responding, and  honorary  members  have  no  voice  in  the  management 
of  the  society.  There  is  provision  made  for  junior  members.  Boys 
and  girls  under  ago  are  admitted  as  junior  members  at  one-half  rates. 
The  annual  dues  are  $6.00.  Any  fellow  of  the  society  may  be  given  a 
life  fellowship  on  the  payment  of  SIOO.  Persons  who  have  rendered 
valuable  service  to  ihe  society  for  ten  years  may  l)e  given  life  fellow- 
ship without  fees.  Any  fellow  who  shall  have  paid  his  dues  continu- 
ously for  twenty  years  may  become  a  life  member  without  further 
payment  of  dues.  The  society  has  rooms  at  419  California  Street,  San 
Francisco.  The  president  is  Professor  George  Davidson,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  California. — ./.  Paul  Goode. 

Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry : 

SEPTEMBER 
Argentina,  Opportunities  in,  Bradstrccfs,  September  26. 
Boston:   City  Characters  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 
Canal;   Proposed  Forth-Clyde  Ship  Canal,  Cons.  Report. 
China,  The  Building  of  Dalny  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  45 


Copper  Converting  (lUus.),  Set,  Am.y  September  26. 

Cotton  Crop  of  To-Day  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs, 

Cotton  Problem  in  the  South  (Illus.),  World  To-Day, 

Cuba,  Commercial,  in  1903,  Mo.  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance y 
August. 

Forest  Planting  in  the  U.  S.,  Miss.  Valley  Lumberman ^  September 
11  and  18. 

German-American,  The,.  Makings  Mag. 

Gun  Making  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Italy:  Thirty  Years  of  Progress,  World's  Work. 

Macaroni  Wheat  Question,  Bradstreet's,  September  19. 

Mexico,  The  American  Influence  in  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Mexico,  Pulque  and  Mescal  of  (Illus.),  Set.  Am.,  September  19. 

Potters  and  Their  Products  (Illus.),  Clay  Worker,  September. 

Railroad  Accidents  in  America  and  Europe,  World's  Work. 

Railroad  Engineering,  Modern  Feats  of  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Rice,  Cultivation  of  in  the  United  States,  Jour,  of  Geography. 

Rice  Culture  in  the  Philippines,  Mo.  Summary  of  Commerce  of  the 
Philippines^  May. 

Silk,  Artificial,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  September  19. 

Storms,  Frosts,  and  Their  Effect  on  Business,  Paint,  Oil,  and  Drug 
Rev.,  September  16. 

Sugar  Discovery  in  the  Beet,  Bradstreet's,  September  12. 

Tea-Raising  Methods,  Coram.  Bull,  and  N.  W.  Trade,  September  19. 

Timber  Standing  in  the  Country,  Miss.  Valley  Lumberman,  Septem- 
ber 18. 

Time  (Illus.),  Jour,  of  Geography. 

OCTOBER 

Alaska  as  an  Investment,  Sci.  Ain.  Supp.,  October  24. 
Alaska,  the  Rich  Empire  of  the  North  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 
Americanizing  Scotland's  Industries,  Cofis.  Report. 
Canada:   Turning  Back  to  the  Dominion,  Success. 
Chicago  at  the  End  of  a  Century  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 
Cleveland  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Coal-Mining  in  the  United  Kingdom  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 
Colombia  and  the  Panama  Canal  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 
Diamond  Mining  in  the  Kimberley  Field  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 
Fisheries  Commission,  Work  of  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.,  October  24. 
Garbage  Disposal  at  Baltimore  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.,  October  31. 
Geography  and  History,  Jour,  of  Geography. 


46  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 


Holland:   Reclaiming  an  Ocean  Bed  (Illiis.),  McClure's. 

Immigrants:   Where  They  Settle  (Illus.),  World^s  Work. 

Industrial  Schools  in  Germany,  Sci.  Ain.  Supp.,  October  17. 

Inventions,  Epidemics  in,  Trade- Mark  Record. 

Iron  and  Steel  Production  of  the  World,  Cons.  Report. 

Irrigation  Question,  A  Phase  of,  BradstreeCs,  October  3. 

Japan,  Foreign  Commerce  of,  Cons.  Report. 

Java  Petroleum  Districts  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.^  October  10. 

Lumber  Transportation  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.,  October  17. 

Metal-Working,  The  Modern  Craft  of  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  Supp., 
October  3. 

Municipal  Reform  and  Social  Welfare  in  New  York  (Illus.),  Rev. 
of  Revs. 

Newspaper:    Development  of  the  Daily  (Illus.),  Mahin^s  Ma^. 

North  Sea  Fisheries,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  October  3. 

Philadelphia  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 

Salt  Mining  and  Manufacture  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  October  3. 

South,  a  Seaboard  Gatew^ay  of  the  West  (Illus.),  World^s  Work. 

Sugar  Supply  of  the  United  States,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.y  October  17. 

,     NOVEMBER 

Beet  Sugar  Making,  Comm.  Bull,  and  X.  W.  Trade,  November  28. 
Camphor,  Artificial  (Illus.),  Sci.  Ain.,  November  21. 
Camphor  Industry  of  Formosa,  Sci.  Am.,  November  21. 
Cane-Sugar  Production  of  the  World,  Crop  Reporter. 
Chicago:    How  a  (Jreat  City  Is  Fed  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 
Coal-Mining  Industry  in  the  United  Kingdom  (Illus.),  Engineering 
Mag. 

Corn-Growers  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Cost  of  Living,  Bull,  of  Bureau  of  Labor,  November. 

Country  Merchant  Come  to  Town,  World's  Work. 

Cuba,  Cons.  Report. 

Dairy  Farming  (Illus.),  Country  Life  in  Am. 

Denver:    Character  Sketches  of  Cities  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 

Galveston's  Great  Sea  Wall  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 

Kimberley  Diamond  Mines  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 

Labor  Boss:  The  Trust's  New  Tool,  McClure's. 

Linseed  Oil,  Making  of.  Paint,  Oil,  and  Drug  Rev.,  November  25. 

Louisiana  Purchase.  Bradstreet's,  November  7. 

Moseley's  Industrial  Inquiry,  Cons.  Report. 

New  Zealand,  Labor  Conditions  in,  Bull,  of  Bureau  of  Labor. 


1904 


GEOGRAPHICAL  QUERIES  47 


Onion-Seed  Farm  in  California  (lUus.),  Set.  Am.,  November  7. 

Panama,  Commerce  of,  Hide  and  Leather,  November  21. 

Post  Office  and  the  People  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Printing  Methods,  Modern  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  (Special  Number). 
November  14. 

Rubber  Tree  of  Central  America  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  November 
28. 

Russian  Absorption  of  Asia  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Savings  Banks,  The  Romance  of,  Success. 

Scientific  Research  and  Chemical  Industry,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  Novem- 
ber 14  and  21. 

Tea-Growing  in  India,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  November  14. 

Textile  Industry  of  Philadelphia,  The  Manufacturer,  November  16. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  QUERIES 

A    CLEARING    HOUSK    FOR    GPJOGRAPHICAL    WANTS    AND    DOUHTS 

IT  Is  hoped  this  department  will  prove  of  practical  benefit  to  teachers  of  geogra- 
phy, opening  a  way  for  the  solving  of  the  many  geographical  problems  which 
are  constantly  met  with  in  the  classroom.  All  questions  received  will  be  answered 
by  specialists  in  the  various  methods  of  geographical  work.  We  invite  inquiries, 
criticisms,  suggestions,  and  discussions.  Address  all  communications  for  this  depart- 
ment to:  EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS,  Winona,  Minn. 

(5)  As  1  am  an  old  reader  of  the  Journal  of  Gkography  and 
of  its  two  parent  magazine-^,  I  trust  you  will  pardon  me  for  troubling 
you  with  a  question.  To  what  extent  and  in  what  ways  do  forests 
influence  climate?  In  your  Journal  for  April,  1902,  in  the  excellent 
article  entitled  ** Certain  Persistent  Errors  in  Geography,"  Mr.  Henry 
Gannett  positively  affirms  that  forests  have  absolutely  no  influence  on 
rainfall.  I  cannot  see  the  reason  for  his  statement;  and  hence  my 
question,  which  I  hope  you  will  find  worthy  of  a  reply. 

A.  H.  G.,  South  Bend,  Ind. 

Every  one  of  our  readers,  old  and  new,  is  cordially  invited — yes, 
even  urged — to  send  us  any  geographical  (luostion  that  is  giving  trouble. 
Your  letter  is  therefore  more  than  welcome,  and  we  gladly  reply  as 
fully  as  our  space  permits. 

In  the  article  you  refer  to,  Mr.  Gannett  exposes  and  condemns  in 
a  vigorous  and  effective  manner  certain  widespread  geographical  mis- 
conceptions including  the  popular  belief  that  the  removal  of  forests 
greatly  decreases  the  rainfall.  He  does  not,  however,  raise  the  question 
whether   forests    have    any    appreciable   influence   on    climate.     This 


^8  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

question  has  been  discussed  for  yea's,  and  much  time  has  been  given 
to  its  study :  but  most  of  the  conclusions  reached  would  seem  apparent 
even  without  any  elaborate  investigation. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  observation,  particularly  on  sunny  summer 
days,  that  the  ground  and  the  air  under  the  trees  are  cooler  than  the 
soil  and  the  air  in  the  open  field ;  and  this  effect  is  not  only  noticeable 
by  day,  but  by  night  as  well,  as  every  one  will  testify  who  is  acquainted 
with  the  cool,  d  mp  evenings  and  nights  of  our  wooded  areas.  This 
lowering  of  the  temperature  is  caused  by  the  shading  of  the  ground  and 
by  the  increased  evaporation  and  radiation  from  the  leaves,  which 
present  an  enlarged  surface  for  these  processes,  transpire  large  amounts 
of  water,  and  possess  a  radiating  power  equal  to  that  of  soot.  Of 
course,  the  effect  is  increased  with  the  size  and  the  number  of  the  trees, 
the  density  of  the  foHage,  and  the  extent  of  the  forest.  Moreover,  the 
kind  of  trees,  whether  deciduous  or  evergreen,  makes  a  considerable 
difference,  especially  in  our  northern  latitudes  in  the  spring  season. 
In  the  deciduous  woods  on  the  shaded  northward  slopes  of  the  bluffs 
about  Winona,  the  snow  in  spring  lasts  from  one  to  three  weeks  longer 
than  in  the  open  fields;  but  in  the  evergreen  forests  of  northern  Minne- 
sota, especially  on  northward  slopes,  snow  and  ice  remain  until  the 
beginning  of  summer.  The  Indians  even  claim  that  they  can  find  ice 
in  the  dense  cedar  swamps  of  that  section  at  any  time  during  the 
summer  and  fall.  In  general,  forests  retard  the  melting  of  the  snow 
in  spring  and  thus  lower  the  temperature,  favor  frosts,  and  delay 
the  approach  of  warmer  weather. 

The  following  tables  taken  from  Hann's  Handbook  of  Climatology 
give  interesting  data  regarding  the  influence  of  forests  on  temperature: 

ME.\N  TEMPERATURE  OF  VIENNA  CITY,  COUNTRY.  AND  FOREST, 

1851-1880     ALTITUDE  ABO\'E  SEA  LE\T.L  THE  SAME 

IN  ALL  CASES.     CENTIGRADE  SCALE. 


January 

April 

July 

October 

Year 

Vienna  Citv  .  .  . 

-1.2° 

10.0° 
9.0° 
9.0° 

20.4° 
19.8° 
19.2° 

10.5° 

10.1° 

j        9.6° 

97° 

Vienna  Count r>- 

Vienna  Forest 

-1.5° 
..         -1.5° 

9.2° 

8.8° 

VIENNA  FOREST  COMPARED  WITH  VIENNA  COUNTRY,  1875-1884. 

THE  FIGURES  SHOW  HOW  MUCH  COLDER  IT  WAS 

IN  THE  FOREST.     CENTIGRADE  SCALE. 


7  a.  m. 

2  p.  m. 

i    9  p.  ni. 

Mean 

In  Winter 

0  8° 

0.0° 
0.2° 

1       0.8° 
1       .230 

0  6° 

In  Summer  

1.1^ 

1  4° 

I904  GEOGRAPHICAL  QUERIES  49 

On  our  western  prairies  nearly  every  farmhouse  has  its  grove  of 
trees  to  serve  as  a  protection  against  cold  winds  and  drifting  snows. 
This  illustrates  another  important  effect  of  forests,  namely,  the  break- 
ing of  the  force  of  winds  and  the  checking  of  air  currents.  Partly 
because  of  this  diminished  air  movement  and  partly  because  of  the 
coolness  due  to  the  stoppage  of  the  sunshine  by  the  leaves,  the  forest 
keeps  the  air  under  its  cover  relatively  moist;  and  since  cool,  moist, 
and  quiet  air  does  not  favor  evaporation,  and  since  this  process  is 
still  further  retarded  by  the  protective  and  water-holding  capacity  of 
the  forest  floor,  it  is  not  surprising  to  learn  that  observers  find  the 
annual  evaporation  within  the  forest  to  be  about  one-half  of  that  in 
the  open  field.  This  leads  to  the  conservation  of  the  water  supply, 
one  of  the  most  important  of  forest  influences.  Rain  water  is  retained; 
evaporation  is  decreased ;  surface  flow-off  and  underground  circulation 
are  regulated;  stream  flow  is  controlled;  excessive  erosion  and  floods 
are  prevented;  and  many  other  beneficial  effects  are  produced. 

Wherever  a  forest  has  been  considerably  reduced  in  area,  changes 
in  the  water  supply  have  occurred;  in  certain  cases,  wells,  springs, 
and  small  streams  have  become  intermittent  and  even  permanently  dry. 
Extensive  reforestation,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  known  to  again 
bring  water  to  the  well  and  to  re-establish  the  spring  and  the  stream 
flow.  Some  observers,  believing  these  effects  to  be  due  to  changes 
in  the  amount  of  rainfall,  concluded  that  extensive  deforestation  always 
caused  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  annual  precipitation.  It  is, 
however,  perfectly  clear  that  such  a  conclusion  is  not  safe  since  the 
forest  influences  mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph  are  in  them- 
selves adequate  causes. 

The  question  whether  forests  increase  the  annual  rainfall  has  been 
answered  in  the  affirmative  by  many  careful  observers  and  students, 
including  Blanford,^  Muttrich,*^  Hettner,^  Hann,'  and  many  others  ; 
but  their  answer  is  based  on  data  and  methods  of  investigation  which 
cannot  be  adequately  set  forth  here  because  of  lack  of  space. 

The  earliest  and  most  untrustworthy  data  are  those  obtained  by 
the  historical  method.     Ancient  history  and  literature  give  illustrations 

'  H.  F.  Blanford:  "The  Influence  of  the  Indian  Forests  on  the  Rainfall,"  Joum. 
Asiat.  Soc.  Bengal,  LVI,  Part  II,  1887,  pages  1-15. 

'  A.  MDttrich:  "Ueber  den  Einfluss  des  Waldes  auf  die  GrOsse  der  atmosphftri- 
schen  Niederechltlge,"  Das  Wetter,  IX,  1892,  pages  46-48,  68-71,  90-96. 

^  A.  Hettner:  Regenvertheilung,  Pflanzendecke,  und  Besiedelung  der  tropischen 
Anden,  1893,  Berlin. 

^  J.  Hann:  Handbuch  der  Klimatologie,  English  Translation  by  R.  DeC.  Ward, 
1903,  The  Ma<?millan  Co.,  New  York. 


50  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

of  forested  and  well- watered  regions  which  have  since  become  deforested 
and  arid;  but  such  data  are  imperfect  and  unreliable,  and,  even  in 
cases  where  former  humidity  and  present  aridity  are  authenticated 
facts,  the  change  can  be  shown  to  be  due  not  to  a  decrease  in  the  rainfall 
but  to  changes  in  distribution  and  circulation  of  the  rain  after  it  has 
fallen,  or  to  dry  winds  no  longer  checked  and  modified  by  the  former 
forest  barrier. 

A  j^econd  and  more  satisfactory  source  of  data  is  furnished  by 
meteorological  records;  and  these  point  to  three  definite  conclusions: 
That  about  9  per  cent  more  rain  falls  over  a  forest  than  over  open  fields 
in  the  immediate  vicinity;  that  the  precipitation  is  somewhat  greater 
in  the  tree-covered  areas  as  compared  with  the  treeless  districts  of  a 
given  region,  and  that  in  cases  of  reforestation  the  precipitation  has 
increased  with  the  increasing  forest  growth.  Recent  writers,  however, 
especially  in  America,  have  shown  a  disposition  to  question  these  con- 
clusions; and  some  have  gone  so  far  as  to  deny  that  forests  have  any 
appreciable  influence  on  rainfall.  Professor  Cleveland  Abbe''*  of  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau  has  clearly  shown  that  the  great  mass 
of  meteorological  data  is  not  reliable,  so  far  as  this  problem  is  concerned, 
since  rain  gauges  in  open  places  catch  less  rain  than  they  should,  owing 
to  the  influence  of  the  stronger  wind.  Wherever  the  gauges  have  been 
properly  corrected  in  accordance  with  l^rofessor  Abbe's  suggestion, 
there  has  been  found  no  appreciable  (liff*erence  in  tlie  amount  of  rainfall 
over  the  forest  and  over  the  open  land ;  and  it  is  now  generally  conceded 
that  the  facts  at  hand  do  not  prove  conclusively  that  forests  increase 
rainfall. 

As  regards  climate,  then,  forests  tend  (1)  to  lower  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  air;  (2)  to  check  air  movement;  (3)  to  increase  its 
relative  humidity;  (4)  to  equalize  day  and  night  temperatures  and  to 
make  seasonal  extremes  less  severe;  (5)  to  favor  frosts  and  fogs,  and, 
some  say,  clouds  and  rain;  and  (6)  to  increase  the  healthfulness  of  the 
locality  by  decreasing  the  number  of  disease-producing  organisms  in 
the  air,  the  water,  and  tlie  soil.  In  short,  the  influence  of  the  forest 
on  the  local  climate  is  considerable,  but  its  effect  on  the  general  or 
regional  cHmate  is  not  appreciable.  E.  M.  L. 


'•  C.  Abbe:  " Deteniiination  of  the  Tnie  Amount  of  Precipitation  and  Its  Bearing 
on  Theories  of  Forest  Influences,"  Bulletin  No.  7,  1892,  forestry  Division,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  pages   175-185. 


EDITORIAL 


EDITORIAL 

SIGNS  OF  THE  TIMES 

THE  beginning  of  a  new  year  is  a  favorable  time  to  summarize 
the  results,  the  successes  of  the  past,  and  estimate  the  direc- 
tion thought  and  action  will  probably  take  in  the  future  in  our 
chosen  field  of  work. 

At  no  period  during  the  last  decade  has  there  been  a  time  when 
the  signs  of  the  times  were  more  encouraging  than  they  are  now. 
Geography  teaching  is  slowly  but  surely  improving.  The  subject  is 
receiving  increasing  emphasis  in  normal  schools,  in  secondary  schools, 
and  at  teachers'  institutes,  and  teachers  arc  seeking  enlightenment 
and  help  in  the  subject  constantly.  In  spite  of  all  setbacks  and  the 
persistence  of  ultra  conservatism  in  some  cities  and  states,  in  spite  of 
the  unnaturalness  of  geography  as  still  taught  in  the  larger  number  of 
rural  schools,  there  is  good  reason  to  be  optimistic  and  not  pessimistic 
as  to  the  future  of  the  subject. 

Among  the  evidences  of  progress  in  elementary  school  geography 
since  the  ''renaissance,''  which  dates  from  the  appearance  of  Frye's 
first  book  in  1894,  may  be  noted  more  logical,  more  usable  text-books, 
and  a  greater  emphasis  of  the  causal  idea  and  the  phenomena  of  the  • 
home  environment.  Writers  of  texts  for  elementary  schools  now 
adopt  a  plan  of  procedure  whereby  the  subject  is  modified  to  fit  the 
pupil,  instead  of  the  pupil  being  wholly  molded  to  fit  the  text.  The 
better  text-books  now  contain  fewer  unessential  points,  fewer  imag- 
inary', untruthful  illustrations,  better  maps  (though  in  this  regard  there 
is  still  great  room  for  improvement),  references  to  collateral  reading  for 
teachers  and  pupils,  and  are  in  general  more  geographical  than  their 
predecessors. 

In  the  secondary  field  there  are  several  excellent  texts,  and  labora- 
tory and  field  work  have  come  to  stay.  The  fact  that  geography  has 
been  accepted  as  an  entrance  requirement  by  several  colleges  has 
stirred  many  secondary  schools  to  better  work  in  the  subject.  Broadly 
considered,  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  progress  in  geography  within 
the  decade  has  been  in  this  fiekl. 

In  normal  and  training  schools,  on  the  other  hand,  the  subject  is 
in  a  verj'  unsatisfactory  position.  There  are  many  normal  schools  in 
which  geographers  have  been  employed  as  leaders  in  the  work,  and  it 


52  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 

is  needless  to  say  that  this  group  of  schools  has  led  the  way  in  reform 
in  the  training  of  teachers'of/geography.  In  a  large  number  of  the  nor- 
mal schools,  however,  geography  is  still  stagnant,  and  in  this  field  there 
is  the  greatest  need  for  improvement. 

The  progress  in  the  higher  institutions  has  not  been  as  great  in 
proportion  as  in  the  lower  institutions.  In  many  colleges  and  universi- 
ties geography  does  now  have  a  place,  but  in  many  others  it  is  unknown 
or  given  a  mere  foothold.  Even  where  geography  is  taught  it  is  not 
commonly  related  to  the  work  of  other  departments,  such  as  history 
and  sociology,  as  it  should  be,  and  hence  the  success  is  not  as  great  as 
it  might  readily  be.  The  teachers  for  the  secondar^^  and  normal 
schools  must  come  from  the  colleges  and  universities  largely,  and  the 
demand  for  such  trained  teachers  is  far  in  excess  of  the  supply. 

One  of  the  most  favorable  evidences  of  progress  is  the  fact  that  the 
public  and  educational  officers  are  alive  to  the  worth  of  geography  as 
a  subject  of  culture  and  training.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
increasing  number  of  teachers  of  all  grades  of  work  who  seek  opportu- 
nities to  secure  better  training  in  geography  through  teachers'  classes 
or  summer  schools.  The  success  of  the  Cornell  Summer  School  of 
Geography  in  1903  is  the  best  test  of  the  increasing  demand  by  teachers 
for  better  training  in  geog  aphy  we  have  had,  and  it  is  most  encour- 
aging. 

Progress  has  been  made,  and  is  going  to  be  made  rapidly  in  the  next 
few  years.  Faddism  in  methods  of  teaching  is  passing  away;  rural 
school  geography  is  being  strengthened  through  the  introduction  of 
agriculture  and  geographical  nature  study;  better  courses  of  study 
are  being  adopted  in  elementar}^  schools;  laboratory  work  is  being 
introduced  into  secondary^  and  normal  schools;  and  the  text-book  is 
not  always  followed  slavishly  now.  In  our  zeal  for  better  things, 
however,  we  are  in  danger  of  forgetting  that  pupils  must  be  taught  to 
study  and  think,  to  apply  their  knowledge  in  daily  life,  and  that  the 
easiest  way  to  the  goal  is  not  always  the  best.  If,  ten  years  hence, 
those  who  have  been  pupils  in  this  decade  do  not  know  the  facts  and 
principles  of  geography  necessary  for  an  understanding  of  current  affairs, 
it  will  be  a  good  indication  that  the  pendulum  has  swung  too  far  and 
that  in  our  endeavor  to  make  things  interesting  we  have  failed  to  give 
the  best  discipHne  and  training. 


REVIEWS  o3 


REVIEWS 

Field  and  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Ph3rsical  Geography.  By  James  F.  Cham- 
berlain. Size  10x8.  Pp.  127.  New  York:  Amencan  Book  Company,  1903. 
While  the  teaching  of  Phj-sical  Geography  through  the  laboratory  is  no  longer 
in  the  experimental  stage,  the  use  of  this  method  is  necessarily  restricted  to  those 
few  whose  training  has  been  of  a  nature  to  enable  them  to  organize  this  line  of  work 
for  themselves. 

For  the  great  majority,  the  need  of  a  liiboratory  manual  is  an  imperative  one 
and  each  new  contribution  to  the  field  is  eagerly  welcomed,  not  only  by  the  teacher 
of  many  subjects,  whose  training  is  inadequate  to  meet  the  situation  unaided,  but 
also  by  the  specialist  who  is  desirous  of  seeing  Physical  Geography  taught  according 
to  the  best  method. 

The  book  noted  above  seems  well  adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  situation. 
The  exercises,  sixty-nine  in  number,  touch  up>on  the  various  departments  of  the 
subject:  "The  Earth  as  a  Globe,'*  "The  Atmosphere,"  "The  Ocean,"  "The  Lands," 
and  "Life,"  and  are  fairly  well  proportioned.  More  space,  however,  should  have 
been  devoted  to  the  lands  through  the  study  of  topographic  sheets  illustrating 
typical  land  forms. 

The  exercises  generally  are  elementary  in  character,  easily  within  the  compre- 
hension of  pupils  of  the  upper  grammar  grades  or  of  the  first  year  of  a  high-school 
course. 

The  sequence  of  the  topics  treated  usually  is  logical  though  in  some  cases  a 
rearrangement  should  be  made  as,  for  nstance,  in  the  case  of  exercises  thirty-one 
and  thirty-three  where  the  study  of  "isobars'*  follows  that  of  "cyclonic  areas." 

Many  of  the  problems  presented  do  not  fall  properly  either  in  field  or  in  labora- 
tory work,  for  their  solution  lies  in  the  library  alone.  While  this  work  is  valuable, 
it  should  not  be  confounded  with  laboratory  work. 

The  manual  serves  a  double  purpose,  outline  maps  and  blank  pages  for  record- 
ing observations  accompanying  the  problems. 

The  book  will,  without  doubt,  be  found  helpful  in  offering  suggestions,  and 
should  be  used  from  this  standpoint  rather  than  as  an  infallible  guide. 

C.  B.  K. 

RECENT  PUBLICATIONS 

special  Method  in  Geography.     From  the  Third  through  the  Eighth  grade.     By 
Charles  A.  McMurry.     New  edition.     Pp.  xi  and  217.     New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan  Company,  1903. 
A  new  and  much-enlarged  edition  of  Dr.  C.  A.  McMurry's  well-known  book 

on  geography  teaching.     Very  detailed  in  its  suggestions,  and  especially  adapted 

to  the  Tarr  &  McMurry  geographies.     Would    have  been  more  readily  usable  if 

accompanied  by  an  index.     To  be  reviewed  later. 

Waterways  of  Westward  Expansion,  being  Volume  IX  of  Historic  Highways  of 
America.      By   Archer   Butler   Hulbert.      Pp.    220.     Cleveland,   Ohio:     The 
Arthur  H.  Clark  Company,   1903. 
This  book  deals  particularly  with  the  Ohio  River  and  its  tributaries,  and  is 

fuller  and  more  complete  than  most  of  its  predecessors  in  the  series.     Contains  three 


54  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  January 


reproductions  of  old  maps.     Valuable  especially  to  the  student  of  American  history 
as  related  to  its  geography. 

Indians  of  the  Painted  Desert  Region.     By  George  Wharton  James.     Pp.  xxi 

and  267.     Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Company,  1903. 

An  attractive  and  readable  book  on  the  Indians  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico, 
by  a  well-known  writer  on  Indians.     Well  illustrated.     To  be  reviewed  later. 

Descriptive  Geography  from  Original  Sources:  Australia  and  Oceanica.  By 
F.  D.  and  A.  J.  Herbertson.  Pp.  xxvi  and  221.  London:  Adam  and  Charles 
Black,  1903. 

The  last  of  the  several  volumes  devoted  to  the  dififerent  continents  and  prepared 
by  Dr.  and  Mrs.  A.  J.  Herbertson.  Like  the  preceding  volumes,  this  volume  con- 
tains an  excellent  introductory  chapter,  bibliography,  and  index.  The  material 
is  well  selected,  well  illustrated,  and  very  usable.  The  volume  is  excellent  for 
supplementary  use  in  the  higher  grannnar  grades  of  American  schools. 

Around  the  Caribbean  and  Across  Panama.      Bv  Francis  C.  Nicholas.     Boston 

and  New  York:  H.  M.  Caldwell  Company,  1903. 

An  interesting  account  of  an  explorer's  adventures  in  the  region  indicated  by 
the  title.     Written  by  an  authority  and  well  illustrated. 

Elementary  Geography.     By  Charles  F.  King.     Pp.  vi  and  220.     Boston:  Lothrop 

Publishing  Company,  1903. 

An  elementary  geography  by  an  experienced  and  well-known  teacher.  De- 
scriptions of  excursions  and  imaginary  journeys  are  made  the  means  of  imparting 
both  general  and  regional  facts.  Excellent  illustrations,  some  being  colored.  Illus- 
trations of  animals  especially  fine.  Maps  are  somewhat  crude  and  proper  names 
are  not  always  spelled  correctly.     To  be  reviewed  later. 


NEWS  NOTES 

The  New  Republic  of  Panama.— Early  in  November  the  State  of 
Panama,  hitherto  a  part  of  Colombia,  seceded  and  established  a  new 
republic  known  as  Panama,  and  on  November  6th  this  republic  was 
recognized  as  a  new  nation  by  the  Ciovernment  of  the  United  States. 
The  action  taken  by  the  inhal)itants  of  Panama  was  primarily  due  to 
the  fact  that  Colombia  had  stood  in  the  way  of  allowing  the  United 
States  to  build  the  Panama  Canal.  The  inliabitants  of  Panama,  having 
been  paying  large  amounts  in  taxes  to  Colombia,  felt  that  they  had 
not  been  duly  considered  by  Colombia  and  that  their  business  interests 
had  been  sacrificed;  hence  their  action. 

Meeting   of   National  Educational  Association   in    1904. — It  has 

been  decided  to  hold  the  1904  meeting  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  at  St.  Louis  during  the  latter  part  of  June  or  the  early  part 
of  July.  The  various  features  of  the  exposition  will  be  made  the 
chief  topics  of  the  papers  and  discussions,  and  thus  the  meeting  wdll 
be  centered  about  the  exposition.  Details  as  to  time  of  meeting  and 
the  attention  to  be  given  to  geography  will  be  announced  in  the 
Journal  as  the  plans  mature. 


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school  of  Columbia  University  for  the 
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For  circulars  and  further  information 
address  the  Secretary. 

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Biraies 

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and  pupflH  want  to  read  it  ihroiiKh  as  souii  as 
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Home. 

It  1»  the  «tor>-  of  the  experience  of  Delma 
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to  Hpend  the  HUiiiiner  studying  sod  obser^'Ing 
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ter -  Woodpecker,  Tailor  -  Tallorblrd. 

Birdies  a.vdTheirSongs:    IntheOsrden 

-  Hohln,  In  the  Wood  -  Thrush.  In  the  Field     ' 

—  Bluebird.  In  the  Sky —  Lark,  In  the  Home  — 
Canary,  In  the  ti rove  —  Mockingbird. 

Birdies  on  hie  Wino;    Huminlngblrd. 
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and  Jenny  Wren.  (Jood-Bye. 

The  ))Ook   Is  very   prettily  Illustrated  by 
Bertha  L.  Corbett,  the  artist  of  Sunbonnet 
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Journal  of  Pedagogy 

"PROM  the  first  issue  the  Journal  of  Pedagogy  has  been  edited  solely  in  the  interest 
■•■      of  sound  education  and  correct  teaching.    Some  of  the  most  important  contribu- 
tions to  pedagogical  literature  in  this  country  have  appeared  in  its  paees  during  the 
past  decade.    It  is  the  aim  of  the  magazine  to  oflfer  from  issue  to  issue  a  full  and  impar- 
tial account  of  the  progress  that  is  being  made  toward  better  things  in  educational 
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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

XVI                                SEPTEMBER                            1903 

EDITORIAL  — The  BaUvia  System— What  the  Batavia  System  Is  — A  Quickened  Intellec- 
tual Life  —  The  Right  View  of  a  Superintendent's  Duties  -  A  Needed  Amendment  — 
Music  in  the  High  School  — A  Difficult  Undertaking  Well  Done      The  Boston  Meeting 
— Medical  Inspection  of  Schools    -  College  Entrance  Examination  Board. 

TEXT-BOOK  LIBRARIES,  Robert  MacDouc.ai.. 

COMMERCIALISM  AGAINST  CULTURE,  J.  H.  Atkinson. 

THE  TEACHER'S  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE  RESULTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY, 
F.  E.  Spauldinc. 

THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION.  M.  A.  CAKHrsciER. 

THE  PEDAGOGICAL  VALUE  OF  MEDIATE  INTEREST,  L.  W.  Hoffman. 

MUSIC  STUDY  VS.  PERFORMANCE,  H.  H.  Lanoton. 

AMBIDEXTERITY  AND  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT.  Samuel  S.  Maxwell. 

A  SCHOOL  OF  PRACTICAL  SOCIOLOGY,  D.  C.  Parr. 

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1 


An  Announcement  to  Teachers  of 
Geography 


RAND,  McNALLY  &  COMPANY  will  publish 
this  fall  and  winter  a  new  series  of  Geographies 

By  Richard  Elwood  Doihie 

Professor  of  Geography^  Teachers  College ^  Columbia  Universi/y^  Xew  York  City : 

co-editor  of  The  Journal  of  Geography;  and  author  of  '*''A  Reader 

in  Physical  Geography  for  Beginners.''* 

Book  On.  ELEMENTAR  Y  GEOGRAPHY  »ead, 

Cloih,  Square  8vo,  8xio,  228  pages;  75  cents. 

THIS  is  a  gcojrraphy  for  bejjrinners.  The  book  has,  therefore,  been  divided  into  two 
parts,  entitled,  respectively,  "  Home  Geoj^raphy  "  and  "  World  Relations  and  the 
Continents." 
In  Part  1.  the  purpose  has  been  to  show  the  relation  of  the  individual  pupil  to  all 
parts  of  his  own  country,  and  thereby  to  emphasize  the  interdependence  of  people  com- 
mercially and  industriiilly.  Any  treatnieni  of  Home  Cicoj^raphy  must  be  general  in 
order  to  make  it  true  f«)r  all  children  in  all  localities.  In  the  '*  SujifK^cstions  for  Review  '* 
the  pupil  is  asked  to  stu  ly  his  own  environment  auvl  10  explain  its  xeojfraphy  by 
the  universal  facts  presented  in  the  text. 

Part  II.  opens  with  a  treatment  of  those  factors  that  must  be  understood  by  the 
pupil  in  order  that  he  mav  appreciate  his  relation  t«»  the  world  as  a  whole.  The  mter- 
dependence  of  nations  is  here  brouj^ht  out.  The  la.st  part  is  dev»»ted  to  ti:e  several  con- 
tinents, and  shows  the  reasons,  so  far  as  is  possible  within  the  limits  t»f  an  elementary 
book,  for  the  supremacy  of  certain  industries  in  certain  places. 

Boolt  TWO  ..ADVA NCED      GEOGRA PH Y..  m  preparation 

Cloth,  Square  Bvo,  8x10,  ...  pajjes;  $1.20. 

'"T^HIS  book  has  been  written  with  the  idea  of  emphasizing:  particularly  the  "causal 
l^  noti(m'*  in  jc'^oj^raphy  teach injc-  Part  I.,  called  "The  Principles  of  Geographv," 
treats  of  those  phase's  of  j^^eneral  Keojrranhy  which  are  necessary  as  a  founciation 
for  an  intellijrent  and  disciplinary  studv  of  the  several  continents.  The  topics  in  this 
part  of  the  book  are  considered  as  far  as  possible  in  the  order  of  their  mutual  depen- 
dence, and  the  pupils  are  thus  led  to  see  the  dependence  of  the  hiy^her  and  more  compli- 
cated phases  of  geography  on  the  simpler  hut  fundamental  conditions. 

In  Part  11.  "The  Continents"  arv  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  emphasize  the  impor- 
tance of  their  phy.sical  characteristics.  Kspecial  attention  is  given  to  their  economic 
conditions,  because  it  is  believed  that  the  greatest  value  from  a  stuily  of  the  continents 
comes:  First,  from  the  training  in  clear  thinking  involved;  and' second,  from  the 
knowledge  it  gives  of  principles  and  facts  that  can  be  used  in  later  life. 

...  ••  p/lA¥Ky  ••  •• 

THE  attention  of  geographers  and  geography  teachers  is  especially  invited  to  the 
large  number  Jind  excellence  of  the  map.s.  all'of  which  have  been  ma'deexpres.slv  for 
the.se  geographies.  Each  c«)ntirent  antl  the  United  States  is  represented  by  three 
maps,  a  relief  map  to  giv(,'  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  contour,  i\,  physical  map  showing,  in 
accordance  with  the  international  color  scheme,  the  land  heights  and  water  depths,  and  a 
political  map  giving  the  latest  information  in  regard  to  boundaries  and  other  varying 
points.  In  Book  Two  appear  commercial  map<.  showing  the  railroads  and  principal 
industries  of  each  region.  For  the  Hist  time  in  a  school  geograi)hy  water  depths  are 
.show^n  on  all  maps. 

The  drawings  for  the  maps  have  passed  under  the  critical  eye  of  Dr.  J  Paul  Goode, 
Assistant  Profes.sor  of  (ieography  in  the  University  of  Chicago,  an  expert  in  cartography. 

Write  us  for  fur/ her  information  regarding  these  books 


Chicago        pieW  York        London 
RAND,    McNALLY    &    COMPANY 

Educational  Publishers 


jt   y^iS^  ^  ^  ^    ^ozv  many  of  your  Nigh  School 
pupils  can  correctly  make  out  a 
bill,  draic  a  check,  ivrite  a  business  letter  or  intelli- 
gently ansiver  the  sim-     ^    ^^  ^      a  a  a 
plesi business  question  .^  A.  RCfnCdl^  T  TT 


A  First  Book  in  Business  Methods 

Bv  William  R  Teller.  CrtJit  .1/jh.  Tkr  /^ri/jm  MjMmf'jif»trtmir  c\»«i/^i»y»  A j/«i> 
muisvo,  MnJki^uM,  and   Henkv    K.  ItROWN.  //^jJ  \>r  tkf  C**mmtr\ta7 

Illustrated  with  154  business  forms,  >■>  in  ct^lors. 
Cloth,  lamo,  171  pages;    75  cents. 

THE  need  of  the  hour  is  practical  eilucation  for  the  business  of  life,  Th»s  )xH>k 
promises  to  meet  the  need,  t\^r  it  is  m^t  a  work  v>n  lvH»k-keepin^or  acc^nmtinir,  but 
what  its  name  implies.  It  tells  a  bi>y  or  jfirl  how  to  write  busmess  letters,  how  to 
send  money  orders  and  telejrr.ims,  how  tv>  ship  frei>rhi  and  express,  how  to  depi^sit  and 
draw  money  in  various  forms  from  banks,  how  to  make  contracts  leases  and  ivirtner- 
ships.  how  to  deal  in  stvK'ks  and  bvmds,  how  to  jfive  deeds  and  mort>ra>{:es,  and  how  to 
settle  estates.  The  b«x>k  is  profusely  illustrated  with  /jisitmi/t's  of  business  iwpers 
printed  in  seven  colors.  The  style  is  "simple  and  the  lxM>k  can  Ih*  easily  usetl  in  the 
eiehth  g^radeand  the  rtrst  years  ot  Hiifh  SchtM»ls.  As  this  isprv>lx»bly  iheonly  l>ook  avail- 
able for  these  grades  it  will  be  welcomed  by  those  interestetl  in  cv^mmercial  educaliv»n. 


Rand,  McNally  ft  Company  :   Educational  Publishers  :  Chicago    New  York    London 


Bv  K'A  THAKIXE  F.LI/ABETH  HO  PP.  Ph.  />.     jHsfrHitor  in  the  Extension  Division  of 
the  Unitersity  of  Chicaji^o^  author  of  '/he  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Education.  ' 

Book/.    THE  TREE-DWELLERS.    Thk  A.;e  of  Fi- ar. 

Illustrated  with  a  maps  />  full pat^e  and  (k^  text  drarctn^trs  in  half-tone  by  Howard  I'. 
Broxvn.    Cloth,  square  unto,  /  ;X/./<vjr .-  ^j;  cents.    Eor  the  primary  {grades,   (fust  issued.) 

THIS  volume  makes  clear  to  the  child  how  people  lived  before  they  hail  fire,  how  and 
why  thev  conquered  it,  and  the  chanjjes  wrouj^hl  in  society  by  its  use.  The  simnle 
activities  of  gathering  food,  of  weaving,  building,  taming  fire,  making  use  of  the  bmly  for 
tools  and  weapons,  wearing  trophies,  and  securing  cooperative  action  by  means  of 
rhythmic  dances,  are  here  shown  to  be  the  simple  t\>rms  of  processes  which  still  minister 
to  our  daily  needs. 

Bool'  II.    THE  EARLY  CAVE-MEN.    Thk  Ar.K  <.!•  Cmhat. 

Illustrated  with  7.>  drawinf's  in  ha  f- tone  f>y  Howard  \'.  Brown.     Clothe  square  rjmo^ 
n4  pages :  4^  cents.     Eor  the  primary  grades,    (/n  press.) 

IN  this  volume  the  child  is  helped  to  realire  that  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  know  h»>w  to 
use  fire,  but  to  know  how  to  make  it.  Protection  from  the  cold  winters,  which  char- 
acterize the  age  described,  is  sought  first  in  caves  ;  but  fire  is  a  necessary  means  of  defend- 
ing the  caves.  The  serious  condition  to  which  the  cave-men  are  reduceil  by  the  loss  <»f  fire 
during  the  time  of  a  flood  is  shown  to  be  the  moiive  which  pn>mpts  theiu  to  hold  a  council ; 
to  send  men  to  the  fire  country  ;  to  make  improvements  in  clothing,  in  devices  for  carrying, 
and  in  tools  and  weapons  ;  and,  finally,  to  the  discovery  of  a  way  of  making  fire. 

TO  FOLLO\V 

Book  III.    THE  LATER  CAVE-MEM.    The  Ace  ok  the  Chase. 

Illustrated.    For  the  primary  grades. 

Book  IV.    THE  TENT-DWELLERS.     The  Early  Fishino  Men. 

Illustrated.    For  the  primary  grades. 

Later  volumes  will  deal  with  the  early  steps  in  the  development  of  pastoral  and  agri- 
cultural  life,  the  changes  wrought  by  the  discovery  and  u.se  of  metals,  and  the  first  steps  in 
the  evolution  of  travel,  trade,  and  transportation.  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  Write  us  a  letter  of  iiupiiry 
and  receive  in  reply  our  new  circulars  and  a  letter  of  information  regarding  these  l>o(»ks. 


RAND,    McNAELY    &»    COMPA.V  \\    EDUCATtOXAL    PU  BLtSH  EPS 


THE  VALUE  OF  MAPS 

[HE  day  is  already  here  when  ac- 
curate and  convenient  maps  are 
considered  an  essential  part  of 
the  equipment  of  every  school. 
Few  teachers  would  undertake  to 
teach  the  subject  of  geography  or  history 
without  a  set  of  down-to-date  maps,  A  few 
years  ago  it  was  enough  to  have  a  wall  ?nap 
of  the  United  States,  hid  at  the  close  of  the 
Spaftish  war  we  found  ourselves  interested 
in  the  geography  of  both  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  recent  conflict  in  South  Africa  has 
revised  the  map  of  that  continent  and  created 
a  new  interest  in  its  geogi'uphy.  The  Pan- 
American  Exposition,  the  Pan-American  Con- 
gress, and  the  plans  for  the  Panama  Canal 
have  turned  our  eyes  a?iezv  toward  South 
America,  whose  geography  is  practically  un- 
known to  the  American  people.  Our  interests 
are  now  world-wide,  and  we  are  of  necessity 
becoming  a  geography -studying  people.  J^  J^ 
^  Eor  nearly  fifty  years  Messrs.  Rand, 
McNally  &  Company  have  been  the  largest 
map  makers  in  America.  Their  imprint 
corresponds  to  the  ''Sterling'*  mark  on 
silverware,  a7id  stands  for  accuracy,  com- 
pleteness, and  convenience.  Their  informa- 
tion is  secured  from  official  sources  and  each 
map  is  caref^llly  revised  with  each  printi7ig. 


RaKK,   McNaIXT  k  COMPAKfT,  rHIi'AOO   AMD    NbW   YoRK. 


PHYSICAL 
MAPS 


The  necessity  of  Physical  Maps  as  aids  to  the 
teachin}^  of  Kcojjjraphy  and  allied  subjects  is  Ken- 
erally  recojrnized.  For  many  years  the  Physical 
Maps  issued  by  Hand,  McNally  &  Co.  have*  been 
accepted  by  teachers  of  geography  as  the  standard. 


THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  MAPS 


Pnlnrincr  These  maps  follow  the  ttitertiatiottal  color  scheme  and  show 
l^OlOnng;  /and  elevations  in  four  shades  of  brown,  the  darkest  bent  if 
the  highest,  and  the  water  depths  in  three  shades  of  blue,  the  dat  kest  shade 


being  the  c\^^^^  rnrrAnfc  Ocean  currents  7vhich  are  one  of  the  great 
deepest.  '-'Cean  V^urrentb  j-.j^f^rs  in  determining  the  climate  of 
countries  are  clearly  indicated,  the  warm  currents  being  shaken  in  broken 
or  pink  and  the  cold  i^^^o-,  ri^krifVic  i^'^ter  depths  of  less  than 
currents  in  dark  blue.  '-'Cean  L/epins  ^-^  feet  are  shoivn  in  light 
blue,  depths  from  6jo  to  6,j;oo  in  darker  blue,  and  depths  greater  than 
dy^oo  in  a  still  darker  shade  of  blue.  This  is  an  important  addition 
to  the  information  usually  shown  on  Physical  Maps,  and  enables  the 
student  to  study  intellii^ently  the  interesting  geography  of  the  ocean 
bottoms  aswell'as  the  p)iysi-  pi^-f  nicfriKufiftn  Phese  are  the  only 
ographyof  the  land  surface,  r'lant  UlStHDUtlOn  physical  Maps 
which  sho7V  correctly  and  clearly  the  plant  distribution  of  North  America, 
Euf  ope,  and  Asia.  And  this  feature  alone  t<<^4.v.**..«*o1  T  :«-»><<  ta  . 
empLsiz,slhecon,plele,u-sSiJf preparation.  ISOthcrmal  LinCS.  The 
isothermal  lines  for  fuly  and  January  are  shown  in  red,  and  degrees  of 
heat  and  cold  are  marked  on  the  margins  of  the  maps,  Arriirarv 
showing  the  curious  effect  of  topography  upon  climate.  ■'^CCUracy  ^/^^. 
making  of  these  maps  the  latest  official  information  and  the  results  of 
the  most  recent  explorations  have  been  utilized.     They  tell  the  truth. 

THE   LIST 

United  States  North  America  South  America  Europe  Asia  Africa 

World  on  Mercator's  Projection  Pacific  Ocean  and  Australia 

FRANCIS   W.  PARKER  SAID: 

"Equal  to  the  Best  Work  in  Germany" 

Chicago,  III. 
'"'Allow  my  hearty  thanks  that  an  American  publisher  has,  at  last,  met  the  pressiuj^ 
needs  of  j^eniiine  j^eo^raphnal  leachinf^  by  publishing  such  excellent  wall  maps. 

"  >  our  Physical  Maps  are  njnal  to  the  best  7vork  done  in  Germany.  Tiny  are  well 
printed  and  very  cheap,  compared  with  the  best  ivall  maps. published  at  Got  ha. 

^^It  is  seldom  that  J  have  an  opportunity  to  endorse  so  emphatically  a  means  of 
teaching  true  geography.  I  trust  these  maps  will  make  their  appearance  in  every 
school-room  in  America.  1  should  prefer  them  in  grammar  and  high  schools  to  atiy 
text -book  in  geography  ei>er  yet  print  id. 

'^FRASCIS  W.  PARKER:' 
Late  Director  of  the  School  of  Education,  The  University  of  Chicago. 


A  hand-book  giving  a  full  de.scription  of  these  maps, 
with  special  suggestions  for  their  use.  has  been 
prepared  by  Dr.  J.  Paul  (ioode  of  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  There  is  an  introduction  by  Dr. 
T.  C.  Chambcrlin  of  the  University   of  Chicago. 

Rand,  McNally  6r*  Company,  Chicago  and  JVetv  York 


PHYSICAI 
MAPS 


Ghe  New  International 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


ITs   A   Glorious  Thing  to    hnow\  dlTO^ 
to  Knaw  Thc^i  Vou  Khqh 


Hotii>  to  Knotty  'hL^ here 
io  go  ^ar  in^omxcx- 
tian—  Ihaf^    the         ^ 
if  u  c  .f  t  I  c^n 

Here's   a    Rich     < 

4 

Mine  Ihdi's 
Open  to  -* 


U/?e 


]htm  \mmmuiimm?tim 

In  oilier  W9r(lt,  Tli£  ficv  tnltniAlMkaAt  Bn^ 
cjctiipac«l«  msvers  laUi  fUty  per  c«fl|.  raoit 

It  eonUloi  i(K»  itilt  pafc  coloned  pUi^i— 
^irtr  7/^^n  tjll&cr  cxctUeot  lUikSirattos.  Coin*- 
pTbet  t  r  tirf <  f ommc»-^f er  1 6,(HI0  fSfef- 

tj  tlic  ootmtrir't  jiHat  tpccUlKts  ind  editors. 

It  tti&  life  eniofseiiieiar  of  America'!  I^adtflr 

fkrnktn,  tr^cbo^  anJ  icb<»Urt.    AfliS  tiuCf 

Wbti  10  iLDftW  iDfrn:  afimtv  IfK  fCcw  Intrr* 


c^r  ar^  -Jty- 


DODD.  MEAD  d;  CO. 


Send  aie« 
lUfistnital 


Is  new,  thorough,  com 
prehervsive  -  s  viper  lor  ti 
ail  other  works  of  j^tmtlai 
nature.  That's  a.  vcrr 
positive  stiitement,  hu^ 
the  facts  iusiify  it  '•  ^ 
Under  (he  searcKhtih 
opposite.  iacontrovertibl» 
I    evidence   is   ihnwn    V    r 


itrt  f Ar  m&WA 


Stmm 


Jciof.ofiJ^c:^  ' 


-uL. 


^    i^-  1^ 


, .    r  '  .^  \. 


NEWTON  C.  DOUGHERTY 

^upcHfiten«l«£nt  of  ScHi^oUk  Peoria*  IINnoH,  sa>  * 

«ni  safe  It  b  «iirti^  ^f  »  rtace  ao<  o«li  io  iHe  coaflcr^Mt  t)> 


REDWAY'S 

COIMMERCIAL 

GEOGRAPHY 


WATCH  IT! 


A  book  for  High  Schooib,  Com- 
mercial Courses  and  Business 
Colleges,  full  of  the  laiest  and 
freshest  material  available  on 
Commercial  Subjects. 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


Ne\% 


i   ««  ^k_r   ■   •  <^^   Ml4^  W 


•  Vi      •    '.^ 


I 


77rJOLIRNAL"/ 
GEOGRAPHY 


»    t  ^        I .  »      •  i  •  _ 


J  ].UKl  AK'»  -   TC,ot 


^;.<iiiviivhi|   ill   i?lp- 
Ah  nux'ttial  4»ci(oaiiy 


(T  oiitFnt*>  leU  VH  i?  t-^i 


tiElH  SMITH 


•I    .50 

• 


f  i     J    J^  L  t    I 


HAVE   YOU 
SEEN    IT? 

The  Only  Geo- 
graphical Journal 
for  Geography 
Teachers 


J^ 


Recommends  it 
to  Teachers 

We  find  The  Journal  of 
Geography  very  helpful  in 
our  school  work,  and  recom- 
mend it  to  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. Each  issue  contains 
a  great  many  things  helpful 
in  the  class  room,  and  the 
service  of  the  Journal  in 
broadening  and  deepening 
geographical  knowledge 
among  teachers  is  very  great. 
—William  C.  Ruediger, 
Ph.  M.,  Dt//on,  A/on/. 


How  to  become  a 

better  teacher 
of  Geography? 


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can  be  answered  by 

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and  enable  you  to  see  whether  or 

not  this  magazine  is  what  you  want 

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World's  Fair 

and  National  Educational 

Association  Number 


The  JOURNAL  of  GEOGRAPHY 

The  June  number  of  T'/f/' Journal  o/"Geograph y  will  be  a  World's  Fair  and 
a  National  Educational  Association  Number.    It  will  be  devoted  entirely  to 

^he  Geography 

of  the  Louisiana 

Purchase 

Amonj^  the  numerous  articles  that  may  be  expected  are  the  following  : 

THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  VALUE  OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

By  Professor  A.  P.  Brigham,  of  Coij^a/e  University 

THE  SURFACE   AND  CLIMATE   OF  THE  LOUISIANA   PURCHASE 
By  N.  V.  Darton,  of  the  United  States  Geographical  Surtey 

THE   HISTORY   AND   EXPLORATION   OF   THE   LOUISIANA 
PURCHASE 

By  Dr.   A.  C.   Rowland,  of  the   Teachers  College ^  Columbia  University^ 
Netv  York  City 

THE   INDUSTRIES   OF  THE  LOUISIANA   PURCHASE 

By  Professor  Spencer  Trotter,  of  S-varthmore  College^  Svjarthmore, 
Fa.:  author  of '^l  Commercial  Geography  ' 

THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  PRESENT  CONDITIONS  OF  IRRIGATION 

By  Geo.  B.  Hollister,  Associate  Editor  of  7 he  Journal  of  Geography; 
Ilydrographer  for  the  United  States  Geological  Survey 

ST.  LOUIS 

By  Ellen  C.  Semple,  of  Louisville,  At..-   author  of  *' American   History 
and  Geographic  Conditions'' 

DENVER 
By  Charles  E.  Cmadsev,  Superintendent  of  the  Denver,  Colorado,  Schools 

The  articles  will  be  illustrated  extensively  by  photographs  and  maps: 
there  will  be  a  larji^e  foldins:  map  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  inserted,  and 
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An  Introduction  to  Physical  Geography 

By  Grove  Karl  Gilbert,  LL.D.,  United  States  Geological  Survey;  and 
Albert  Perry  Brigham,  A.  M.,  Professor  of  Geology  in  Colgate  University, 
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17 OR  sound  reasons  it  may  be  asserted  that  in  the  production  of  this  work  a  point 
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A  Text-book  of  Commercial  Geography 

By  Cyrus  C.  Adams,  F.A.G.S.,  formerly  President  of  the  Department 
of  Geography,  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  i2mo.  Cloth,  505 
pages,  $1.30. 

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8mo.     Cloth,  each  $2.00  net,  postage  18  cents. 

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1.  Britain  and  the  North  Atlantic.     By  the  Editor. 

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the  University  of  Breslau.     Nearly  ready. 

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*     comparable  to  this  book,  exists  m   the  English  Language.''— four naf  of  School 
Geography.  

D.   APPLETON   &  COMPANY 

New  York  Boston  Chicago  London 


SCHOOL  SCIENCE 

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It  Ib  the  Btory  of  the  experience  of  Delma 
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to  spend  the  euininer  studying  and  observing 
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CONTENTS  are: 

Birdies  at  Their  Trai»eh:  Mason  — 
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Weaver  — Oriole.  Fuller  —  Goldfinch.  Carpen- 
ter—Woodpecker. Tailor  -  Tallorblrd. 

BiRDiKS  AND  Their So.Ntts:  In  the  Garden 
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Birdies  o.v  the  Win(i;    Huinuilngblrd. 

Th««  Birdies'  Fahewkll:  Jack  Soarrow 
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The  book  Is  very  pretillv  Illustrnted  by 
Bertha  L.  Corbett,  the  artist  of  Sunbonuet 
Babies.  The  author  Is  Ida  S.  Elson,  of  Phila- 
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of  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

William  G.  Smith  &  Company 
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New  Elementary  Agriculture 

By  Dr.  Chas.  E.  Besses^  Prof.  Lawrence 

Brunery  and  Prof.  G.  D.  Sivezey 

of  the 

University  of  Nebr.\sk.\ 

4n  elementary  text-book  for  the  eeventh  and  eighth 
gradee  or  the  High  School. 

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Some  time  a^o  I  received  a  copy- of 
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time.  The  beginning  should  be  made 
in  the  common  school,  or,  probably,  it 
should  begin  farther  back  than  that  — in 
the  normal  school,  with  the  fitting  and 
preparing  of  teachers,  so  that  when 
they  take  up  the  common  school  work 
thev  can  introduce  this  delightful  and 
beneficial  study.  Every  child  would  be 
benefited  by  a  course  of  study  in  this 
book  and  instruction  regarding  it  in  the 
classroom.        Hon.  James  Wii^on, 

6'.  S.  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Published  in  October,  1903,  but  already 
m  use  in  114  different  schools. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  PUBLISHIN6  COMPANY, 

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and  thrown  aside  ;  the  second  will  be  preserved  and  bound  up 
for  permanent  reference. 

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oo 


The  Eternal  Question  for  Teachers 

TTOHXr  Al^i^ll  I  conduct  my  school  work 
^'•^^  ▼▼    so  as  to  get  the  best  rooulto  ? 


OO 


WHERE 


can  I  find  a  book  that  will  show  me 
common-senso  school  methods? 


OO 


The  Question  Solved 

Send  for  Henry  Sabin's  COMMON  SENSE  DIDACTICS. 

for  common  school  teachers.     It  is  an  aid.  an  encouragement, 
a  counselor.     Cloth,  i2mo,  343  pages.     Price.  $1. 

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and  the 


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Important  Announcement 

THE  characteristic  of  THE  LITTLE  CHRONICLE  which  has  brought  it  into 
such  favor  with  practical  teachers  is  the  fuudanieutul  distinction,  kept  con- 
stantly in  view  in  its  editorial  policy,  between  teaching^  Current  £ventfl  and  iuln|f 

Current  Kvents  as  a  means  ot  teaching. 

In  further  development  of  this  idea  it  is  our  pur- 
pose, takinf<  Geography  as  our  basis,  and  beg^nningf 
with  the  first  issue  in  September,  to  be  largely 
governed  in  the  selection  and  treatment  of 
news  and  related  matter  by  the  order  of  treat- 
ineikt  of  Nubjects  in  Geography  as  represented 
bv  the  best  modern  text-books  and  most  carefully 
arranged  Courses  of  Study  in  City'Schools. 

For  classes  beginning  iJeography,  whether  elementary  or  advanced,  special  atten- 
tion will  be  paid  to  news  and  supplementary  reading  in  prose  and  poetry  illustrating 
nhvsiographic  facts  and  laws;  then  to  similar  matter  relating  to  North  America  as  a 
whole,  then  to  the  United  States  as  a  Whole,  then  to  groups  of  States  in  the  usual 
order.  New  England.  Middle  Atlantic,  Southern,  etc.,  then  to  the  other  countries  of 
North  America,  then  to  South  America ;  while  in  the  same  issues,  for  the  classes  doing 
the  latter  half  of  their  work  in  Geography,  similar  attention  will  be  paid  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  to  Europe,  and  then,  m  the  order  named,  to  Asia,  Africa,  Australia, 
and  Oceania. 

This  plan,  however,  will  not  cause  less  attention  to  be  paid  to  important  current 
history,  no  matter  in  what  part  of  the  world  the  events  may  occur. 

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INTERNATIONAL  DICTIONARY 


KING'S 

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UyQ.  P.  KiSG,  Master  iyfihe  DearbsrH  PuMfc  ScAtfi^/,  Ea^ion,  and  Presideni 


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THE  ELEMENTARY  (iEOdRAPH  V  flSj>i«tiRi  to  the  subject  of  home  geugraphy 
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mnd  interest  by  muking  it  thi>fnughly  concrtie,  and  by  selecting  a.  few  geogriiphlcal 
typen  (a  mountain,  a  river,  a  hot  coMntry,  ctej  for  study  in  fall  detail 

"Journey  Geography"  is  a  Mrong  feature  of  the  btH-k,  and  contributes  to  the 
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continued,  and  adds  to  the  inleresi. 

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GEOGRAPHY 


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^he  Study  of  Maps 


IN  GEOGRAPHY  we  arc  con^ 
stantly  using  maps;  and  upon 
them  must  be  based  a  neces- 
sarily large  part  of  our  work  in 
geography.  So  proper  education  in 
geography  must  include  a  careful  train- 
ing in  the  making  and  interpretation 
of  maps.  More  a^td  more  a  map  is 
coming  to  be  a  method  of  shorthajtd 
representation  of  a  mass  of  geograph- 
ical information,  and  more  than  ez^er  a 
good  geographer  is  able  to  read  a  chap- 
ter from  a  map.  A  pupil  needs  to 
learn  the  language  of  maps,  then  to 
memorize  some  of  the  essays  and 
sketches  set  forth  in  that  map's  lan- 
guage. To  do  this  is  an  exercise  of 
attention  and  retention,  and,  studied 
in  this  way,  the  continents  become  as 
easy  as  so  many  letters  in  an  alpha- 
bet—  learned  once,  learned  forever. 

J.  Paul  Goode 


The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  FEBRUARY,   1904  No. 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  IN  THE  CHICAGO 
NORMAL  SCHOOL 

PART  I 

BY    FRANK    W.    DARLING    AND    ELIZA RKTH    SMITH 
0/  the  Chicago  Normal  School,  Chicago,  Illinois 

THE  organization  of  all  courses  in  the  Chicago  Normal  School 
is  adapted  to  the  well-defined  conditions  peculiar  to  the  school. 
The  fact  that  the  Chicago  Normal  School  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  Chicago  school  system  to  prepare  graduates  of  the  Chicago  schools 
to  be  teachers  in  the  same  system,  gives  the  school  the  advantage  of 
limitations  which  normal  schools  do  not  often  enjoy.  All  entering 
students  have  had  equal  and  practically  the  same  chances  for  prepara- 
tion in  the  Chicago  schools  All  graduates  must  l)e  especially  trained 
to  meet  the  conditions  i)eculiar  to  the  Chicago  schools.  Hence  the 
course  in  geography,  here  presented  deals  oidy  with  these  known  con- 
ditions of  entrance  and  attempts  to  meet  these  known  conditions  of 
demand,  but  at  the  same  time  it  aims  to  give  such  a  preparation  for 
general  teaching  that  the  students  may  be  well  prepared  to  teach  in 
other  environments  than  those  prevailing  in  the  Chicago  Public  Schools. 
It  is  assumed  that  a  student  entering  the  Chicago  Normal  School 
has  had  all  of  the  strictly  academic  study  of  geography  that  is  necessarj^ 
to  allow  of  his  treating  the  subject-matter  as  the  accpiired  building 
material  with  which  he  works.  The  course  in  geography  is  entirely  a  pro- 
fessional study  of  the  subject  and  it  is  found  that  the  students  do  get 
a  better  review  of  the  subject-matter  of  geography  by  approaching  it 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher  than  those,  with  equal  preparation, 
did  under  the  previous  course,  by  a  simple  academic  study.  The  pro- 
fessional study  is  divided  into  two  distinct  divisions: 

1.     The  study  of  the  subject  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  subject- 
matter  alone,  with  the  conscious  aim  of  discovering  the  organization 

Copyright^  igo^^  by  E.  M.  Lehnerts 


D 


6  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 


inherent  in  the  subject-matter.  This  procedure  must  include  a 
close  scnitiny  of  the  different  parts  of  the  subject-matter  to  discover 
the  relations  existing  between  the  parts  as  applied  in  the  study  of 
certain  wholes.     Such  is  the  intent  of  the  first  year's  work  as  outlined. 

2.  The  study  of  the  subject  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  child  with 
the  conscious  aim  of  adapting  the  subject-matter  to  the  growing  con- 
sciousness of  the  child.  This  must  include  a  psychological  study  of 
the  child  to  determine  his  ability  for  mastering  and  his  mental  processes 
of  comprehending  certain  parts  of  the  subject-matter  at  certain  ages. 
Incidentally  it  also  includes  the  discover>^  of  the  discipHnary  value 
of  the  subject.     Such  is  the  intent  of  the  second  year's  work  as  outlined. 

After  this  preparation,  as  outlined,  each  student  is  given  a  chance 
to  practice  teaching  the  subject  in  one  of  the  grades  for  six  weeks. 
This  teaching  work  is  done  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  regular 
grade  critic  teacher  and  the  geography  department. 

FIRST  VKAR  OF  C.FOGRAPHY 

(Fourteen  nreks,  fire  fijtu-minute  periods  weekly.) 

I.       INTRODUCTION 

-1.     .1  Consideration  of  \Vh(tt  Geoijraphy  Is;  riz.,  '*A  study  of  the  earth 
in  its  relation  to  life." 
1.     Earth  factors  determining  life  conditions. 
a.     Climate. 
h.     Structure. 

e.     p]xaniples  showing  tlie  innnence  of  these  factors. 
]i.     Educational  Value  oj  such  a  Study  of  Nehttiotfs. 
1.     Discipline. 


'> 


Cultur 


II.       THi:    KAUTH    AS    A    WIIOLK 

.1 .     Shape. 

1.  Proofs. 

a.     A  person  moving  north  or  south  sees  stars  rise  and  set  at  an 

e(|Ually  progressive  rate. 
I).     The  sun  rises  westward  at  the  same  rat(\ 
r.     Ships  sailing  with  ecpial  speed  disappear  in  all  directions  at 

the  same  rate. 
d.     The  shadow  of  the  earth  cast  upon  the  moon  during  a  lunai 

eclipse  is  always  circular. 

2.  Results. 

a.     The  pull  of  gravity  is  nearly  the  same  all  over  the  earth,  hence: 


A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE 


v">/ 


(1)  The  moving  of  weights  is  easy. 

(2)  The  atmosphere  at  sea  level  is  of  the  same  density. 
Most  men  are  adjusted  to  hving  under  such  a  density. 

(3)  The  earth  has  a  comparatively  level  surface,  hence: 
(a)     There  is  a  wide  distribution  of  organic  species. 
(6)     Communication  is  easy. 

h.     We  have  the  terms  ''up"  and  ''down." 

c.     The  curvature  of  the  earth  has  to  be  taken  into  account  in 
digging  canals. 

B.  Size  in  its  Relation  to  Man^s  Life. 

1.  Effect  upon  the  intercourse  of  savage  peoples. 

2.  Effect  of  railroads,  telegraph  lines,  etc.,  in  overcoming  size. 

a.     Free  exchange  of  products  and  irleas  between  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

C.  Spheres  of  the  Earth. 

1.  Atmosphere. 

2.  Hydrosphere. 

3.  Lithosphere. 

4.  Centrosphere. 

5.  Relation  of  spheres  in  space  and  comparative  mass  of  atmosphere, 

hydrosphere,  and  lithosphere. 

6.  Interpenetration   of  atmosphere,   hydrosphere,   and   lithosphere 

and  its  effect  in  furnishing  conditions  for  life. 

D.  The  Lan^s. 

1.  Arrangement  about  the  North  Pole. 

a.     Effect  of  massing  of  lands  in  the  northern  hemisphere  uj)()n 
the  distribution  of  heat. 

2.  North  and  south  projecting  arms. 

a.     Effect  upon  ocean  currents  and  distribution  of  heat. 

3.  Division  into  continents  and  islands. 

a.     Effect  upon  life  in  the  development  of  species. 
h.     General  triangular  shape  of  continents. 

c.  Size  of  continents  and  effect  upon  the  develoj)ment  of  life. 

d.  Formation  of  the  continents. 

(1)  Diastrophism. 
Effect  upon  the  surface, 

(2)  Vulcanism. 

Formation  of  igneous  rocks  and  surface  forms. 

(3)  Gradation. 

Formation   of   mantle   rock,  sedimentary   rock,  and   surface 
forms. 


58  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

E.     The  Oceans, 

1.  General  arrangement  and  comparative  size. 

2.  Relation  to  life. 

a.     Sources  of  food,  moisture,  and  means  of  cheap  communication. 
P\     Movements  of  the  Earth. 

1.  Rotation. 

a.     Proof  of  rotation. 

(1)  Deflection  of  falling  bodies. 

(2)  Foucault's  pendulum. 

(3)  Flattening  at  the  poles. 
6.     Results  of  rotation. 

(1)  Gives  a  unit  of  time — the  day. 

(2)  Directions — points  of  compass. 

(3)  Latitude  and  longitude. 

(4)  Standard  time. 

(5)  International  Date  Line. 

2.  Revolution. 

a.     Sun's  apparent  movement  among  the  stars. 
h.     The  year. 
G.     Distribution  of  Heat  on  the  Earth's  Surface. 

1.  Nature  of  heat. 

2.  Modes  of  transference. 

3.  Measuring  of  heat — thermometer. 

4.  Sources  of  heat. 
a.     Solar. 

h.     Terrestrial 

5.  Distribution  of  heat  due  to  slant  of  sun's  rays. 
a.     Distribution  as  observed  in  Chicago. 

(1)  Daily  distribution  as  shown  by  weather  records  kept  by 

pupils. 

(2)  Cause  of  daily  distribution. 

(a)  Comparison  of  angle  of  sun's  rays  received  in  the  morn- 
ing and  at  noon  (by  use  of  skiameter);  at  night. 

(6)  Comparison  of  amount  of  surface  covered  by  noon  and 
morning  rays.     (By  use  of  ski  meter.) 

(c)     Effect  of  rotation. 

(3)  Yearly  distribution  as  shown  by  change  of  seasons. 

(4)  Cause  of  yearly  distribution. 

(a)  North  and  south  apparent  movement  of  the  sun  and  its 
distance  from  our  zenith  at  different  seasons.  Effect 
upon  angle  of  sun's  rays. 


A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  59 


(6)     Varjang  length   of  clay.     Place   of  sunrise   and   sunset 
and  length  of  sun\s  path  at  the 
Winter  solstice. 
Summer  solstice. 
Equinoxes. 

b.  Distribution  on  the  earth  as  a  whole. 

(1)  Region  of  vertical  rays  and  greatest  heat. 

(2)  Region  of  oblique  rays. 

(8)     Cause  of  vertical  and  oblique  rays. 

(a)     Comparative  size  of  earth  and  sun  and  distance  between 

them. 
(6)     Practical  parallelism  of  all  rays  received  from  the  sun. 
(c)     Effect  of  curved  surface  of  the  earth  upon  the  angle 

which  rays  make  with  the  surface. 

(4)  Shifting  of  vertical  rays. 

(a)     Earth's  orbit,  shape,  distance  from  the  sun, 
(6)     Plane  of  the  orbit. 

(c)  Attitude  of  the  earth  as  regards  this  plane. 

(d)  Conditions  of  heat  and  light  if  axis  were  vertical  to  this 

plane. 

(e)  Amount  of  inclination  of  axis  necessary  to  carr>'  rays 

23i°  north  and  south  of  the  equator. 
(/)     Fixed  direction  of  North  Pole. 
(g)     Combined    effect    of    revolution,    and    inclination    and 

parallelism  of  axis. 

(5)  Location  of  vertical  rays  and  twilight  circle  at 

(1)  Winter  solstice. 

(2)  Summer  solstice. 

(3)  Equinoxes. 

(a)     Consequent  length  of  day  and  distribution  of  heat. 

c.  Location  and  definition  of  zones  of  insolation,  tropics,  polar 

circles. 

d.  Visualization  of  sun\s  position  at  noon  at  different  places  on 

the  earth's  surface  at 

(1)  Summer  solstice 

(2)  Winter  solstice. 

(3)  Equinoxes. 
6.     Winds. 

a.  Composition  and  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

b.  Measuring  pressure — barometer. 

c.  Changes  in  density  and  pressure. 


5o  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  February 

d     Movement  as  a  result  of  difference  of  pressure. 

e.     Direction  of  movement  from  high  to  low  pressure  areas. 

/.     General  circulation  of  the  atmosphere. 

(1)  Region  of  greatest  heat  on  earth *s  surface, 
(a)     Effect  upon  density  and  pressure  of  air. 

(2)  Formation  of 

(a)  Trades. 

(b)  Belt  of  equatorial  calms — doldrums. 

(c)  Antitrades 

(3)  Effect  of  rotation  of  the  earth, 
(a)     Deflection  of  air  currents. 
(6)     Circumpolar  whirl. 

(f)     Low  pressure  areas  at  the  poles. 

(d)  High  pressure  at  about  30°  north  and  south  latitudes. — 

Horse  latitudes. 

(e)  Westerlies. 

(4)  Effect  of  migration  of  vertical  rays. 
(a)     Shifting  of  wind  belts. 

(6)     Deflection  of  trade  winds  as  they  cross  the  geographical 
equator.     Terrestrial  monsoons. 
[/.     Effect  of  land  and  water  surface  on  general  circulation  due  to 

(1)  Unequal  heating  of  land  and  water, 
(a)     Continental  monsoons. 

(2)  Obstruction  of  land. 

h.     Effect  of  winds  upon  the  formation  of  ocean  currents. 
i.     Effect  of  winds  upon  the  distribution  of  heat 
/.     Summary  as  to  the  distribution  of  heat  on  earth^s  surface  by 
a  study  of  isothermal  charts. 
//.     RainfalL 

1.  Presence  of  moisture  in  the  air. 

a.  Relaticm  to  heat. 

b.  Relation  to  bodies  of  water. 

c.  Humidity. 

(1)     Measuring  amount  of, — hygrometer, 

2.  Conditions  causing  rainfall. 
a.     Chilling  of  the  air  due  to 

(1)  Ascending   currents  at   region   where   the  sun's   rays   are 

vertical — zenithal  rains 

(2)  Storms. 

(3)  Mountain  deflection 

(4)  Latitude. 


A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  6  I 


3.  Measuring  amount  of  rainfall. 

a.  Rain  gauge. 

b.  Average  annual  rainfall  of  Chicago. 

c.  Average  annual  rainfall  necessary  for  agriculture. 

4.  Distribution  through  the  year. 

a.  Relation  to  vegetation. 

b.  Relation  to  agriculture. 

5.  Rainfall  of  different  wind  belts. 

a.     Effect  of  highlands  upon  distribution. 
6.     Effect  of  cyclonic  storms. 

6.  Study  of  rainfall  map  and  summary  as  to  distribution  of  rainfall. 
Vegetation  Zonea. 

1.  Factors  essential  to  plant  growth. 

2.  Distribution  of  plants  in  Chicago  environment. 

a.  Typical  areas. 

(1)  Sand  dunes. 

(2)  Swamps. 

(3)  Prairies. 

(4)  River  valleys 

3.  Geographical  distribution  of  plants;  control  by  temperature. 
a     Heat  belts 

(1)  Polar  cold  caps  bounded  by  isotherm  of  50°  for  the  hottest 

month  which  marks  the  northern  limit  of  trees  and  most 
hardy  cereals. 

(2)  Hot  belt  bounded  by  the  annual  isotherm  of  68°  which 

marks  the  limits  of  palms. 

(3)  Temperate  belt. 

b.  Tundras  and  barren  lands  of  polar  cold  caps.     Characteristic 

plants  —  mosses,  ichens,  dwarf  birches,  stunted  berry-bear- 
ing bushes,  l)right  colored  flowers,  gentians,  anemones,  etc. 
Animal  life  and  people  studied  in  relation  to  the  environ- 
ment. 

c.  Distribution  of  vegetation  in  the  temperate  belt  in  relation  to 

moistures. 

(1)  Temperate  forests,  coniferous  and  tleciduous. 

(2)  Steppe  lands. 

(3)  Deserts. 

Influence  of  the  different  areas  upon  the  animal  life  and  upon 
man's  mode  of  life. 

d.  Distribution  of  vegetation  in  the  hot  belt  in  relation  to  mois- 

ture. 


62  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

(1)  Tropical  forests. 

(2)  Savannahs. 

(3)  Deserts. 

Influence  of  the  different  areas  upon  the  animal  life  and  upon 
man's  mode  of  life. 

III.       NORTH    AMERICA 

A.  Position  on  the  Globe. 

1.  Position  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 

2.  Position  in  relation  to  oceans  and  other  continents 

3.  Advantages    of    position    between    densely    peopled    regions   of 

Europe  and  Asia. 

B,  General  SLape  and  Size. 

1.     Advantage  of  wide  extent  in  temperate  belt. 
2      Advantages  of  extent  in  latitude. 
('.     Physical  Features. 

1.  Arrangement  of  highlands. 

2.  Comparison  of  highlands  as  to  extent,  height,  and  general  appear- 

ance. 

3.  Drainage  areas  as  formed  by  slopes  of  highlands. 

a.  Atlantic. 

b.  Great  Lakes. 

c.  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
cl.  Pacific. 

e.  (ir^at  Basin. 
/.  Hudson  Bay. 
g.     Arctic. 

4.  Lowlands  in  j)art  formed  from  debris  washed  down  from  high- 

lands. 
D.     Glaciation. 
I.     Valley  glaciers 

a.  Location, 

b.  Origin. 

c.  Movement. 

d.  Work. 

2      Continental  glaciers. 

a.  Present — Greenland    Antarctic. 

b.  Ancient — North  American  ice  sheet. 

(1)  Centers  of  ice  accunudation. 

(2)  Extent. 

(3)  Work  done  in  Canada  and  New  England. 


I904  A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  63 

(4)  Work  done  in  Northern  Mississippi  Basin  r^on. 

(5)  Origin    of   Chicago    plain,    topographic    features     and    iis 

influence  upon  the  grrowth  of  a  great  city. 
E.     Climate. 

1.  Winds.  -1 
a.     Part  of  continent  in  each  beh. 

h.     Effect  of  seasonal  shifting  of  belts 

2.  Temperature. 

a.     Part  of  continent  in  different  heat  l)elts 

6.     Effect  of  winds  and  ocean  currents  on  east  and  west  coasts. 

c.     Comparison  of  interior  with  coasts. 

3.  Rainfall. 

a.  Distribution  in  relation  to  highlands. 

b.  Effect  of  cyclonic  storms. 

c.  Influence  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
V,     Life. 

1.  Part  of  continent  in  different  vegetation  zones. 

2.  Influence  of  the  above  distribution  upon  the  industrial  life  of 

the  continent. 

IV.       PHYSIOCIRAPHK^    RKGIONS    OF   THK    IXITKD    STATES 

Lake  and  Prairie  Plains. 

New  England  Upland. 

Atlantic  Coastal  Plain. 

Piedmont  Belt. 

Appalachian  Ranges. 

Allegheny  Plateaus. 

Gulf  Coastal  Plain. 

Alluvial  Plain  of  the  lower  Mississippi. 

Ozark  Mountains. 

Great  Plains. 

Rocky  Mountains. 

Columbia  Plateau. 

Colorado  Plateau. 

Basin  Ranges. 

Pacific  Mountains  and  Valleys. 

Note: — The  lake  and  prairie  plains  are  first  studied  because  the 
students  are  within  this  environment  Next,  the  New  P]ngland  plateaus 
are  studied  as  a  contrasted  glaciated  area.  Each  region  is  studied 
according  to  the  general  plan  outlined  below^  for  the  lake  and  prairie 
plains. 


64  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

A. .  Lake  Plains  and  Prairie  Plains;  the  Northern  Glaciated  Part. 
1.     Location  and  extent. 
*      Characteristic  features. 

a      Level  or  undulating  surface.     Low  hills  of  glacial  origin. 

b.  Drained  and  terraced  lake  beds. 

c.  Young  valleys,  falls    akes 
(/.     Glacial  soils. 

3.  Climate 

a.     Great  range  of  temperature. 

h.     Length  of  growing  season  from  four  to  six  months. 

c.     Rainfall  from  twenty  to  forty  inches. 

4.  Industrial  regions. 
Forest  areas. 
Wheat  region. 
Corn  belt. 

Iron  region. 

Coal  regions. 
a.     Location  and  extent  of  each. 
b      General  characteristics  of  the  industry. 

c.  Amount  and  value  of  the  products. 

d.  xMarkets. 

/'      Allied  industries. 

/.     Amount  and  value  of  indiistries  as  to  states. 

5.  Imj)ortant  centers. 

6.  Trade  routes. 
Great  Lakes. 
Mississi])pi  River. 
Railroads. 

V.       POLITICAL    DIVISION^ 

Organization  of  the  wliole  as  seen  throuirh  study  of  the  political 
divisions. 

XoTi::  — Each  jaipil  is  recjuired  to  make  a  sand  model  and  a  chalk 
modeled  relief  map  of  tlu^  whole  contin(»nt  and  of  the  different  physio- 
graphic regions 

No  one  text-book  is  us(m1  for  students  are  referrcul  to  different  texts 
found  in  the  libraiy  and  in  the  geogra])hy  room. 

During  the  study  of  the  earth  as  a  wliole  weather  records  are  kej)! 
and  regular  observations  of  the  sun's  position  made 

(  7"  /'/'  rtnt-hnhd.) 


1904  MAP  MAKING  AND  MAP  READING  65 

MAP  MAKING  AND  MAP   READING 

BY   ROBERT   MARSHALL    BROWN 
Of  the  Stale  Normal  ScfuxU,  Worcester,  Massachusetts 

INTRODUCTION 

IT  was  the  privilege  of  the  writer,  during  the  past  summer,  to  conduct 
a  number  of  field  excursions  in  geography  with  North  Carolina 
teachers.  At  the  outset,  many  of  the  teachers  expressed  the  desire 
to  undertake  map  making  out  of  doors.  Every  one  of  the  teachers  had 
followed,  to  the  best  of  her  ability,  the  directions  which  her  own  school 
text-book  and  the  supplementary  books  had  yielded  for  mapping  the 
schoolroom  or  school  yard.  They  were  not  sure,  however,  that  the 
result  of  their  conscientious  endeavors  was  the  desirable  one,  nor 
were  they  sure  why  the  books  were  insistent  upon  this  exercise.  Fur- 
thermore they  were  not  certain  when  this  work  was  done  that  any  more 
in  this  line  was  demanded  of  them.  They  were  not  on  familiar  ground. 
A  similar  uncertainty  exists  among  teachers  generally,  for  nearly  all  are  in 
doubt  as  to  the  advisability  of  even  trying  map  drawing  in  school  work. 
The  present  condition  is,  in  part,  the  result  of  lack  of  clearness  and 
completeness  in  the  statement  of  what  is  desired,  and  is  a  good  illus- 
tration of  the  unfortunate  period  which  often  follows  the  promulgation 
of  new  ideas,  between  the  time  of  a  teacher's  schooHng  and  her  assum- 
ing a  teacher's  responsibilities,  when  the  medium  for  the  transmission 
of  the  ideal  of  reform  does  not  adequately  enlighten.  The  best  thing 
concerning  map  drawing  has  not  been  said.  Along  many  lines  of  map 
work  there  are  differences  of  opinion,  and  hence  it  is  not  strange  that 
the  teacher  hesitates.  The  present  article  is  not  written  to  cover  the 
whole  field  of  map  exercises,  but  to  present  certain  helpful  points  in 
reference  to  a  few  fundamentals.  The  writer  assumes  the  responsibil- 
ity of  no  new  ideal,  but  insists  on  a  more  careful  plan  and  longer  training 
in  order  to  reahze  as  far  as  possible  the  old.  Its  specific  aim  is  to  aid 
a  number  of  teachers  who  have  in  times  past  sought  aid,  and  it  has 
been  submitted  for  pubHcation  only  in  the  belief  that  there  is  a  general 
desire  for  help  in  this  direction.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  divide 
the  work  according  to  the  demands  of  the  grades,  but  all  of  the  sugges- 
tions are  applicable  to  the  work  of  the  elementary  schools. 

FIRST   STEPS 

The  first  duty  of  a  teacher  is  to  lead  the  pupils  to  reahze  that  the 
map  is  a  reproduction,  to  scale,  of  a  portion  of  the  earth.     This  is 


56  I'HE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Pebruarj 

not  altogether  a  simple  ta-^k.  The  present -clay  judgment  concerning 
the  best  niethocl  by  which  this  idea  may  be  inculcatetl  finds  its  expression 
in  the  rlirections  for  map  drawing  in  most  elementan-  books  on  geog- 
raphy. The  stei)s  are  throe — repro<luction.  reproduction  to  scale,  and 
an  orienterl  reproduction  to  scale.  The  first  introduces  the  child  to 
symbols  and  may  easily  represent  a  lesson  in  drawing.  A  verj'  crude 
rectangle,  as  a  sign  for  the  schoolroom,  is  the  temporary  goal.  The 
second  has  for  its  object  the  sense  of  proportion.  The  third  combines 
the  sense  of  direction  and  location.  Finishetl  work  cannot  be  expected 
during  this  stage,  but-  the  essentials  should  be  strongly  emphasized. 
Here  may  l>e  ingrained  neatness  and  care  without  which  no  success 
in  map  work  may  l>e  attained.  A  ver>'  poor  drawing  in  the  elementary 
stage  may  be  made  with  neatness  and  care. 

sr.vLK 

Passing  over  the  elementary  drill  on  the  scale  which  is  well  discussed 
in  many  books,  let  us  turn  to  another  phase  of  the  subject.  Ever}' 
map  made  by  the  pupils  should  have  a  scale  appended.  As  a  map  of 
a  locality,  it  is  imperfect  without  one.  Some  maps  used  in  the  schools, 
such  as  the  .Mercator  projections,  because  of  an  increase  in  the  scale 
with  an  increase  in  latitud(\  do  not  lend  themselves  readily  to  an 
expression  of  distance  or  siz(».  The  scale  may  be  stated  in  two  ways, 
either  by  the  numbcT  of  f(M*t  or  miles  represented  by  one  inch  of  the 
reproduction,  ttr  by  stating  the  fractional  part  the  reproduction  is  to 
the  area  itself.  The  former  is  th(»  common  method  in  school  atlases 
tonlay.  and  the  scale  is  often  expn'ssed  by  a  line  segmented  to  the  proper 
lengths.  The  latter  is  the  method  used  by  government  surveys.  The 
topographic  maps  of  tin*  I'nited  States  Geological  Survey,  for  instance, 
have  their  scale  expressed  as  ,;oJrMi»  t2:.Vmhm  ^'^c.  The  interpretation  is 
simple.  One  inch,  foot,  or  metre  on  the  map  is  e(|uivalent  to  62,500 
inches,  feet,  or  metn^s  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  It  expresses  at  once 
a  ratio  between  the  reproduction  and  the  actual.  It  has  a  value  beyond 
its  simplicity.  It  is  expressed  in  a  universal  language.  The  unit  of 
iiK^asurenient  may  i)e  difTerent  as  it  is  in  the  various  nations,  the  lan- 
guage may  Ik*  a  strange*  on(\,  but  the  fraction  stating  the  scale  of  a 
map  allows  but  on<*  interpretation. 

In  mapping  a  school  yard,  using  the  pace  as  a  unit  of  measurement, 
the  scales  of  the  maps  of  twenty  j)upils  would  tend  to  confuse 
rather  than  enlighten,  and  the  teacher  who  has  to  correct  the  repro- 
ductions has  no  basis  for  comparison.  In  pacing,  the  pupil  should 
be  taught  to  walk  naturally.     To  try  to  lengthen  the  step  to  a  yard 


-^  MAP  MAKING  AND  MAP  READING  6'^ 

is  wearisome,  often  impossible  for  children,  and  certainly  ungainly; 
and  in  much  such  pacing  the  steps  are  unconsciously  shortened.  Each 
pupil  may  ascertain  the  length  of  his  natural  step  by  walking  over  a 
measured  distance  a  number  of  times  and  dividing  the  number  of  steps 
taken  into  the  entire  distance.  This  will  serve  as  a  unit  of  measure- 
ment for  all  out-of-door  mapping.  The  transformation  to  the  fractional 
scale  is  not  difficult  and  may  serve  as  a  lesson  during  the  mathematics 
period.  It  seems  best  to  urge  the  use  of  this  scale  on  all  maps  con- 
structed by  the  pupils. 

COMPASS 

The  reproduced  school  yard  is  not  complete  without  a  symbol  for 
orientation.  The  ordinary  one  in  use  is  an  arrow  pointing  towards  the 
geographical  pole.  It  is  possible  that  the  meridian  line  has  been  found 
by  the  sun.  and  a  mark  on  the  ground,  or  a  chalk  line  on  the  bricks, 
exists  as  the  class's  determination  of  the  north  and  south  line.  The 
introduction  of  the  compass,  in  its  proper  time,  on  this  line,  will  show 
the  deviation  l)etween  the  geographical  and  magnetic  meridians,  and 
a  second  line  across  the  first,  parallel  with  the  compass  needle,  will 
mark  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  pole.  In  the  corner  of  the  map 
may  then  be  added,  pointing  in  the  proper  directioas,  these  two  lines. 

When  the  pupils  are  fairly  sure  of  the  meaning  of  orientation,  a 
useful  exercise  may  be  given  by  j)assing  out  papers  with  the  compass 
indicated  and  allow  them  to  draw  the  map  of  the  yard.  On  the  ordi- 
nary' atlas  maps,  meridians  serve  the  office  of  the  needle.  The  trans- 
formation from  reading  a  map  with  a  compass  to  reading  a  map  with 
projected  meridians  has  been  slighted.  The  idea  that  up  on  the  map 
is  north,  and  right  is  east,  introduces  an  error  from  which  even  the 
teachers  of  geography  are  not  free.  Pupils  are  not  corrected  for  ignor- 
ing the  meridian  lines  of  a  map.  Many  pupils  are  not  taught  to  see 
them.  Without  the  meridians,  what  is  below  is  south.  A  distorted 
idea  is  thus  gained.  Take  the  map  of  North  America,  and,  without 
consultation,  let  the  teacher  state  for  herself,  or  allow  the  pupils  to  tell, 
what  city  in  the  United  States  lies  almost  north  of  Havana.  Few 
pupils  are  loath  to  name  a  city  west  of  Albany,  and  in  a  gathering  of 
half  a  dozen  teachers,  one  with  hesitation  answered  Buffalo.  A  few 
problems  of  this  nature  will  show  how  es.sential  is  an  emphasis  on  the 
meridian  lines  of  a  map,  esj)ecially  far  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  cen- 
trally-projected meridian.  This  difference  l)etween  a  map  with  a 
compass  symbol  and  some  meridian-marked  maps  should  be  fixed  upon 
the  attention  as  early  as  possible. 


68  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Febrnary 


SYMBOLS 

Map  reading  is  an  interpretation  of  symbols.  From  the  very 
beginning  of  geography,  the  introduction  of  symbols  is  proper.  "Con- 
ventionalization and  symbolization  seem  to  be  an  inborn  trait  of  the 
human  family/'  * 

The  first  maps  should  be  the  means  of  introducing  a  few  symbols. 
No  generally  accepted  list  of  symbols  for  use  is  published.  Text-books 
vary  somewhat  in  the  points,  emphasized  slightly  up  to  this  time. 
The  topographic  maps  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  may 
be  taken  for  a  standard.  At  some  time  in  the  grade  a  familiarity 
with  these  maps  is  advisable,  for  the  legend  is  simple  and  easy.  There 
seems  to  be  no  argument  against  the  use  of  a  few  of  their  conventional 
signs.  In  a  district  map,  where  roads,  bridges,  brooks,  and  buildings 
are  used  and  plotted,  some  legend  is  demanded;  the  one  that  is  to  be 
used  later,  if  within  the  comprehension  of  the  pupil,  is  the  proper  one. 

Writing  on  the  maps  sliould  not  be  encouraged  when  the  symbol  is 
definite.  The  writing  of  ''street''  on  the  symbol  for  the  same,  "river" 
on  its  symbol,  defeats  the  use  of  the  sign  language.  If  the  sign  is  there, 
the  word  is  superfluous.  As  long  as  a  universal  sign  language  for  maps 
has  not  been  accepted,  a  legend  must  be  appended  to  every  exercise. 
Some  (elementary  books  use  as  a  sj-mbol  for  'Hree'*  a  printed  outline 
of  a  tree.  Two  objections  may  be  raised  to  such  kinds  of  symbols. 
In  the  first  place  the  printed  outline  takes  more  room  than  the  space 
marked  out  for  the  tree  according  to  the  scale  of  the  map,  and  again 
it  will  not  b(»  easy  to  persuade  the  child  that  it  is  a  symbol,  not  a  picture; 
that  the  house  cannot  be  pictured  by  its  outline,  a  bridge  by  the  same 
method;  that  a  stone  wall  or  a  fence  cannot  be  introduced  in  a  similar 
way;  that  a  pictorial  j)lan  is  not  a  map. 

Water  and  culture  lines  should  be  started  early  in  the  work.  As 
soon  as  possible  the  relief  lines  should  be  begun.  Reading  relief  from 
contour  lines  is  a  liahit  to  be  cultivated. 

CROSS-SKCTION 

The  t()[)ographic  maps  are  superior  to  most  maps  in  ordinary  use. 
The  maps  are  contoured  for  every  20,  50.  or  100  feet  of  vertical  height. 
The  idea  of  contour  lines  is  best  obtained  from  a  field  exercise.  If 
a  locality  is  selected  in  which  a  liill  rises  sharj)ly  from  a  level  base,  the 
problem  may  be  easily  exj)ounded.  The  base  will  be  the  zero  line. 
For  every  foot  of  height,  if  the  hill  be  low,  a  pebble  may  be  placed  on 
the  slope.     A  line  of  pe])bles  around  the  hill  will  mark,  then,  the  foot 

*  Kedway,  Xcw  Basis  of  Geogrnphi/f  page  139. 


MAP  MAKING  AND  MAP  READING 


69 


contour  line.  In  mapping,  plot  the  pebble  lines  as  one  would  were 
they  roads.  While  still  in  the  field,  a  cross-section  may  be  started. 
Standing  to  one  side  where  a  view  of  the  hill,  sharply  outlined,  may 
be  had,  sketch  the  outline.  Then,  by  pacing,  make  the  outline  to  scale. 
The  steps  to  the  drawing  of  a  cross-section  of  one  or  two  portions  of  a 
topographic  map  are  then  simple.  A  little  of  such  work  should  be 
done;  a  great  deal  is  a  waste  of  time. 

Cross-sections  should  always  be  drawn  with  the  vertical  scale  and 
horizontal  scales  alike.  The  transposition  of  a  1500-foot  contour 
to  the  scale  of  ^^iirir  should  be  practiced  until  it  is  made  easily.  One 
or  two  well-selected  cross-sections  will  fix  the  insignificance  of  the 
irregularities  of  the  earth.  A  section  of  the  ocean  depths  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon  to  Libreville  in  the  French  Congo,  along  the 
equator,  is  an  excellent  choice.  The  distance  is  approximately  60® 
of  arc.  With  a  12-foot  radius  the  irregularities  of  the  ocean  floor  do 
not  appear.  The  width  of  the  thinnest  line  is  then  too  wide  to  show 
the  ocean  depth. 

A    FEW   ILLUSTRATIONS 

For  a  first  exercise  in  mapping — the  preliminary  consideration  of 
scale  being  understood — the  remnant  of  a  hill  was  used.  The  locality 
was  selected  because  the  slope  was  prominent.  The  emphasis  of  the 
exercise  was  placed  on  compass  readings  and  contour  lines.  Four 
points.  A,  By  Cy  and  D  (Figure  1),  were  selected  as  the  corners  of 
the  area. 


Fio.  I.    Map  and  cross-section  of  a  hill.    Scale,  ^^oo- 


•  Contour  lines;  interval  three  feet. 


70 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Februmry 


The  data,  obtained  by  the  pupils,  were  as  follows: 
From  .4     C  is  N  S0°  W.     53  paces. 

B  is  N  20°  W.     53  paces. 

SK  base  of  hill  is  X  GO''  W.     34  paces. 

\K  base  of  hill  is  N  45°  W.  36  paces. 
From  D    ^  is  N  70°  E.     36  paces. 

('  is  due  S.     28  paces. 

NW  base  of  hill  is  S  70°  E.     17  paces. 

SW  base  of  hill  is  S  15°  E.     20  paces. 


•  I         ^,8         I 


Vu:. 


Miif>  kJuJ  cross  sections  oj  brook.     Scnlc  oi  map.  V'ioti.     Scale  of  section.  I'lo- 
R  riKk'      P  B   park  hruit^c. 


Slalions  li  and  ('  are  used  to  check  the  above  readings.  The 
contour  linos  may  then  hv  plotted  from  the  stations  at  the  base  of  the 
hill.  The  height  is  an  average  estimation,  and  the  horizontal  distances 
between  the  contours  are  determined  in  the  same  way.  A  cross-section 
is  then  added. 

Another  exercise,  I'igure  2,  was  undertaken  along  a  neighboring 
l)r()()k.  All  distances  along  the  brook  were  paced.  All  measurements 
of  the  width  and  depth  of  the  brook  were  measured  accurately. 


1904  MAP  MAKING  AND  MAP  READING  7' 

Data: 

From  Bridge  (P.  B.)  brook  runs  8  12°  W.     19  paces  to  Bend  A. 
From  Bend  A  brook  runs  S  15°  E.     45  paces  to  Bend  B. 
From  Bend  B  brook  runs  S  20°  W.     12  paces  to  Bend  C. 
From  Bend  C  brook  runs  S  20°  E,  and  on. 

1.  Cross-section  in  straight  reach  between  A  and  By  depth  expressed 
in  cm.,  readings  ever>^  10  cm.  from  west  to  east. 

0  1.4         3.6         3.5         3         2         2.8         2.5         1         0 

Current  swift. 

2.  Same  at  Bend  C 

5      (rock)      9         8.7         5.3         4.4'        3.6         2.9         1.2         0 

3.  Same  in  straight  reach  between  B  and  C. 

0     5.8     7.8      10.4      11.5      12.4     12.2      10.5     9.5     7     4.9     0 
Current  sk)w. 

4.  Same  at  Bend  B. 

2.  2.5  8.6   11.5   14.3   16   12.8  (rock)   26  25  19.9  {undercutting) 

A  third  exercise,  Figure  3,  was  conducted  ak)ng  a  strip  of  coast. 

Data: 

From  .4  (rock)  beach  runs  X  12°  Iv 

Beach  runs  S  20°  K  to  S  70  paces. 

From  S  to  B  (rock)  line  runs  S  45°  W.     107  paces. 

From  B  to  T     E.     57  paces. 

From  T  to  C  (rock)   S.     30  paces. 

From  ('  rock  extends  west  13  paces. 

From  C  shore  runs  K  to  /)  (rock)  and  on. 

In  this  exercise,  as  in  the  others,  the  data  were  supplemented  by 
rough  sketches  and  some  attempt  was  made  to  incorporate  into  the 
maps  the  ideas  expressed  in  the  free-hand  outline.  Thus  the  slight 
irregularities  in  the  curved  coast  line  between  A  and  B  were  observed 
and  mapped. 

IXFKRKNC'KS    FROM    KXKRCISKS 

The  journey  to  the  brook  opened  a  number  of  interesting  problems. 
These  may  be  considered  in  papers  presented  by  the  pupils.  It  is 
very  evident  that  in  the  bends  of  the  stream  one  kind  of  cross-section 
obtains,  while  in  the  straight  reaches  the  section  was  of  a  different 
type.  Notes  were  made  concerning  the  swiftest  part  of  the  current 
in  each  .section;  that  this  swiftest  line  of  flow  crossed  the  channel  was 
among  the  conclusions.  That  is  hardly  a  safe  principle  that  would 
apply  all  the  results  of  an  investigation  of  150  feet  of  a  single  stream 
to  all  streams.     It  is  better  to  leave  a  few  problems  unsettled  until 


72 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


February 


further  investigation  and  observation  allow  a  definite  answer.  Thus, 
from  the  stream  measurement,  it  seems  to  be  a  natural  deduction  that 
the  swifter  parts  of  brooks  have  a  shallower  flow  of  water  than  the 


h  A  n  B  c  n 


Fig.  3      Map  of  coast-lhw.     ScaUr,  Vizsn.     R  rock. 

slower  portions.  Some  problems  will  be  presented  that  can  not  be 
solved,  either  because  of  lack  of  time  or  because  of  insufficient  data. 
It  may  be  convenient  to  some  members  of  the  class  to  investigate  the 
brook  further  and  to  present  a  more  comprehensive  report  on  one  or 
more  problems.  At  least  it  is  well  to  leave  the  exercise  in  such  a  way 
that,  either  as  an  investigator  of  the  physics  of  rivers,  or  as  a  casual 
observer,  the  pupil  may  approach  a  stream,  not  in  the  beUef  that  all  its 
ways  are  known,  but  with  the  inspiration  from  knowing  something 
of  its  history,  and  the  enthusiasm  which  the  hope  of  discovery  begets. 
The  conclusion  from  the  shore  map  should  be  treated  in  a  similar 
manner.  A  reserve  of  judgment  is  advised.  In  regard  to  the  location 
studied,  let  the  statements  be  definite.  At  the  Fort  (Figure  3),  the 
salients  are  rocks,  and  between  them  the  beaches  are  cur\'ed.  That 
all  salients  are  rocks  might  be  a  next  step.  Between  A  and  B  bunches 
of  shore  grass  catch  the  sand  and  cause  slight  irregularities  in  the 
curve  of  this  beach.  The  case  is  so  evident  in  the  field  that  it  is 
remarked  upon  by  a  pupil.  Perhaps,  then,  some  other  things  besides 
rocks  mark  the  sahents  of  a  coast.     An  island  in  the  harbor,  showing 


1904 


MAP  MAKING   AND  MAP   READING 


73 


the  white  line  of  a  sand  spit,  reenforces  the  statement.  At  a  later 
period  these  may  enter  the  discussion  and  be  investigated.  For  the 
present  we  know  that  rocks  form  salients,  and  are  one  cause  at  least 
for  the  irregularities  of  coast  lines. 

MAP    DRAWING 

Before  map  reading  is  perfected,  a  conception  of  the  error  of  the 
maps  in  constant  use  is  necessary.  It  has  been  the  general  printed 
opinion  that  exercises  in  map  projections,  although  ideally  a  desirable 
part  of  a  child^s  knowledge,  are  best  not  considered  in  the  grades. 
There  are  many  things  in  projections  that  mature  minds  only  can 
grasp;  at  the  same  time  there  are  some  elementary  considerations 
in  the  subject  which  should  be  properly  delegated  to  the  geography 
teaching  in  the  schools  below  the  vSecondary.  The  study  of  a  globe 
follows  naturally  the  construction  of  the  maps  of  limited  areas.  The 
child  may  believe,  as  the  human  race  did  in  its  infancy,  that  the  earth 
is  flat.  The  introduction  to  a  spherical  earth  at  this  time  repeats  the 
race  history.  At  some  later  time  in  the  grades  the  spherical  maps  and 
the  flat  maps  must  be  considered  in  comparison.  There  is  no  better 
way  than  to  have  the  child  construct  two  or  three  types. 

A  Mercator  map  is  not  beyond  the  child's  comprehension.  With 
little  difficulty,  a  figure,  like  Figure  4,  may  be  made.     The  pupils  should 


<o                                Vo                                  0                                 'io                                  'Ho 

.  / 

1 

-Hi 

30 

'5 
0 

45 

0 

"A 

^0                                        'fo                                           0                                          Ho                                       1% 

Fig. 


Construction  of  Mercator  Projection. 

have  the  small  hand  globes.  If  the  diameter,  AB,  is  made  equivalent 
to  the  diameter  of  the  globe,  the  later  comparisons  are  more  obvious. 
The  equator  of  the  map  should  equal  in  length  the  circumference  of 
the  globe.     When  the  diagram  is  made  the  map  may  be  begun.     It 


74  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

is  not  neccssarj'  to  complete  the  whole  map  of  the  world,  but  enough 
of  it  must  be  undertaken  to  show  the  distortion.  It  may  be  advisable 
to  plot  points  only,  as  Caj)e  Farewell  and  Christiania  on  the  60th 
parallel.  Compare  the  plotted  distance  with  the  true.  In  like  manner 
take  locations  nearer  the  equator.  Then  the  latitudinal  distortion 
may  be  proved  in  a  similar  manner,  or  a  teacher  may  consider  it  wise 
to  construct  a  map  of  North  America  after  having  plotted  thirty  or 
forty  points  around  its  coast.  Here  may  be  emphasized  at  the  same 
time  the  preliminary  steps  of  great  circle  directions.  An  investigation 
of  the  shortest  distance  between  Mt.  McKinley,  Alaska,  and  St.  Peters- 
burg, on  the  globe,  and  on  the  Mercator  projection,  will  easily  show 
that  the  latitudinal  direction  is  not  the  desirable  one  in  point  of  distance. 

Constructions  of  other  projections  woidd  consume  too  nuich  time. 
If,  however,  blank  outhnes  of  one  or  two  projections  in  common  use 
be  furnished  the  pupil,  a  similar  use  may  ])e  made  of  them.  It  is  advis- 
able to  have  the  circumference  of  the  globe  and  the  circumference  of 
the  projection  alike  at  first,  as  direct  comparisons  may  then  be  made 
without  the  confusion  of  a  change  of  scale. 

The  plotting  of  points  from  a  globe  is  beneficial,  furthermore,  because 
the  pupil  must  say  to  himself  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  localities 
plotted,  a  thing  that  map  copying  does  not  make  necessar\'. 

MAP    R HADING 

''Teaching  words  before  ideas  has  the  same  effect  as  teaching  a 
map  without  associating  it  with  that  which  it  re])resents.  The  problem 
of  how  to  lead  children  to  use  maps  properly,  that  is,  to  make  a  map  a 
means  of  developing  thought  power,  is  an  exceedingly  serious  and 
important  one.  All  directions  and  suggestions,  therefore,  should  tend 
toward  this  one  ])urpose."     So  said  Francis  W.  Parker.* 

Stress  has  been  laid,  uj)  to  this  time,  on  the  constniction  of  maps; 
not,  however,  as  an  end  in  itself,  but  as  a  means  of  acquiring  some  of 
the  habits  of  map  reading.  If,  in  its  proper  time,  there  should  be  added 
to  this  foundat'on  the  knowledge  of  the  wind  belts  and  the  ocean 
currents  of  the  earth,  a  great  deal  of  the  text  of  a  geography  may  be 
discov(»rod  ])y  the  pupil.  In  order  that  this  work  may  be  carried  on 
safely,  the  l)est  ma])s  should  be  employed.  A  more  intelligent  under- 
standing of  geograj)hic  relationships  may  be  attained  from  an  increasing 
use  of  (juestions  demanding  judgment  and  reason.  Further  expansion  of 
this  would  only  repeat  what  has  already  been  printed  in  this  JouRNAL.f 

*  How  to  Study  Geography,  page  92. 

t  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  I,  "The  Use  of  Maps  in  the  Teaching  of  Geography," 
page  97,  1903. 


TEACHING  CHANGE  OF  SEASONS 


75 


INDUCTIVE  METHOD  OF  TEACHING 
CHANGE  OF  SEASONS 

BY    R.    S.    HOLWAY 
Of  the   Vniveraity  of  California 

CAN  grammar  school  pupils  determine  the  causes  of  the  chano:e 
of  seasons  by  their  own  observations  and  by  experimental  study 
of  possible  solar  systems?  Several  years'  trial  with  students 
in  secondary-  schools  has  entirely  convinced  me  that  for  them  this  method 
of  studying  change  of  seasons  is  thoroughly  practicable  and  satisfac- 
tory. Recently  I  have  had  a  senior  in  the  University  of  California  tr>' 
the  plan  mi  her  practice  teaching  in  an  eighth  grade  class  under  the 
usual  public  school  conditions  Apparently  these  children  master 
the  main  ideas  as  readily  as  do  adult  students.  While  the  work  was 
not  carried  so  far  as  it  would  be  with  older  students,  the  account  below 


Fig.  I 


uill  show%  I  think,  that  this  eighth  grade  learned  more  and  reasoned 
more  than  the  average  grammar  school  student  does  by  studying  the 
text. 

I  will  present  the  work  substantially  in  the  order  that  it  was  given, 
and  the  headings  of  the  paragraphs  will  constitute  an  outline  of  the 
lessons. 

Observation  of  a  shadow  cast  by  the  sun  at  noon.  Heginning  the  first 
part  of  September  a  peg  was  fastened  in  the  sill  of  one  of  the  south 
windows  and  the  point  of  the  shadow  of  this  peg  at  noon  was  marked 
on  the  floor  below.  (See  Fig.  1.)  The  window  was  raised  to  get  clearer 
sunshine.  Various  predictions  were  made  by  the  children  in  answer 
to  a  question  as  to  w^hether  the  point  of  the  shadow  woukl  come  to  the 
same  point  on  the  floor  the  next  day  at  noon.     As  they  watched  the 


76  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

marked  lengthening  of  the  shadow  during  the  week  following,  many  of 
the  class  expressed  great  surprise. 

In  response  to  questions  they  answered  readily  that  the  sun  must  be 
getting  lower  in  the  sky  each  noon  to  produce  a  longer  shadow.  They 
also  assigned  this  as  a  probable  cause  of  the  winter's  cold. 

Space  covered  on  different  parts  of  a  sphere  by  the  same  beam  of  sun- 
shine. Through  a  hole  in  a  piece  of  cardboard  sunshine  was  allowed 
to  fall  on  the  surface  of  a  g  obe  and  the  var^'ing  area  covered  was  noted. 
The  deduction  is  easily  made  that  the  heating  effect  of  sunshine  is  greater 
the  nearer  the  rays  come  to  being  perpendicular  to  the  surface. 

What  the  gyroscope  teaches  about  rotatimj  bodies.  The  gyroscope 
shown  in  the  figure  was  made  by  mounting  a  six-inch  sewing  machine 
wheel  on  ball  bearings  in  the  fork  of  an  old  bicycle.  (See  Fig.  2.)  With  a 
stout  string  one  can  spin  it  so  fast  that  it  will  nui  for  nearly  five  minutes. 
The  great  advantage  that  this  gyroscope  has  over  the  one  commonly 


FiQ.  2.     Home-made  gyroscope 

sold  to  high  schools  are  its  simplicity,  the  ball  bearings,  and  the  greater 
weight.  Taking  it  in  the  hand  when  the  wheel  is  rotating  rapidly  one 
feels  a  wonderfully  strong  resistance  when  an  attempt  is  made  to 
change  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  ichirling  wheel.  It  may  be  carried 
around  the  room  without  feeling  this  resistance,  if  the  axis  is  kept 
parallel  to  its  first  |)osition.  This  experience  enables  the  children  really 
to  appreciate  the  ])rimary  fact  luiderlying  the  change  of  seasons,  namely 
that  the  earth  l)ecause  it  is  a  whirling  body  keeps  its  axis  constantly  in 
the  same  direction.  The  gyroscope  can  also  be  suspended  by  a  cord 
and  carried  around  in  a  circular  orbit.  If  proj)erly  balanced,  it  will 
twist  its  supporting  cord  and  keep  its  axis  constant  in  direction.  The 
children  easily  ])erceive  the  i)oint  of  the  experiment  and  a  little  ques- 
tioning will  lead  them  so  to  phrase  their  ideas  that  they  will  be  avail- 
able in  future  work. 

Description  of  a  planet  irith  its  axis  perpendicular  0  the  plan^*  of  its 
orbii.  All  the  children  were  familiar  with  the  idea  of  an  earth  going 
around  a  sun  and  so  tliev  were  asked  to  carr\'  an  earth  with  a  vertical 


I904  TEACHING  CHANGE  OF   SEASONS  77 

axis  around  a  sun — a  circular  orbit  being  used.  They  at  once  located 
vertical  sunshine  at  the  equator  of  such  an  earth  and  saw  that  it  would 
be  constantly  on  that  line.  Day  and  night  were  correctly  explained 
but  with  little  interest — the  problem  having  evidently  been  long  solved 
The  elevation  of  the  sun  at  noon  for  a  man  at  different  latitudes  requires 
some  drill,  especially  as  to  the  meaning  of  horizon.  A  card  held  on 
the  globe  at  the  equator  and  slid  toward  the  pole  is  a  great  help.  They 
finally  saw  (Fig.  3)  that  a  man  going  north  30°  from  the  equator  would 
tip  his  horizon  30°  and  that  hence  the  sun  that 's  90°  high  at  the  equator 
is  only  60°  high  in  lat.  30°.  The  teacher  must  remember  here  in  draw- 
ing any  diagram  that  the  sun  is  not  close  at  hand,  as  in  the  concrete 
illustration,  but  at  such  a  great  distance  that  its  rays  are  sensibly  parallel. 
The  children  must  be  led  to  see  that  this  man  has  no  change  in  noon 
elevation  of  the  sun  and  hence  no  change  of  seasons  during  the  year. 

Does  our  earth  have  its  axis  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orhitf 
The  children  were  next  told  that  they  were  to  answer  a  question  about 
our  own  earth  entirely  from  their  own  observations.  The  statement  of 
the  question  above  brought  a  look  of  surprise  that  they  could  be  ex- 
pected to  know  anything  about  our  big  earth  without  the  help  of  books. 
But  in  a  few  seconds  one  could  see  the  flash  of  intelligence  come  first  in 
one  face  and  then  in  another,  until  soon  the  majority  of  the  class  were 
wildly  eager  to  answer.  They  referred  to  the  varying  length  of  the 
noon  shadow  and  said  they  knew  our  earth  could  not  have  its  axis 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit.  In  the  class  this  fall  this  part 
of  the  work  was  particularly  enjoyable,  for  one  boy  had  but  recent V 
remarked  that  ^'only  the  wise  men"  could  study  out  such  things  as  the 
text-book  tells  about  the  change  of  seasons. 

Description  of  an  earth  with  its  axis  tipped.  A  globe  rotating  on  an 
axis  inclined  10°  from  the  perpendicular  was  next  assigned  to  be  carried 
around  a  central  sun.  It  is  well  to  have  the  sun  in  the  center  of  the 
room  and  to  use  a  large  orbit.  Here,  of  course,  some  of  them  had  to  be 
reminded  of  the  gyroscope  before  they  would  keep  the  axis  of  the  rotating 
earth  constant  in  direction.  As  soon  as  that  was  done  they  saw  that 
vertical  sunshine  varied  from  10°  north  to  10°  south  of  the  equator, 
making  a  torrid  zone.  It  is  a  more  difficult  problem  to  work  out  the 
noon  elevation  of  the  sun  for  a  man  living  at  (say)  30°  north  latitude. 
But  with  care  they  saw  that  the  noon  elevation  would  vary  from  70° 
to  50°  during  the  year. 

Is  our  earth  an  earth  xvith  its  axis  iltedf  This  question  is  readily 
answered  by  a  reference  to  the  changing  noon  shadow.     It  is  really 

3 


78  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  February 

answered  too  readily  for  of  course,  as  original  work  upon  the  part  of 
the  children  their  proper  answer  is  merely  that  it  may  be.  In  due  time 
the  children  should  l>e  led  to  see  that  while  they  have  worked  out  a 
scheme  that  may  be  true  for  our  solar  system,  yet  they  have  not  fully 
proved  that  it  is  the  scheme. 

Does  a  planet  with  its  axis  inclined  hare  summer  and  icinier?  This  is 
a  variation  of  the  work  already  done,  but  if  their  attention  has  been 
centered  upon  the  chanpng  noon  elevation  of  the  sun.  the  children  may 
not  reahze  that  they  have  been  studying  change  of  seasons.  The  ques- 
tion about  summer  and  winter  serves  to  correlate  their  recent  ol>ser- 
vations  with  their  past  experiences  of  summer's  heat  and  winter's  cold. 

//  the  axis  of  a  planet  is  tipped  15°,  irha*  zones  of  sunshine  result  aiid 
what  are  their  boundaries?  The  torrid  zone  and  its  limits  are  seen  at 
once.  Usually  it  recjuires  some  more  time  to  establish  the  changing 
conditions  of  sunshine  in  passing  from  the  frigid  into  the  temperate 
zone. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  children  really  gra.sp  the  relation  of 
the  amount  of  tij)  of  the  axis  to  the  width  of  the  torrid  zone  and  to  the 
varjdng  noon  elevation  of  the  sun.  Work  well  done  here  will  prevent 
confusion  in  the  future. 

Can  you  measure  for  yourselres  the  inelination  of  the  axis  of  our  earth? 
if  the  preceding  work  has  been  well  done  l)y  presenting  each  problem  in 
various  forms  and  with  several  inclinations  for  the  axis  of  the  earth, 
the  children  will  see  that  the  shadow  of  the  peg  in  the  window-sill  gives 
them  an  answ(»r  to  this  ([uestion.  If  the  |)upils  have  not  measured 
angles  they  must  be  given  simple  protractoi*s  and  made  to  measure 
various  angles  for  practice.  The  elevation  of  the  sun  can  l>e  mea.sured 
by  putting  the  protractor  on  the  floor  with  its  center  at  the  point  of 
the  shadow,  and  seeing  where  the  line  of  sunshine  cuts  the  protractor. 
Another  way  is  to  draw  the  triangk*  of  the  height  of  the  peg,  the  floor, 
and  the  line  of  the  sunshine  at  the  board  and  to  measure  the  proper 
angle  at  the  board.  (See  Kig.  1.)  The  children  will  at  first  say  that  it 
will  take  a  year  to  measure  for  our  earth — that  they  nuist  get  the  lowest 
noon  elevation  of  the  sun  in  December  and  the  highest  in  June.  This 
is  of  course  the  best  way  but  if  the  height  can  be  had  in  December  or 
June  and  at  one  of  the  ecpiinoxes.  the  problem  can  be  solved.  It  is  well 
to  consult  the  almanac  and  to  note  that  the  fall  e(iuinox  was  September 
24  in  1003  and  that  the  winter  solstice  was  December  22.  As  the 
Berk(»ley  class  has  not  carried  the  work  through  a  season.  I  will  give 
figures  obta  ned  in  another  school.     Highest  elevation  of  sun  in  June. 


1904  MEDIEVAL  TRADE   AND  TRADE   ROUTES  79 

77°,  lowest  noon  elevation  in  December,  29° — difference,  48°.  This 
gives  of  course  24°  for  the  incHnation  of  the  axis  of  our  earth.  Ordi- 
narily, perhaps,  the  result  will  not  be  so  accurate  as  this  Thinking  out 
the  problem  is  the  valuable  part  of  the  work,  although  care  should  be 
taken  to  get  the  very  best  result  possible. 

It  may  be  granted  at  once  that  this  method  wdl  take  more  time  than 
to  commit  the  ordinary  text  to  memory  or  to  explain  directly  the  change 
of  seasons.  Our  real  object,  it  must  always  be  remembered,  is  to  de- 
velop thinking,  self-reliant  boys  and  girls,  and  to  accomplish  this  we 
can  afford  to  take  time.  Necessarily,  little  details  have  been  omitted 
in  this  brief  description  of  the  plan  of  work.  Any  teacher  interested 
can  easily  add  them.  It  may  possibly  be  well  to  remind  teachers  who 
begin  this  work  at  the  December  solstice  that  the  increase  in  elevation 
of  the  sun  is  very  slow  for  the  first  two  weeks.  The  lack  of  a  gyroscope 
should  not  deter  any  one  from  attempting  to  teach  the  subject  by  this 
method.  Any  top  stands  upright  when  it  is  spinning  rapidly  and  can 
not  be  upset  by  any  moderate  blow.  When  it  is  not  spinning  it  is 
almost  'mpossible  to  l)alance  the  same  top  s(^  that  it  will  stand  upright 
even  for  a  second.  Again,  if  one  holds  the  wheel  of  a  bicycle  (taken 
from  the  frame)  by  the  ends  of  its  short  axle  he  will  find  it  hard  to  change 
the  direction  of  the  axis  if  the  wheel  is  whirling.  Either  the  top  or  the 
wheel  illustrates  the  same  point  as  the  gyroscope. 

In  the  observation  work  that  is  carried  along  with  these  lessons 
the  children  will  have  noticed  the  change  in  the  time  of  sunrise  and  of 
sunset  and  will  have  correctly  given  the  short  day  as  one  cause  of  winter. 
They  should  also  be  recjuired  to  show  with  the  globes  that  an  earth  with 
a  vertical  axis  has  always  and  everywhere  equal  days  and  nights,  and 
that  an  earth  with  its  axis  inclined  has  days  and  nights  of  var^'ing  length. 


MEDIiEVAL  TRADE  AND  TRADE  ROUTES* 

BY    C.    RAYMOND    BEAZLEY,    M.    A., 
Lecturer  in  the  History  of  Geography  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

IN  the  development  of  the  world's  commerce  and  trade  routes,  history 
meets  geography  very  closely,  and  the  geographical  teacher  can 
find  in  this  subject  many  excellent  lessons  afforded  him  by  historical 
research,  just  as  the  historical  teacher  cannot  here  neglect  the  sugges- 
tions, the  conditions,  and  the  limitations  of  geography.     Trade  routes 

♦  Abstract  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Oxford  Summer  Meeting,  August,  1903, 
and  reprinted  by  pormission  from  the  Geographical  Tea/'her,  October,  1903. 


8o  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Febrttary 


can  only  run  where  the  Earth-surface  is  favorable;  but  a  sufficient 
amount  of  favor  is  shown  by  wide  tracts  of  that  surface;  there  is  an 
extensive  possibility  of  choice  and  change;  and  historical  events  have 
constantly  modified,  and  sometimes  revolutionized,  the  course  of  the 
great  trade  channels.  At  the  same  time,  history  has  constantly  neg- 
lected to  consider  adequately  the  mercantile,  economic,  and  geograph- 
ical elements  in  man's  advance  and  the  evolution  of  modem  society. 

If  we  look  for  the  central  principle  in  the  history  of  the  World's 
exploration,  we  shall  find  tliat  commerce,  the  search  for  material  gain, 
has  been  the  most  permanent,  vital,  and  effective  spring  of  progress. 
Religion,  science,  and  politics — the  missionary  spirit,  the  pilgrim  spirit, 
the  spirit  of  adventure,  the  colonizing  spirit,  the  scientific  spirit,  the 
political  spirit — these  have  all  played  their  part,  they  have  all  done 
much.  But  none  of  these  has  the  importance  of  trade  in  the  opening 
up  of  our  world,  in  the  development  of  geographical  knowledge.  Trade 
ambitions  are  the  most  powerful  factor  in  bringing  about  a  continuous, 
progressive  enlargement  of  the  horizon  in  making  discovery  a  lasting 
gain  to  the  race.  Trade  decadence  marks  the  Dark  Ages  in  Western 
Europe,  more,  perhaps,  than  anything  else.  Trade  revival  coincides 
with,  and  is  a  main  cause  of,  that  mediaeval  and  modern  Renaissance 
which  begins  in  the  eleventh  century,  on  the  eve  of  the  Crusades,  and 
has  continued  ever  since.* 

The  ancient  trade  routes  continue  far  into  the  Middle  Ages — with 
changes,  it  is  true,  but  only  changes  of  masters,  of  products,  of  compara- 
tive importance.  And  these  trade  routes  are  mostly,  both  in  pre- 
Christian  and  in  early  Christian  times,  from  west  to  east,  or  from  east 
to  west,  moving,  like  the  great  mountain  ranges,  along  the  length,  or 
longitude,  of  the  old  world.  The  amber  trade  of  the  Baltic  coast,  the 
fur  trade  of  the  northern  forests,  and  the  gold,  ivory,  and  slave  trades  of 

*  Contrast  tlic  permanent,  effective  discovery  of  China  for  Europe,  by  the  mer- 
cantile spirit  of  the  Polos,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  with  the  comparatively  ineffec- 
tive religious  discovery  of  the  Celestial  Empire  by  Xestorian  missionaries  from 
A.  D.  635  or  with  the  still  less  effective  and  permanent  diplomatic  discovery  by 
Roman  envoys  in  a.  d.  IGG,  284,  etc. 

Contrast  the  permanent  Columbian  discovery  of  America,  so  laigely  inspired 
by  mercantile  ambitions,  with  the  transitory  discovery  by  the  Northmen  in  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  a  discovery  mainly  adventurous  (which  essays  coloni- 
zation, but  in  vain). 

Contrast  the  permanent  attempts  to  circumnavigate  Africa,  before  a  settled 
commercial  purpose  inspired  the  enterprise,  with  the  success  of  the  same  considered 
as  the  opening  up  of  a  new  trade  route  of  primary  value  in  the  thirteenth  to  the 
fifteenth  centuries. 


X904  MEDIEVAL  TRADE  AND  TRADE  ROUTES  8  I 

the  East  African  shore  are  the  chief  flank  divisions  of  the  great  stream 
of  international  commerce  flowing  from  Britain  and  Spain  to  India  and 
China. 

Looking,  first,  at  these  trade  routes  from  a  Mediterranean  or 
European  standpoint,  we  may  instance  among  the  more  important  the 
Black  Sea  way  from  the  Bosporus  to  Trebizond,  and  sometimes  to 
other  ports  of  Armenia  and  Caucasia.  This  route  crossed  the  isthmus 
of  the  Caucasus,  traversed  the  Caspian,  and  ascended  the  Amu  or  Oxus 
to  the  rich  lands  of  Western  Central  Asia  (Bukhara,  Samarkand,  etc.). 
Another  branch  of  the  same  route  passed  over  North  Armenia  and 
through  North  Persia,  just  to  the  south  of  the  Caspian.  In 
"Sogdiana"  it  met  with  other  trade  routes  in  profusion;  for  the  Soghd 
was  the  true  heart  of  Central  Asia,  at  least  from  the  ninth — probably 
from  the  eighth — century,  and  even  in  Ptolemy^s  time  (c.  a.d.  130) 
it  had  great  mercantile  importance.  Upon  it  converged  the  three  great 
Chinese  western  tracks,  one  of  the  most  important  routes  from  India, 
and  various  much-frequented  roads  from  Southwest  Asia.  The  Trebi- 
zond path  of  commerce  is  perennially  active ;  but  it  is  most  important 
in  the  Mongol  era,  and  for  a  century  after  the  destruction  of  Bagdad 
and  the  consequent  rise  of  Tabriz  (c.  a.d.  1258-1360). 

The  Euphrates  route,  uniting  (at  Rakka  or  Calhnicum,  in  North- 
east Syria,  on  the  upper  course  of  the  great  river)  with  many  shorter 
mercantile  ways  from  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  brought  the  traveler 
down  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  thence  either  by  sea  or  land  along  that 
dreary  south  coast  of  Persia  and  Baluchistan  to  the  Indus  and  Sind. 
By  the  former.  Alexander's  fleet  returned  to  Mesopotamia ;  by  the  latter, 
his  army. 

The  north  and  central  Persian  routes,  skirting  the  southern  edge 
of  the  Caspian,  or  running  through  Mosul  and  Northern  Mesopotamia, 
passed  through  Merv  to  the  Amu  and  Sogdiana.  Till  its  sack  by  the 
Mongols,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  Merv,  ^'Antiochia  Margiana,'^  was 
one  of  the  chief  centers  of  the  trade  of  upper  Asia — from  the  age  of 
Alexander  the  Great  to  that  of  Genghis  Khan. 

The  Red  Sea  route,  connecting  Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean  world 
with  India  (and  at  times  even  with  China),  by  way  of  Aden  and  the 
South  Arabian  ports,  was  also  important  as  bringing  the  products  of 
tropical  Africa  to  the  *^  Roman  Sea.''  By  means  of  this  route  the  horizon 
of  the  Ancient  World  was  extended  (in  the  time  of  Pliny  and  Ptolemy, 
c.  A.D.  50-170)  to  the  Zanzibar  Islands  and  the  equator;  while  the 
early  Moslem  traders  pushed  on  still  farther  along  this  path  to  Mada- 
gascar, the  Mozambique  Channel,  and  Sofala.     Here  the  Europeans, 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 


coming  from  the  west,  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  met  the  Moham- 
medan traders  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  whose  southward  terminus  had 
been  Cape  Corrientes. 

The  northern  fur  and  amber  trades  followed,  for  the  most  part,  the 
courses  of  the  rivers  which  formed  the  natural  highways  between  Baltic, 
Kuxine,  and  Mediterranean  lands — the  Dilna  or  Western  Dvina,  the 
Dnieper,  the  Mstula,  the  Memel  or  Niemen,  the  Dniester,  or  the  Prut. 
Easy  portages,  as  in  the  backwoods  of  North  America,  connected  the 
upper  courses  of  these  streams  or  their  tributaries.  This  route  was 
also  followed  by  Xorse,  Danish,  and  Swedish  traders,  and  travelers 
to  Constantinople,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  Holy  Land,  in  the  age 
of  greatest  Scandinavian  activity. 

A  route  of  minor  importance,  but  of  great  historic  interest,  con- 
nected with  the  main  Hlack  Sea  avenue  of  commerce,  ran  from  the 
lower  Danube  round  the  north  of  the  Euxine.  thence  moving  eastward 
either  to  the  north  or  south  of  the  Caspian:  this  was  occasionally 
employed  by  the  Byzantines  in  their  sixth-century  intercourse  with  the 
Turks,  and  became  of  great  importance  in  the  Mongol  age  (thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries). 

The  Tigris  route  from  north  to  south  was  not  very  important 
before  the  rise  of  Bagdad  (c.  a.d.  750).  The  Freshwater  Canal  route 
from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  connecting  the  Mediterranean  with  the 
Indian  Ocean,  was,  on  the  other  hand,  prominent  at  certain  periods  of 
the  earlier  Middle  Ages.  The  canal,  however,  was  often  choked  and 
disused;   it  was  finally  abandoned  a.d.  767. 

Looking  at  these  trade  routes  from  an  eastern  standpoint,  w'e  may 
distinguish  three  chief  highways  between  China  and  the  Western  World 
— one  running  to  the  north  of  the  Tian  Shan,  the  second  to  the  south 
of  that  range,  while  the  third  skirted  the  northern  face  of  the  Tibetan 
Plateau,  masked  l)y  the  Kuenlim  Range.  All  these  met  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  (Ireat  Wall  on  one  side,  and  in  the  Sogdiana  oasis 
(Samarkand,  etc.)  on  the  other.  In  Ptolemy's  age  (second  century  a.d.), 
the  (Ineco-Honuin  merchants  who  traded  with  the  vSilk  Land  seem  to 
have  preferred  the  second  and  third  of  these  routes,  and  especially  the 
Kuenlun  way;  most  Chinese  travelers  to  the  west,  on  the  other  hand, 
a])pear  to  choose  the  first,  or  northern  Tian  Shan  road.  From  Fergana 
and  I^asteni  Turkistan  the  Kuenlun  path  (the  third  Chinese  road  to 
th(»  west  just  noticed)  threw  off  an  important  sidetrack  over  the 
Indian  .Mountains  southward  into  the  Indus  Valley,  where  men,  passing 
down  the  river,  reacluHl  a  .seaboard  in  direct  communication  with  the 
Persian  (lulf,  the  He(l  Sea,  and  thelMediterranean. 


MEDIAEVAL  TRADE  AND  TRADE  ROUTES 


83 


The  limitations  of  the  Ancient  World  are  always  perplexing  us; 
the  successes  gained  by  the  pre-Christian  civilization  are  constantly 
suggesting  yet  greater  things  unattempted  or  unachieved.  In  a  sense, 
perhaps,  the  light  that  was  in  the  world  proved  to  be  darkness.  The 
Helleno-Roman  World,  as  organized  under  the  Caesars,  was  so  rich, 
so  self-sufficient,  so  full  of  proud  contentment,  so  weary  of  struggle  after 
many  centuries  of  conflict,  that  it  made  little  serious  effort  to  explore 
beyond  its  own  limits.  For  instance,  there  was  felt  no  want  of  a 
commercial  route  by  water  around  Africa;  the  Phcenicians,  six  hundred 
years  before  Christ,  claimed  the  discovery  of  that  waterway;  but,  in 
the  heyday  of  old  civilization,  no  adequate  attempt  was  made, 
under  far  easier  conditions,  to  repeat  the  experiment.  It  could  have 
been  successfully  carried  through,  without  doubt,  under  the  Julian  or 
Flavian  or  Antonine  emperors;  but  it  had  ceased  to  appeal  to  practical 
men,  though  it  still  attracted  the  learned  and  the  imaginative.  Again, 
while  the  ancient  coast  and  overland  routes — by  caravan  or  river  boat  or 
coasting  vessel — were  in  good  order,  even  the  most  adventurous  did  not 
seriously  think  of  the  great  voyage  from  west  to  east,  ''from  Spain  to 
India/'  which  was  believed  in  as  a  theoretical  possibility  {e.  g.,  by 
Aristotle),  fully  eighteen  hundred  years  before  it  was  realized  by  Colum- 
bus and  Magellan  The  discoveries  of  the  Great  Forty  Years  (1480- 
1520)  were  not  anticipated  in  the  times  of  Strabo  or  of  Ptolemy,  chiefly 
because  the  same  suggestions  of  vital  gain  did  not  occur  to  the  sublime 
self-satisfaction  of  imperial  Rome.  The  compass  and  quadrant 
were  then  unknown,  it  may  be  said,  and  nautical  science  was  in  its 
childhood.  But,  if  (ireek  thought  and  Roman  perseverance  had  given 
attention  to  the  problems  of  ocean  travel,  the  progress  of  later  centuries 
would  certainly,  in  great  measure,  have  been  anticipated.  But  the 
intellect  of  the  later  classical  time  was  interested  in  the  theory  of  the 
world — its  shape  and  size — far  more  than  in  the  practical  exploration 
of  the  same. 

The  ancient  trade  routes,  as  already  noticed,  continue  far  into  the 
Middle  Ages  almost  unaltered;  but,  as  regards  the  west,  their  activity 
decreases,  their  scale  of  supply  and  demand  is  lowered,  their  good  order 
and  safety  are  seriously  impaired. 

In  the  sixth  century  a.d.,  the  Byzantines  try  to  divert  the  overland 
commerce  (from  China,  India,  and  Central  Asia)  away  from  the  Persian 
routes,  which  most  of  that  commerce  then  followed.  Two  attempts  are 
made  with  this  object:  (1)  by  the  Indian  Ocean  routes,  and  in  alliance 
with  Abyssinia ;  (2)  by  the  Black  Sea  and  steppe  routes,  in  alliance  with 


84  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

the  Turks  of  Sogdiana.  Both  these  attempts  had  special  relation  to 
the  silk  trade,  important  both  under  the  Old  Empire  and  in  the  Middle 
Ages;  this  trade  had  long  been  in  the  hands  of  the  Persians  as  carriers. 

The  first  attempt  involved  an  alliance  with  Abyssinia,  and  with 
the  Ncstorians  of  Persia,  South  India,  Sokotra,  etc.;  it  brought  about 
the  visit  of  Nonnosus  to  the  Negus'  Court,  and  the  visits  of  Sopater 
and  Cosnias  to  Ceylon  (before  545) ;  and  it  produced  the  valuable  writ- 
ings of  Cosmas  on  the  regions  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  Red  Sea,  etc. 
In  these  writings  there  is  a  great  advance  on  previous  Christian  knowl- 
edge of  South  Asia  and  East  Africa. 

The  second  attempt  involved  alliance  with  the  Turks,  then  ruling  in 
Samarkand  and  over  vast  regions  north  of  the  Amu  (the  camps  of 
their  khans  are  always  in  motion;  sometimes  they  are  in  the  Soghd,  or 
near  Kokand,  at  other  times  near  Lake  Balkhash,  or  in  the  Lower  Altai 
regions,  etc.).  This  alliance  produced  many  valuable  travels  between 
the  Bosj)orus  and  West  Central  Asia,  and  good  records  of  the  same. 
Tho»5e  travels  really  proved  the  Caspian  to  be  an  inland  sea,  and  not  a 
mere  gulf  of  the  Arctic  Ocoan;  but  this  lesson  was  not  properly  drawn 
except,  perhaps,  at  Constantinople — c.  g,,  St.  Isidore  of  Seville  at  this 
very  time  repeats  the  old  misconceptions.  Excellent  descriptions  of 
the  Turco-Tartar  nomades  were  now  given  in  Greek,  recalling  Herod- 
otus, Hippocrates,  and  Strabo.  Hence  also  comes  one  of  the  earliest 
notices  of  Lake  Aral,  and  of  the  Rivers  Ural  and  Emba;  the  better 
known  \  olga,  Syr-daria  or  Jaxartes,  Don,  Dnieper,  etc.,  are  clearly 
described  i^r  inferred  to  by  the  Byzantine  historians  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. This  intercoui*se  lasts  from  568  to  590  or  595;  its  central  object 
is  to  "transfer  the  sale  of  silk  from  the  Persians  to  the  Romans" — i.  e.. 
it  is  a  commerrial  object  that  inspires  the  whole.  Also,  under  Justinian 
i^ln^fon*  A,n.  5i>5),  the  secret  of  silk  manufacture  is  transferred  from 
China  to  the  Byzantine  Knipin^  by  Xestorian  monks,  who  bring  silk- 
worms* ejip?  in  a  hollow  cane  to  Syria.  This  remains  the  most  per- 
manent rt^sult  of  the  new  By.:antine  enterprises.  In  Western  Europe, 
durii\g  all  the  |vri<.Hi  oi  the  earlier  Middle  Ages,  commerce  is  extremely 
deprt^ssinl :  yet  theri^  is  occasional  surprisinn  evidence  of  its  vitality — e.  g., 
Cin\jrory  of  Tours  tells  oi  men*hants  going  from  France  to  Syria,  and 
of  a  meri*hani  pilgrim  coming  fn^m  South  India  to  France  (about 
.\.D.  ooi^^ :  also  01  Indian  shi|>s  coming  regularly  at  the  same  time  to 
Suoj  "lor  the  sake  of  merchandise.*'  Note  also  the  colonies  of  Syrian 
traders  in  Marseilles.  NarlnMine,  Honieaux.  Orleans,  Tours,  etc.,  under 
:he  Mer\>vingiau  Kinir^  ^sixth-eighth  ceuTurie?"^.  as  well  as  the  com- 
moTVMal  }^T\^slx>rity  of  \  enioe  Ivginning  in  the  sixth  century. 


I9CH  MEDIEVAL  TRADE   AND  TRADE  ROUTES  85 

The  rise  of  Islam  produces  incalculable  effects  in  commerce  as  in 
politics.  Moslems  now  control  the  most  important  sections  of  the  great 
international  trade  routes,  and  are  practically  masters  of  the  world's 
carrying  trade.  A  wonderful  development  of  Indian  Ocean  trade  and 
trade  routes  occurs  under  the  early  Caliphate,  and  before  a.d.  1000 
Moslem  traders  visit  North  China,  Korea,  and  Japan.  Already  in 
A.D.  700  they  are  found  trading  in  Canton;  in  758  they  head  serious 
riots  here;  in  795  they  transfer  their  main  Chinese  market  from  Canton 
to  Khanfu  or  Hangcheufu,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Yangtse,  the  greatest 
Chinese  port  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  Kala,  in  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, is  their  chief  market  in  the  East  Indies.  Ceylon  is  also  important, 
and  Arab  merchants  appear  here  long  before  Mohammed;  even  about 
A.D.  400.  Arab  trade  colonies,  also,  on  the  Malabar  coast  and  in  North- 
west India,  are  pictured  in  glowing  colors  by  early  Moslem  travelers 
and  geographers  before  a.d.  1000.  Within  the  Caliphate,  the  courses  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  and  the  Persian  Gulf  routes  acquire  new  and 
special  value,  and  are  indeed  primary  after  the  foundation  of  Bagdad 
(a.d.  750).  Busra,  at  head  of  Persian  Gulf,  Maskat,  Siraf,  and  Kishm. 
predecessor  of  Ormuz,  close  to  the  mouth  of  the  gulf;  Aden,  the  key 
of  the  Red  Sea;  Jedda,  the  port  of  Mecca;  Suez,  *^  where  Egypt  met 
India;"  Mozdishu,  on  the  Somali  coast;  and  the  far  eastern  harbors 
of  Kala  and  Khanfu,  or  Han^cheufu,  are  the  chief  centers  of  the  ocean 
trade  of  Islam  down  to  the  Crusading  Age.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
overland  routes  are  somewhat  depressed  during  the  early  centuries  of 
Islam;  but  along  the  northern  frontier  of  the  Caliphate,  from  the  Pamir 
and  the  Syr-daria  to  the  Caucasus  and  the  Volga,  there  is  a  surprising 
amount  of  commerce  and  a  surprising  variety  of  commerce  avenues. 
Those  already  noticed — the  Amu-Caspian-Caucasian-Euxine  route,  the 
steppe  routes  north  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Caspian,  the  South  Caspian 
or  North  Persian  road — are  now  of  considerable  importance,  though 
quite  secondary  to  the  great  maritime  coast  tracks  of  the  south.  The 
fur-trade  route,  running  up  the  course  of  the  Volga  into  the  far  north,  is 
also  valuable,  owing  to  the  passion  of  rich  Moslems  for  furs;  its  chief 
terminus  is  at  Bolgharar  (answering  to  the  modern  Kazan). 

All  Moslem  trade  routes  are  summarized  by  Ibn  Khordadbeh,  about 
A.D.  880.  Great  importance  is  assigned  by  him  not  only  to  the  routes 
noticed  above,  but  also  to  the  North  African  caravan  route,  skirting  the 
north  edge  of  the  desert,  from  Morocco  to  Egypt.  He  also  emphasizes 
the  commercial  position  of  the  ports  of  France  and  Italy,  even  then,  and 
of  the  market  town  of  Rh6  or  Rai,  near  Teheran,  where  Slav,  Khazar, 
and  Levantine  traders  met.     He  also  gives  an  elaborate  account  of  a 


86  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Febroaiy 

Central  European  trade  route  from  Southern  German}'^  eastward,  run- 
ning through  the  Slav  lands  to  the  lower  X'olga,  and  thence  on  to  Cen- 
tral Asia,  India,  and  China. 

The  early  triumphs  of  Islam,  following  on  the  barbarian  invasions, 
for  a  time  almost  stifle  the  commercial  life  of  western  Christendom,  and 
Moslem  piracy  for  a  moment  apparently  completes  the  destructive  work 
of  Moslem  conquest.  While  the  East  and  West  Caliphates  develop 
commerce  of  their  own,  of  immense  reach,  depth,  and  volume,  the 
Christian  lands  outside  the  Byzantine  Empire  seem  commercially 
dependent  on  their  more  prosperous  rivals.  But  gradually  matters 
alter,  the  outlook  changes,  and  the  central  period  of  the  Middle  Ages  is 
marked  by  a  mercantile  development  of  decisive  character;  a  new  era 
in  trade,  as  in  politics  and  society,  is  created;  and  whatever  the  other 
fluctuations  of  European  histor\',  in  commerce  the  Mediaeval  Renais- 
sance, beginning  on  the  eve  of  the  Crusades,  is  an  abiding  and  vital 
force.  This  steadilv  grows  till  Europe  arrives  at  the  discovery  and 
trade  exploitation  of  the  entire  world. 

The  new  European  mercantile  life  really  begins  as  a  continuously 
progressive  force  in  Italy  and  the  south  of  France  during  the  ninth 
century — especially  at  X'enice  and  Amalfi,  and  to  a  less  degree  at 
Marseilles.  This  mediteval  mercantile  life  is  superior  to  the  ancient 
commercial  activity  in  claiming  greater  privileges  for  the  trader,  in 
giving  more  attention  to  freedom  of  trade  intercourse,  in  undertaking 
more  daring  and  speculative  operation.-',  in  devoting  greater  energy  to 
the  discovery  of  new  markets.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  Crusading 
struggle  it  is  evident  that  the  solid  results  of  the  religious  wars  are 
mainly  commercial — a  new  culture  and  material  prosperity,  a  vastly 
extended  knowledge,  a  well-informed  and  far-reaching  ambition,  whose 
results  are  seen  in  the  great  scientific  and  geographical  discoveries  of 
the  latest  Middle  Age. 

The  Crusading  States  of  the  Levant,  advanced  bases  for  Christian 
trade,  help  the  Christian  travel-pioneers,  especially  merchants,  to  pene- 
trate the  inner  regions  of  Asia.  Thus  Italian  and  Provengal  merchants 
push  up  to  Aleppo.  Damascus,  and  the  Euj)hrates  before  a.d.  1200. 
Some  time  before  1264  we  find  a  X'enetian  trader  in  Tabriz,  the  North- 
Persian  successor  and  supplanter  of  Bagdad.  The  conquests  of  the 
Mongols  are  first  announced  to  Christendom  by  pAiropean  traders  in 
g'^ms  and  spices  who  had  gone  up,  a])out  .\.d.  1200,  from  the  Syrian 
coast  towards  the  Euphrates. 

New  routes  and  new  markets  are  opened  by  the  Latin  capture  of 
Constantinople  (a.  d.  1204),  and  the  rise  of  the  Mongols  (from  a.  d.  1190). 


MEDIAEVAL  TRADE  AND  TRADE  ROUTES 


87 


Venetians  are  now  established  as  commercial  sovereigns  on  the 
Bosporus  and  the  Black  Sea:  their  traders  penetrate  to  Kiev,  into  the 
heart  of  Asia  Minor,  into  Persia,  into  Central  Asia,  finally,  with  the 
Polos,  info  China,  Indo-China,  and  India. 

The  Mongols  open  continental  (overland)  routes,  as  they  have  never 
been  opened  before,  to  Christian  trade  and  travel.  The  opportunities 
given  by  Mongol  rulers  to  European  merchants  result  in  that  new 
knowledge  of  India  and  China  which,  above  all  else,  inspires  the  great 
geographical  discoveries.  For  Henry  the  Navigator,  Dias,  DaGama, 
Columbus,  Magellan,  and  the  rest  are  all  primarily  in  search  of 
better  and  easier  ways  to  Cathay  and  the  Indies.  The  difficulties  of 
the  land  routes  are  well  known  by  the  fourteenth  century;  the  value 
of  the  objects  and  regions  sought  are  also  thoroughly  apparent  to  the 
searchers;  the  first  hopes  of  profitable  overland  intercourse  (raised  by 
the  Mongols)  have  now  been  completely  disappointed;  therefore,  men 
seek  for  maritime,  oceanic  ways.  Hence  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa, 
the  western  route  by  voyages  of  Columbus,  the  reaching  of  East  Asia 
by  a  western  course  from  Europe  (by  Magellan),  the  incidental  discovery 
of  the  unsuspected  land-mass  of  America  (by  Columbus). 

The  importance  (in  the  Mongol  period)  of  the  Trebizond — Tabriz 
and  Lajazzo — Tabriz  routes  (from  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Cilician  coast 
to  North  Persia,  and  so  to  China  by  the  way  running  south  of  the 
Caspian)  is  very  notable. 

Only  second  to  these  come  the  steppe  routes — c.  g.,  from  Kiev 
or  the  Crimea  to  the  lower  Volga,  and  so  to  the  Mongol  capitals  and 
China  by  tracks  running  north  of  tlie  Caspian — while,  again,  the  river 
routes  are  not  to  be  forgotten — e.  g.,  the  I)on-\'olga  way  into  the  Caspian 
(crossing  over  by  the  Kalach  portage  from  one  river  to  another) ;  also 
the  Amu  route.  But  before  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  both  Mongol 
and  Moslem  alliances  for  commercial  purposes  are  clearly  seen  to  be 
futile  experiments,  ending  in  utter  disappointment.  Good  examples  of 
the  latter  exist  in  the  attempts  of  European  traders  in  the  twelfth, 
thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries  to  reach  the  Indies  through  an 
understanding  with  the  Moslem  rulers  of  Egypt.  Some  of  these  are 
temporarily  successful — e.  g.,  the  Pisans  in  a.d.  1175,  the  Germans  about 
1240,  the  Venetians  about  1330 — but  none  are  permanent. 

The  routes  of  the  Polos  in  their  two  great  journeys  (1260-1295) 
give  an  excellent  view  of  the  chief  trade  avenues  in  the  Mongol  period. 

I.  On  the  first  journey  the  outward  route  was:  Crimea,  X'olga, 
Bukhara,  over  the  dividing  mountains  by  the  southern  Tian  Shan  way, 
over  the  Gobi  to  the  Great  Wall,  Kublai's  Court  at  Shangtu.    II.     On 


88  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  February 

the  second  journey:  Lajazzo,  Erzinghian,  Mosul,  Ormuz,  Badakhshan, 
over  the  dividing  mountains  by  the  Northern  Kuenlun  way,  Great 
Wall,  Pekin,  various  routes  in  China  (a)  to  Southwest,  (6)  to  Southeast, 
especially  to  Hangcheufu,  the  ''City  of  Heaven;"  home  from  Zayton, 
in  Fokien,  by  the  coasts  of  Indo-China,  through  the  East  Indies,  along 
the  Coromandel  and  Malabar  coasts  to  Ormuz,  Tabriz,  Trebizond,  Con- 
stantinople. The  Red  Sea  routes  are  elaborately  described  in  the  Polo 
narrative,  but  not  apparently  from  first-hand  observation.  We  must 
notice  the  importance  of  the  Nile  and  of  Alexandria  in  international 
trade  even  at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  persistence,  daring,  and  success  of  Christian  traders,  even  from 
the  beginning  of  the  Crusading  Age,  correspond  to  an  ever-increasing 
weakness  and  decay  in  Moslem  commerce,  which  from  the  seventh  to 
the  eleventh  century  had  controlled  the  world's  purse-strings.  Com- 
mercially, as  in  some  other  respects,  Islam  never  recovered  from  the 
Mongol  convulsion;  c/.  Polo's  evidence  on  the  vast  superiority  of 
the  Chinese  ports  over  Alexandria  at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

So  the  break-up  of  the  Mongol  Empire  and  the  conversion  of  the 
Western  Tartars  to  Islam  destroy  Christian  hopes  of  effective  overland 
trade  through  Asia.  A  thorough  knowledge,  we  have  seen,  now  pre- 
vails in  the  west  of  the  riches  of  South  and  East  Asia.  These  riches  are 
accordingly  sought  by  the  longer  but  safer  maritime  routes.  The  chief 
stages  in  this  search  are  the  following:  In  1270,  European  discovery  in 
the  African  islands  and  off  the  African  coasts  begins  again  with  the 
voyage  of  Lancelot  Malocello  to  the  Canaries;  in  1291,  we  have  the  first 
overt  attempt  to  reach  India  by  an  ocean  voyage  round  Africa,  planned 
for  strictly  commercial  purposes;  in  1341,  1346,  1402,  etc.,  European 
voyages  are  repeated  among  the  African  islands,  and  renewed  attempts 
are  made  to  coast  on  beyond  the  farthest  hitherto  known.  Valuable 
discoveries  are  made  among  the  Canaries,  the  Azores,  and  the  Madeira 
group,  even  before  1351 ;  but  permanent,  continuous,  effective  Atlantic 
exploration  only  begins  under  the  leadership  of  Henry  the  Navigator, 
1415-1460;  the  route  around  Africa  is  practically  opened  up  by  1486 
(Bartholomeu  Dias),  absolutely  by  1498  (Vasco  da  Gama).  The  great- 
est commercial  revolution  ever  known  is  produced  by  this,  by  the  dis- 
covery of  America  in  1492,  and  by  the  Ottoman  conquest  of  the 
Levant,  which  last  dealt  a  deathblow  to  Moslem  commercial  spirit, 
just  as  the  Ottoman  conquest  of  the  Crimea  and  other  coasts  of  the 
Black  Sea  dealt  a  deathblow  to  the  old  Christian  trade  by  this  route 
with  Central  Asia,  China,  etc. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  89 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

The  Production  of  Sugar  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. — A  state- 
ment recently  received  from  a  high  authority  in  Hawaii  by  the  Bureau 
of  Statistics  indicates  that  about  one  hundred  million  dollars  of  capital 
from  the  United  States  have  been  invested  in  Hawaii  since  the 
reciprocity  treaty  of  1876,  a  large  part  of  this  having  been  so  invested 
since  annexation,  in  1898.  This  development,  since  annexation,  in 
the  increased  investments  in  capital  from  the  United  States,  and  its 
application  to  irrigation  in  its  highest  forms,  has  resulted  in  an  increase 
of  more  than  50  per  cent  in  the  sugar  production  of  the  islands,  the 
production  of  1897  being  562,000,000  pounds;  that  of  1903,  840,000,- 
OOO  pounds. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  now  stand  third  in  the  list  of  sections  pro- 
ducing cane  sugar  for  exportation.  Curiously,  all  of  the  great  cane- 
sugar  exporting  spots  of  the  world  are  islands.  Cuba  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  Ust,  with  an  annual  exportation,  under  normal  conditions,  of 
over  two  biUion  pounds;  Java  next,  with  an  average  annual  production 
of  one  and  one-half  billion  pounds,  while  the  Hawaiian  Islands  have 
now  nearly  reached  the  one  billion  mark.  China  and  India  are  also 
large  producers  of  cane  sugar,  but  consume  practically  all  of  their 
production,  their  exportation  being  small. 

Sugar  production  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  has  developed  much 
more  rapidly  during  the  last  thirty  years  than  in  any  other  cancr 
producing  section  of  the  world.  The  production  in  Java  grew  from 
432,320,000  pounds,  in  1875,  to  1,887,899,000  pounds,  in  1903,  or  less 
than  five  times  as  much  in  1903  as  in  1875.  Cuba  has  increased  its 
production  from  1,736,000,000  pounds,  in  1873,  to  2,183,000,000,  in 
1903,  while  that  of  Hawaii,  as  already  indicated,  has  grown  from 
23,000,000  pounds,  in  1873,  to  840,000,000,  in  1903.  Thus,  Java's  pro- 
duction is  now  less  than  five  times  that  of  1873;  that  of  Cuba  has 
increased  less  than  50  per  cent,  while  that  of  Hawaii  is  about  tliirty- 
five  times  as  great  as  in  1873.  Meantime,  the  cane-sugar  production 
of  the  world  has  grown  from  1,793,000  tons,  in  1873,  to  4,118,000  tons, 
in  1903,  having  about  trebled  during  that  period.  The  beet-sugar 
production  of  the  world  has  grown  from  1,210,000  tons,  in  1873,  to 
5,520,000  tons,  in  1903,  being  about  four  and  one-half  times  as  much 
in  1903  as  in  1873. 

Hawaii's  share  in  supplying  the  sugar  consumption  of  the  United 


90 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


February 


States  has  increased  very  rapidly  since  the  reciprocity  treaty  of  1876. 
Prior  to  that  date,  sugar  imported  from  Hawaii  formed  about  1^  per 
cent  of  the  total  importation,  while  in  the  fiscal  year  1903  Hawaii 
supplied  about  15  per  cent  of  the  total  brought  into  continental  United 
States. — Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

The  World's  Maritime  Statistics.— **  Lloyil's  Register''  for  im3-4 
puts  the  world's  mercantile  marine,  on  July  10,  1903,  at  29,943  steam- 
ships, of  27,183,365  tons,  and  12,IS2  sailing  vessels,  of  6,459,766  tons. 

The  principal  natio.is  are  represented  in  the  following  table: 

Country  Tonvaoe 

England 16,006,374 

United  States 3.61 1,956 

Germany 3,283.247 

Norway 1.653.740 

France 1.622,016 

Italy 1.180.335 

Russia S09,648 

Spain 764,447 

Japan 726.S1S 

Sweden 721,116 


Con  n  try  Ton  nage 

Holland 658,845 

Denmark 581,247 

Austria-Hungary 578,697 

(Greece ". 378J99 

Helgium 157,047 

Hrazil 155,086 

Turkey 154,494 

Chile 103,758 

Portugal 101,304 

Argentine  Re])ublic 95,780 


Area,    Population,    and    Density    of    Population    of    the    South 


American  Republics. 

Courttru 

Argentine  Republic  . 

Holiyia 

Brazil 

Colombia 

Chile 

Ecuador 

Paraguay  

Peru 

L'ruguay 

N'enezuela 


Area  {Kilnrneler«) 


894 
,822 
.361 
203 
658 
299 
253 
137 
178 
043 


•Jo/ 
350 
,350 
,103 
,542 
600 
100 
OOO 
700 
900 


Poimlntioii 

4,094,911 
3,920,207 
14,668,268 
3,001,151 
1,816,271 
1,204,200 

502,000 
2,629,663 

S27,485 
2,444,316 


Density  of 
Population 

Kilometer 

1.41 
.99 
1.75 
3.26 
4.56 
4.02 
1.91 
2.31 
4.63 
2.35 


Total 17,S51.902 


35,108,472 


2.72 


Manufacture  of  Ice  in  Palestine. — Then*  is  a  snuill  ice  plant  in 
Jerusalem,  which  lias  been  in  operation  for  three  years.  An  oil 
engine  of  three  horse-power  furnishes  the  power;  the  freezer  is  of 
French  manufacture.  The  sale  of  ice  amounts  to  about  700  pounds 
a  day,  and  the  capacity  of  the  works  is  about  1.400  pounds  daily. 
The  selling  price  is  5  cents  a  kilogram  (2.2  poimds).     Neyer  before  in 


GEOGRAPHICAL   NOTES  9  I 


this  countn^  have  the  inhabitants  used  ice.  or  seen  it,  in  fact.     The 
demand  at  present  is  limited,  but  is  steadily  increasing. 

At  Jaffa,  the  seaport  of  Jerusalem,  the  ice  business  was  established 
about  1890  on  a  small  scale  and  for  several  years  the  business  was 
not  successful;  but.  in  1S99,  as  the  demand  for  ice  was  on  the  increase, 
the  works  were  enlarged,  and  since  then  have  been  operated  quite 
successfully.  The  engine  used  is  of  German  manufacture:  oil  is  used 
for  fuel.  The  present  daily  demand  is  for  about  1,500  pounds,  and 
the  capacity  of  the  works  is  about  4,500  pounds.  The  priee  is  the 
same  as  charged  in  Jerusalem — 5  cents  per  kilogram.  When  the  works 
were  first  established  the  price  was  10  cents  per  kilogram.  The  water 
in  Jaffa  comes  from  wells,  and.  owing  to  their  proximity  to  the  sea, 
is  brackish.  The  ice  is  never  clear,  and  when  melted  leaves  considerable 
sediment.  The  water  u.sed  in  Jerusalem  is  rain  water,  from  cisterns, 
and  the  ice  is  Uke  crystal.  No  natural  ice  is  brought  to  this  country. 
The  demand  for  ice  was  first  made  by  the  hospitals;  the  hotels  soon 
after  began  its  use,  and  now  nearly  all  the  foreign  residents  and  many 
of  the  wealthy  native  families  are  consumers. 

Raising  Crops  in  the  Far  North. — Mr.  X.  L.  Skalosubof.  address- 
ing the  recent  agricultural  convention  at  St.  Petersburg,  said  that 
many  facts  may  be  given  to  disprove  the  popular  idea  that  grain  will 
not  ripen  north  of  60°  X.  Lat.  A  clergyman  at  Vugansk,  Siberia,  61° 
X.  Lat  and  73°  40'  E.  Long.,  is  building  a  mill  propelled  by  wind-power 
to  turn  his  winter  rye  and  spring  wheat  into  flour.  At  Masau.  on  the 
Pelym  River,  in  61°  X.  Lat.,  a  farmer  has  extended  his  area  under 
tillage,  so  that  he  now  raises  all  tlie  griin  recpiired  by  his  large  family, 
and  has  a  surplus  to  sell.  The  efforts  to  raise  rye  at  Herezov  in  63°  54' 
have  been  very  successful.  Still  farther  north,  in  64°  13',  barley,  rye, 
and  oats  have  been  grown  for  a  series  of  years,  and  yield  fifteenfold. 
Vegetables  are  raised  at  the  most  northern  line  of  Russian  settlements — 
for  example,  at  Obdorsk  in  66°  31',  where  the  successful  experiment 
was  first  made  in  1894. — Bulletin  American  Geor/raphical  Society,  Octo- 
ber, 1903. 

Standard  Time  in  South  Africa. — The  Ciovernments  of  Cape  of  Clood 
Hope,  Natal,  Transvaal,  Orange  River  Colony,  Rhodesia,  and  Portu- 
guese East  Africa^* having  decided  to  adopt  a  standard  time  for  railroads. 
telegraphs,  and  other  public  purposes,  have  agreed  that  the  time  shall 
be  that  of  the  meridian  30°  E.  Long. — that  is  to  say,  two  hours  in 
advance  of  Greenwich  time.  The  arrangement  took  effect  from 
March  1,  last. — Bulletin  American  Geographical  Society,  Octol)er.  1003. 


92  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

Manufacture  of  Perfumes  in  Grasse. — The   city  of   Grasse,  the 

most  important  industrial  place  of  the  Riviera,  is  widely  known  on 
account  of  its  perfume  manufacture.  At  present  thirty-five  concerns 
making  essences  of  flowers  are  in  operation  there.  The  average  con- 
sumption of  roses  for  that  purpose  is  about  2,650,000  pounds,  and  that 
of  orange  flowers  about  660,000  pounds  per  year.  The  annual  sale  of 
these  essences  amounts  to  $1 ,000,000.     Vallauris  has  nine  such  factories. 

The  most  important  product  of  this  industry  is  oil  of  neroli,  made 
from  the  flowers  of  the  bitter  orange.  A  kilogram  (2.2  pounds)  of 
this  oil  is  worth  $60.  From  the  peel  of  the  bitter  orange  oil  of  orange 
is  made.     The  peel  of  the  sweet  orange  is  seldom  used  for  making  oil. 

The  manufacture  of  essence  of  roses  is  also  very  extensive.  The 
so-called  oil  of  roses  is  manufactured  from  the  grass  Andropogon 
sch-oenanthus. 

The  flowers  of  the  large  flowered  jasmine  yield  the  oil  of  jasmine. 
A  hectare  (2.471  acres)  })lanted  with  jasmine  is  said  to  yield  a  yearly 
product  worth  $3,000,  but  requires  a  groat  deal  of  work.  Filled  violets 
formerly  brought  from  $1  to  $2  per  kilogram  (2.2  pounds);  at  present, 
however,  they  bring  only  50  cents.  A  kilogram  of  essence  of  violets 
is  worth  from  $4.50  to  $5. 

Oil  of  geranium  is  produced  from  the  flowers  of  Pelargonium  cafita- 
turn.  The  flowers  of  the  tuberose,  of  the  jonquil,  and  of  a  species  of 
narcissus  are  manufactured  into  essences;  also  the  leaves  of  the  citron- 
ella  plant,  the  root  of  the  Iris  florentinn  (violet  root)  the  patchouli 
flowers,  sandalwood,  etc. 

Fortunately  for  many  places  in  the  Riviera,  the  consumption  of 
these  essences  has  not  decreased  in  late  years. 

Although  many  of  these  perfumes  are  bad  for  the  nervous  system, 
others  are  recognized  as  antiseptics. 

Destruction  of  Cork  Forests  in  Italy. — While  Spain  still  fur- 
nishes 32,800  tons  of  cork  annually,  the  production  of  Italy  has  decreased 
to  4,000  tons.  Th(»  value  of  the  Spanish  exports  of  cork  amounts  to 
$6,000,000  per  year,  against  less  than  $250,000  for  Italy.  Only  Sicily 
and  Sardinia  are  still  producing  cork  to  any  considerable  extent  in 
Italy,  while  the  former  great  oak  forests  of  Calabria  are  almost  totally 
destroyed.  It  seems  incomprehensible  that  this  destruction  has  been 
permitted.  The  trees  easily  reach  an  age  of  two  hundred  years.  They 
yield  cork  in  their  thirtieth  year  and  continue  to  do  so  every  seven  years. 
Seventy-five  years  ago  the  English  demand  for  cork  was  supplied 
exclusively  from  Italy.  The  destruction  of  the  remaining  forests  goes 
on  uninterruptedly,  and  nobody  seems  to  try  to  prevent  it  or  to  plant 


GEOGRAPHICAL   NOTES  93 


new  forests,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Italy  possesses  the  most  favorable 
climate  and  soil  for  the  cork  oak,  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  its 
growth  being  found  in  the  volcanic  soil  of  the  peninsula. — Monthly 
Consular  Reports,  December ^  1903. 

Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry  : 

DECEMBER 
Agaves:     A  Group  of  Useful  Plants  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  Decem- 
ber 12. 

British  Columbia  Water  Powers  (Illus.),  Emjineerinij  Mag. 

California  in  Winter  (Illus.),  World  To-day. 

Canada,  American  Invasion  of  (Illus.),  World  To-day. 

Ceylon:     Impressions  of  the  Far  East  (Illus.),  World  To-day. 

China,  Railway  Making  in  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 

Coal-Mining  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Engineering  Mag. 

Com  Belt,  Life  in,  World^s  Work. 

Diseases  of  Farm  Animals  in  Am.,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  December  5. 

East  River  Bridge  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  December  19. 

Farming:     The  New  Farmer  and  a  New  Earth   (Illus.),   World^s 
Work. 

Hemp  Industry,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  December  5. 

Insect  Pests  in  Am.  Agriculture,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  December  12. 

Iron  and  Steel  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  {Special  Edition),  December  12. 

Irrigation  in  Ancient  Chaldea,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  December  12. 

Korea  and  International  Politics  (Illus.),  World  To-day. 

Louisiana  Sugar  Plantation  (Illus.),  Country  Life. 

Orange  Crop  of  the  U.  S.,  Crop  Reporter. 

Paris,  Metropolitan  Railway  of  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 

Philippines:      Commercial  Fibers  of,   Mo.  Summary  of  Commerce 
of  the  Philippine  Is.,  July. 

Philippines:     Progress  Among  the  Moros  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 

Potato  Cultivation  in  Germany,  Consular  Rep. 

Primitive  Inventions  (Illus.),  The  Craftsman.  November. 

Rubber  Tree  of  Central  America  (Illus.) ,  Sci.  Am.  Supp.,  December  5. 

Sarsaparilla,  Paint,  Oil  and  Drug  Rev.,  December  2. 

Scotch  Oil  Industry,  Paint.  Oil  and  Drug  Rev.,  December  16. 

Sicilian  Hills  (Illus.),  World  To-day. 

Speculation  and  Business  (Illus.),  System. 

Standard  Oil  Co.,  Part  II,  Ch.  I  (Illus.),  McClure's  Mag. 

Warehousing  Industr}^  Mo.  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance. 

Who  Owns  the  United  States?     World's  Work 


94  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 


GEOGRAPHICAL  QUERIES 

A   (LEAKING   IIorSK   FOR  (iEOGKAPHICAL   WANTS  AND  DOUBTS. 

IT  is  hoped  this  department  will  prove  of  practical  benefit  to  teachers  of  geogra- 
phy, opening  a  way  for  the  solving  of  the  many  geographical  problems  which 
are  constantly  met  with  in  the  classroom.  All  questions  received  will  be  answered 
by  specialist*  in  the  various  methods  of  geographical  work.  We  invite  inquiries, 
criticisms,  suggestions,  and  discussions.  Address  all  communications  for  this 
department  to:        ki3\vAIU)  M.  LEHXERTS,  Winorm,  Minn. 

(6)     Having  noticed  a  tendency  in  the  schools  to  combine  language 

lessons  with  the  teaching  of  geograpliy,  I  would  appreciate  a  statement 

from  Thk  Journal  of  CIkogkaphy  as  to  where,  in  its  opinion,  lies 

the  value  of  this  correlation  of  one  pedagogical  subject  with  another. 

M.  Faulds,  Aylnier  (West),  Ontario,  Canada. 

The  function  of  language  is  to  express  thought.  Language  fulfills 
its  function  wlien  it  enables  the  individual  to  convey  to  others  his 
states  of  consciousness.  That  form  which  expresses  thought  most 
clearly  and  most  concisely  is  the  b(\st  form. 

Any  one  who  has  watclied  the  development  of  children  before  they 
enter  school,  knows  liow  rapidly  they  acipiire  the  ability  to  use  lan- 
guage. Early  childliood  is  a  j)erio(l  of  intense  activity.  It  is  a  stage 
of  inquiry,  of  desire  to  know.  Tlie  world  is  rapidly  unfolding  before 
the  eyes  of  tlie  child,  and  he  camiot  remain  passive  in  the  ])resence  of 
sucli  wonders,  l^xpression  becomes  a  neces.sity,  and  lience  the  power 
to  use  language  deve]o|)s  rapidly. 

To  the  teacher  this  fact  should  he  very  significant.  It  is  at  once 
associated  with  the  immediate  lu^eds  and  desires  of  the  child,  and  with 
his  present  eiiviromnent.  Why  not  follow  this  method  in  the  school? 
Create  a  desire  to  ])()ssess,  and  you  have  implanted  in  the  mind  that 
which  is  fundamental  in  leading  to  possession.  It  is  evident  that  this 
desire  will  grow  out  of  that  in  which  the  child  is  most  deeply  interested 
—  his  environment  —  for  in  this  his  experiences  are  bound  up. 

In  the  study  of  geograpliy  we  are  constantly  dealing  with  objects  of 
interest,  l)eauty.  use.  We  aw  studying  processes  which  influence  the 
daily  life  of  every  living  thing.  Types  of  the  objects  are  ever  before 
the  pupils.  The  processes  by  which  the  world  has  been  and  is  being 
shaped  are  at  work  upon  every  hillside  and  highway,  along  every 
stream  course,  and  in  the  very  atmosphere  about  us. 

Geograj)hy  thus  opens  an  uidimited  field  for  training  in  the  use  of 
language,  ])oth  oral  and  written.     Let  the  pupil  be  taught  to  express  his 


EDITORIAL  95 


growing  personal  experiences  in  the  best  form.  Mistakes  must  be  dis- 
covered, with  or  without  the  aid  of  the  teacher,  and  must  be  corrected 
by  the  pupil.     Demand  the  child's  best  in  all  work. 

How  shall  we  test  the  value  of  the  present  method  of  teaching  lan- 
guage? I  believe  that  I  am  c^uite  correct  in  saying  that  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  judge  the  pupil's  progress  by  his  record  in  the  language 
class.  It  is  in  connection  with  geography,  history,  arithmetic,  and 
other  subjects  that  the  test  should  be  made. 

Manual  training  involves  the  use  of  the  saw,  hammer,  plane,  and 
other  tools.  What  teacher  of  mamial  training  would  attempt  to  teach 
the  use  of  these  tools  by  having  his  ]nipils  saw,  hanuner,  and  plane 
worthless  scraps  of  lumber  month  after  month  and  year  after  year? 
Children  learn  how  to  use  these  tools  by  making  something.  In  other 
words,  the  tools  are  used  just  as  they  arc  used  in  the  actual  affairs  of 
life  —  as  a  means  of  expression.  Does  manual  training  suffer  by  being 
taught  in  a  rational  manner?  Should  language  be  taught  by  a  methc  I 
any  les{^  rational? 

Language  should  be  taught  in  connection  witli  geography  and  all 
other  subjects  for  the  following  reasons:  (1)  Its  function  is  to  express 
our  thoughts  in  terms  of  these  sui)jects.  (2)  This  method  is  along 
the  line  of  the  pupil's  interest.  (3)  It  makes  possible  the  greatest 
progress.  (4)  It  furnishes  a  rational  test  of  the  pupil's  ability.  (5)  It 
makes  language  a  means  rather  than  an  end. 

J.  y.  Chamberlaix, 
Sfatc  Xortrial  School,  Los  A  vticlca,  Calijornia, 


EDITORIAL 

GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING  IN  NORMAL  AND  TRAINING  SCHOOLS 

DURING  the  agitation  for  better  geography  teaching  in  elementary 
and  secondary  schools  which  lias  been  going  on  now  fr)r  more 
than  a  decade,  but  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  prob- 
lem of  geography  teaching  in  normal  and  training  schools.  Inasmuch 
as  these  schools  are  the  source  of  special  training  of  a  large  proportion 
of  the  teachers  employed  in  (lementar}^  schools,  especially  in  cities,  this 
neglect  of  attention  has  l^een  most  unfortunate.  Teachers  have  been 
spurred  on  by  new  and  revolutionary  texts,  by  new  and  perhaps  over 
detailed  courses  of  study,  by  constant  discussion  in  the  pedagogical 
journals,  and  have  l)een  urged  to  make  striking  changes  in  their  methods 
of  teaching  and  in  the  choice  of  materials  to  be  presented  in  classroom 
work,  while  httle  attention  in  a  connected  way  has  been  given  to  the 


g6  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  February 

improvement  of  geography  training  in  the  professional  schools  for  teachers. 

In  several  of  the  normal  schools,  particularly  in  the  western  states, 
the  task  of  training  pupil  teachers  in  geography  has  been  entrusted  to 
teachers  who  have  had  opportunities  of  specializing  in  geography  during 
their  academic  training.  Even  these  trained  leaders  have  not,  however, 
compared  notes  and  discussed  plans  of  work,  as  have  the  teachers  in 
secondary  schools.  As  a  result,  the  normal  school  teaching  of  geog- 
raphy in  the  countr}^  at  large  is  at  present  uneven  in  method,  in  point 
of  view,  and  in  results. 

Students  who  have  gone  through  a  two  years^  normal  or  training 
course,  following  a  high-school  course,  ought  to  have  gained  that  knowl- 
edge of  geography,  and  of  methods  of  teaching,  which  will  give  them 
confidence  in  their  work  and  a  feeling  of  reserve  strength  beyond  the 
needs  of  everyday  school  life.  A  teacher  who  must  give  to  her  pupils 
all  she  knows  herself  is  to  be  pitied, for  she  is  always  liable  to  be  upset 
by  the  sagacious  question  of  some  active-minded  pupil  who  sees  beyond 
the  text  and  lesson  of  the  day. 

A  teacher  who  has  had  the  benefit  of  a  professional  training  ought 
to  know  what  is  essential  and  what  nonessential  in  geography  for  school 
work;  she  ought  to  understand  the  cross-relations  between  the  several 
divisions  of  geography  onUnarily  separated  in  a  school  text;  she  should 
be  familiar  with  the  best  sources  of  reference  and  know  how  to  seek  new 
and  additional  information  in  atlases,  cyclopedias  and  compendia; 
and  above  all  she  shoul<l  be  able  to  sift  the  small  amount  of  accurate 
and  valuable  material  from  the  vast  abundance  of  geographical  chaff 
poured  forth  from  the  press,  and  especially  from  the  daily  press. 

There  is  no  field  of  school  work  in  which  a  knowledge  of  geography 
is  of  more  inune<liate  value  than  in  the  current  events  class.  Any 
teacher  who  has  not  gained  from  her  professional  course  in  geography 
a  knowledge  of  facts  and  principles  that  will  be  of  ever\'da3'  service 
and  consolation,  has  been  negligent  in  her  work  or  has  been  trained 
in  a  bad  way. 

It  is  for  the  purj)ose  of  showing  how  these  ideals  can  be  obtained 
that  The  Joxtrnal  begins  this  month  the  j)ublication  of  a  new  series  of 
articles  ^  dealing  with  the  geography  courses  in  several  of  the  progressive 
normal  schools  of  the  co\mtr\\  The  editors  will  welcome  further  con- 
tributions to  the  subject,  either  in  the  way  of  (questions  or  discussions, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  the  series  may  be  of  help  and  inspiration  to  all 
teachers  of  geography  in  normal  and  training  schools. 

'  Sec  also,  The  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  II.,  pp.  393,  469,  507. 


REVIEWS  97 


REVIEWS 

The  Geography  of  Commerce.     By  Spencer  Trotter.     Size  5  by  7J  inches.     Pp. 

xxiv  and  410.     New  York:     The  Macmillan  Company,  1903. 

A  crop  of  books  is  now  appearing  on  the  subject  of  commercial  geography. 
The  Elementary  Commercial  Geography  of  C.  C.  Adams  was  reviewed  in  these  pages 
recently.     The  book  of  Dr.  Trotter  is  similar  in  scope  and  purp)ose. 

This  is  the  first  volume  of  Macmillan's  Commercial  Series.  The  editor's  intro- 
duction indicates  that  the  series  is  to  contain  two  books  on  geography  in  relation  to 
industry;  namely,  one  devoted  to  the  physical  laws  and  facts  influencing  industry, 
and  one  developing  the  "standpoint  of  men  and  organizations  of  men."  The  author 
appears  to  dissent,  for  on  the  first  page  of  Chapter  I  we  find  the  statement  that 
"Geography  is  used  in  the  following  pages  in  its  broad  meaning,  and  includes  an 
account  of  man  and  nature,  and  the  interactions  which  are  an  outcome  of  their 
relationship  to  each  other.'*  We  venture  to  protest  that  commercial  geography  is  so 
new  a  study  in  American  schools,  and  its  aims  and  methods,  its  disciplinary  value, 
and  its  place  in  the  curriculum  are  all  so  uncertain,  that  to  split  the  various  \iew- 
points  of  the  subject  apart  into  separate  books  will  be  to  introduce  the  greatest 
confusion.  Furthermore,  it  must  be  urged  that  to  divide  the  subject  along  the  lines 
proposed  will  be  to  prevent  the  effective  juxtaposition  of  facts  within  a  volume, 
in  the  eflfort  to  reveal  the  essential  conditions  of  industry  as  they  arise,  partly  from 
the  physical  environment,  partly  from  the  culture,  laws,  customs  and  institutions 
of  human  society,  and  become  intimately  associated  in  the  process  of  wealth  pro- 
duction. 

Wliile  there  is  much  that  is  excellent  in  the  book  before  us,  and  while  the  sug- 
gested questions  and  topics  and  the  bibliographies  following  each  chapter  give  evi- 
dence of  much  careful  work,  it  nmst  be  admitted  that  the  text  proper  is  disappoint- 
ing, both  because  of  an  unsatisfactory  general  plan  for  the  arrangement  and  balanc- 
ing of  the  various  topics  treated,  and  because  the  substance  of  the  individual  para- 
graphs is  composed  of  the  more  obvious  and  superficial  facts  of  industry,  and  these 
are  not  sufficiently  digested  in  relation  to  any  body  of  general  principles  which  the 
student  may  seize  upon  and  retain  after  the  specific  facts  have  been  forgotten  or 
have  become  out-of-date. 

The  photographs  with  which  the  book  is  embellished  are  excellent;  the  charts 
also  are  correct  in  principle  though  by  no  means  striking.  The  maps  are  quite 
ordinary  in  character;  some  of  them,  like  the  thumb-nail  maps  on  pages  90,  92, 
99,  and  102,  are  too  small  to  show  much  of  im|X)rtance;  others  are  overloaded  with 
data,  as  illustrated  by  the  map  of  South  America  on  page  208;  while  some  are  de- 
cidedly inaccurate,  like  the  map  on  page  53  comparing  the  area  of  European 
countries  with  that  of  the  United  States. 

E.  D.  J. 

Elementary  Geography.  A  Text-book  for  Children.  By  Charles  F.  King.  Size 
10}  X  8}.  Pp.  VI,  220.  26  maps  and  numerous  illustrations.  Boston:  Lothrop 
P^ublishing  Company,  1903. 

The  author  of  King's  Elementary  Geography  aims  to  cover  the  first  two  years 
of  geography  work.  The  first  section  deals  with  obsenational  home  geography — 
by  means  of  trips  to  the  park,  the  fields,  the  hills,  and  the  seashore;  elementary 
<*oncepts  of  surface,  land,  and  water  forms,  work  of  air  and  water,  the  weather  and 


98  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  February 

the  seiusons  are  brought  out.  Then  type  forms  are  taken  up.  The  child's  early 
interests  in  the  particular  rather  than  the  general  are  appealed  to  by  the  study 
of  a  mountain  (Mt.  Washington),  a  river  (the  Hudson),  a  prairie,  a  coast,  a  cold, 
a  hot,  and  a  temperate  country.  The  earth  as  a  whole  is  dealt  with,  and  then  the 
continents  by  means  of  journeys.  The  author  has  used  the  journey  method  to 
add  interest  and  sequence  to  the  work,  but  he  has  not  fallen  into  the  conniion  error 
of  allowing  this  method  to  breed  superficiality.  Vital  and  fundamental  facts  have 
been  emphasized. 

Less  ground  hiis  bt^n  covered  than  in  man\'  geographies  because  it  has  seemed 
more  important  to  appeal  to  the  child's  interest  in  the  real,  the  concrete,  than  to 
attempt  to  cover  more  ground  in  a  general  manner.  Cities  and  industries  are  clearly 
and  concisely  described  with  sufficient  detail  to  keep  interest  in  the  reality.  Some 
of  us  will  question  the  lulvisability  of  using  the  personal  element  and  story  form  to 
such  an  extent,  and  even  the  extensive  use  of  the  journey  method  in  a  text-book, 
but  the  book  will  be  interesting  to  every  teacher  of  geography.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  the  book  is  noteworthy.  The  innnerous  illustrations  are  clear,  attractive, 
and  illuminate  the  text.     The  maps  are  sini{)le  and  clear.  L.  W.  H. 


RECENT  PUBLICATIONS 

Manual   of  Geography   and  Language.      Hy    C.  E.  Mann,  Chicago.     Pp.  151. 

Chicago:  M.  A.  Donohue  &  Company,  1903. 

This  latest  manual  of  geography  contains  an  outline  of  a  course  of  geography 
that  has  been  tested  by  use,  and  practical  suggestions  as  to  ways  of  approaching 
the  different  subjects  accepted  as  pertinent  to  the  course.  The  outlines  are  largely 
devoted  to  economic  and  industrial  topics.  The  book  contains  some  very  helpful 
and  suggestive  questions  for  review  purposes,  but  is  not  particularly  new  or  indi- 
vidual. 

Pioneer  Spaniards  in  North  America.     Hv  ^^'illiam  Henrv  Johnson.     Pp.  xvi  and 

381.     Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Company,  1903. 

An  interesting  account  of  explorers  like  Vespucius,  Balboa,  Ponce  de  Leon, 
Cort^^s,  De  Vaca,  Coronado.  and  De  Soto,  illustrate<l  by  many  reproductions  of  old 
plates  and  a  few  of  old  maps.  A  good  book  of  reference  for  teachers  dealing  with 
the  period  of  exploration  in  America. 

Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography.    By  George  G.  Chisholm.     Fourth  corrected 
edition.     Pp.  xlvi  and  639.     London  and  New  York:  Longmans,  Green  and 
Company,   1903. 
A  revised  and  much-(»nlarged  edition  of  a  well-known  and  .standard  book.     A 

book  of  reference  which  may  be  used  as  a  text  in  the  higher  grades  of  teaching. 

To  be  reviewed  later. 

Precis  de  Geographie  Economique.     By  Dubois  and  Kergomard.    Second  edition. 

Pp.  viii  and  837.     Paris:  Ma.sson  et  Cie.,  1903. 

An  up-to-date  conunercial  geograj)hy  arranged  by  countries.  Lacks  illustra- 
tions and  has  a  meager  index.  In  the  treatment  of  each  country  the  causal  idea 
is  well  emphasized,  and  comparisons  with  similar  conditions  in  other  countries  are 
clearly  brought  out. 


RECENT  PUBLICATIONS  99 


Descriptive  Chemistry.     Bv  Lvinan  C.  Xewell.     Pp.  vi,  590.     Boston:  1).C.  Heath, 

1903. 

A  descriptive  cheniistr>',  primarily  for  teacliers  and  students  of  chemist rv.  A 
valuable  book  of  reference  for  teachers  of  geography  who  wish  to  know  more  about 
the  chemical  side  work  of  the  atmosphere,  and  water,  or  about  other  topics  of 
similar  nature. 

The  Land  of  Little  Rain.     Bv  Marv  Austin.     Pp.  xi,  281.     Boston:    Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co.,  19a3. 

A  book  on  the  desert  ^^Titten  by  an  enthusiastic  desert  lover  who  speaks  from 
intimate  knowledge.  Most  highly  commended  to  all  who  want  an  adequate  pre- 
sentation of  the  truth  about  deserts.     To  be  reviewed  later. 

The  Yellowstone  National  Park.    Bv  Hiram  M.  Chittenden.    Fourth  edition.     Pp. 

X,  355.     Cincinnati:  Robert  Clarke  Co.,  1903. 

A  revised  and  enlarge<l  edition  of  a  well-knowii  guide-book  to  the  Yellowstone. 
To  be  reviewed  later. 

The  Cause  of  the  Glacial  Period.    Bv  H.  L.  True.    Pp.  xii,  102.     (Cincinnati:  Hobert 

Clarke  Co.,  1903. 

A  review  of  the  .several  theories  which  have  l)een  suggested  to  account  for  the 
glacial  period,  and  followed  by  a  presentation  of  the  author's  views.  To  be  reviewe<l 
ater. 

The  Philippine  Islands,   1493-1898.     Kdited  and  amiotated  by  Knnna  H.   Blair 
and  James  H.  Robertson.     Cleveland:   Arthur  H.  Clark  Co.,  1903. 

Vol.     11—1521-1569.     Pp.  335. 

Vol.    Ill— 1569-1576.     Pp.  317. 

Vol.    IV— 1576-1582.     Pp.  320. 

Vol.      V— 1582-1583.     Pp.  321. 

Vol.    VI— 1583-1588.     Pp.  325. 

Vol.  VII— 1588-1591.  Pp.  320. 
The  beginning  volumes  in  an  inclusive  series  to  cover  the  history  and  geography 
of  the  Philippine  Islands  from  1493  to  1898,  when  Spanish  rule  ceased.  The  volumes 
are  translations  from  original  documents,  are  well  arranged  and  edite<l,  and  appear 
in  a  pleasing  typography  and  fonn.  Of  special  value  to  students  of  historical 
geography  and  should  be  found  in  the  leading  libraries. 

The  Philippines,   a  Geographical    Reader.      By   Samuel   MacClintock.      Pp.    105, 
with  four  maps.     New  York:   American  Book  Company,  1903. 
A  simple  book,  dealing  briefly  with  certain  of  the  best-known  areas  of  the  Phil- 
ippines.    Well  illustrated  and  timely,  but  not  especially  interesting. 

New  Physical  Geography.     Bv  Ralph  8.  Tarr.     Pp.  xiii,  457.      New  York:    The 

Macmillan  Co.,  1904. 

A  new  book  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name,  by  an  author  whose  j^revious  texts  for 
secondary  schools  have  been  eminently  successful.  Especially  striking  for  its  many 
maps  and  diagrams.  Many  of  the  illustrations  and  some  of  the  diagrams  are  too 
indistinct  to  be  helpful.  It  is  eminently  practical  and  will  immediately  be  ranked 
as  one  of  the  less  than  half-dozen  books  on  physical  geography  which  can  be  used 
to  advantage  in  secondary  and  normal  schools.     To  be  reviewed  later. 


lOO  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


NEWS  NOTES 

Geography  at  the  Normal  School,  Trenton,  N.  J. — Part  II  of  the 
Second  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific  Study 
of  Education  is  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  Relation  of  Theory 
to  Practice  in  Education.  In  this  there  is  given  a  suggestive  outline 
of  the  course  in  geography  given  to  students  in  the  Normal  School  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.  Here  the  plan  is  for  the  pupil  teacher  to  go  over  the 
subject  matter  of  geography,  much  in  the  same  order  that  is  followed 
in  the  practice  school.  Thus  the  course  for  the  normal  training  students 
is  closely  parallel  to  the  course  in  the  practice  school,  though  much 
more  inclusive.  A  study  of  this  plan,  therefore,  will  give  a  good  idea 
of  the  school  course  of  study.  The  plan  followed  is  somewhat  at 
variance  with  the  usual  courses  of  study  for  pupil  teachers  in  normal 
schools,  but  is  suggestive  and  helpful. 

A  New  Trial  for  the  North  Pole. — Commander  Pear>%  the  well- 
known  and  indefatigable  Arctic  explorer,  has  been  given  three  years' 
leave  of  absence  by  the  laiited  States  Navy  and  will  start  in  July, 
1904,  on  a  new  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole  from  the  American 
side. 

Geographical  Exhibit  to  be  Held  by  the  Geographical  Association 
of  Britain. — The  Geographical  Association  of  Britain,  of  which  Dr.  A. 
J.  Herbertson  is  the  Honorary  Secretary,  will  hold  an  exhibition  of 
books,  maps,  and  geographical  apparatus  in  London  in  January, 
1904.  This  exhibit  will  be  in  association  with  a  Conference  on  School 
Equipment  for  the  Teacliing  of  Geography,  full  accounts  of  which 
may  be  expected  in  the  later  numbers  of  the  GeographiccU  TeacheTj 
of  which  Dr.  Herbertson  is  editor.  I^y  mutual  agreement  between  the 
editors,  contributions  to  the  Gvoifraphical  Teacher  which  are  of  value 
in  America  are  reprinted  in  this  Journal  and  a  similar  use  is  made  of 
the  Journal  of  Gkographv  in  the  Geocjra'phicid  Teacher. 


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TOPICS  X  Weekly  Class  ProKrams-For  all  Grammar  Grades  Including  Departmental  Work. 
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Illustrative  Lessons:  Alms;  re- 
sults and  suKKeHiIons.  8elcc- 
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takes to  be  avoided. 

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Arithmetic  of  the  Last  Year. 

(rlvIuK  aims,  suK»r<istlons,  and 
•  model  lessons. 
The  Metric  System  — How   to 

Teach  It. 

Geoirraphy 

In  the  Fourth  Year.    A  ooin- 
nlete  outline  plsn   arranged 
by  weeks  for  the  term. 
Comparison  In  Geography— 
(<i)  Topics  that  may  form  the 
centres  of  comparison. 
(6)  Methods  to  b«*  employed 
In  comparing  new  topics 
with  familiar  ones. 


IIlMtory 

HWorlc  New  York-  lUuHtratM. 
Facts    a    teacher    should 
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History  In  the  Upper  Grades. 

How  to  Teach  Civics. 

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Practical   Hints  on  the   De< 

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Journal  of  Pedagogy 

IPROM  the  first  issue  the  Journal  of  Pedagogy  has  been  edited  solely  in  the  interest 
of  sound  education  and  correct  teachin>c.  Some  of  tlie  most  important  contribu- 
tions to  pedaj<o|jical  literature  in  this  country  have  appeared  in  its  paees  durinji?  the 
past  decade.  It  is  the  aim. of  the  ma>«ra7-ine  to  offer  from  issue  to  issue  a  full  and  impar- 
tial account  of  the  progress  that  is  being  nuide  toward  better  things  in  educational 
thought  and  practice. 

It  has  become  a  necessity  to  every  library,  and  teachers  who  wish  the  best  must 
include  it  in  their  list  of  periodicals. 


XVI 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

SEPTEMBER 


1903 


EDITORIAL  —  The  Batavia  System— What  the  Batavia  System  Is  — A  Quickened  Intellec- 
tual Life  —  The  Right  View  of  a  Superintendent's  Duties  —  A  Needed  Amendment  — 
Music  in  the  High  School  — A  Difficult  Undertaking  Well  Done  — The  Boston  Meeting 
— Medical  Inspection  of  Schools  —  College  Entrance  Examination  Board. 

TEXT-BOOK  LIBRARIES,  Robert  MacDoll.m.. 

COMMERCIALISM  AGAINST  CULTURE,  J.  H.  ATKtssoN. 

THE  TEACHER'S  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE  RESULTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY, 
F.  E.  SpAiri-Disr.. 

THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION.  M.  A.  Carrinp.er. 

THE  PEDAGOGICAL  VALUE  OF  MEDIATE  INTEREST,  L.  W.  Hoffman. 

MUSIC  STUDY  VS.  PERFORMANCE,  H.  H.  Lanuton. 

AMBIDEXTERITY  AND  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT.  Samuel  S.  Maxwell. 

A  SCHOOL  OF  PRACTICAL  SOCIOLOGY,  D.  C.  Parr. 

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OBSERVATION 
IN  GEOGRAPHY 


GEOGRAPHY  IS  THE  A\EDILA\ 
.  THROUGH  WHICH  THE 
PUPIL  IS  LED  INTO  SCI- 
ENCE WORK.  AND  THE 
"NATURAL  SCIENCES"  A\AY  BE 
CALLED  DirrERENTlATED  GEOG- 
RAPHY. IT  IS  A  PACT  THAT  THE 
RESULTS  or  NATURE  STUDY  IN 
GEOGRAPHICAL  WORK  HAVE  BEEN 
DISTINCTLY  GOOD.  NATURE  STUDY 
HAS  STiy^ULATED  THE  TACULTY  Or 
OBSERVATION,  AND  HAS  TAUGHT 
THE  CHILD  TO  SEE  AND  TO  DIS- 
COVER THINGS.  THE  CHILD  IS  CEAS- 
ING TO  BE  A  PASSIVE  ENTITY.  BUT 
IS  BECO.niNG  AN  ACTIVE  TACTOR. 
BOOK  STUD^'  IS  NECESSARY.  BE- 
CAUSE IT  IS  TIA\E-SAVING  AS 
WELL  AS  LABOR-SAVING:  BUT  THE 
REAL  TRAINING  IN  GEOGRAPHY 
ynUST  COA\E  rROA\  OBSERVA- 
TIONAL WORK.  BECAUSE  IT  IS 
THE  ONLY  WORK  THAT  STIMU- 
LATES THE  PUPIL'S  ACTIVITIES. 

JACQUES  W.  REDW^AY 


'. 


^^^^mmt^^^^f^^m 


The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  MARCH,  1904  No.  3 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA* 

BY   COL.    G.    E.    CHURCH 

ANOTHER  turn  of  the  liistoric  kaleidoscope,  and  this  time  the 
iraii  d! union  between  North  and  South  America  is  an  independ- 
ent State.  What  are  the  physical  characteristics,  the  geograph- 
ical advantages,  the  pxospective  means  for  existence  possessed  by  this 
newly  fledged  commonwealth? 

Its  southeastern  boundary,  if  the  old  departmental  limits  be  main- 
tained, will  follow  the  Serrania  del  Darien,  which  is  the  divortium 
aquarum  between  the  basin  of  the  river  Atrato  and  its  estuary  and  the 
valley  of  the  Tuira,  which  drains  into  the  Gulf  of  Panama.  The  line 
commences  in  the  little  bay  of  Aguacate  or  Octavia,  in  front  of  point 
Mazo  or  Morroquemado,  and  thence  nms  north-northeast,  then  north 
along  the  summits  which  separate  the  rivers  that  flow  to  the  Pacific  from 
those  which  run  to  the  Atlantic.  Reaching  the  headquarters  of  the 
Jurado,  it  turns  west  towards  the  heights  of  Aspave.  It  then  follows, 
generally  in  a  northeast  direction,  the  divide  between  the  Gulf  of 
San  Miguel  and  the  river  Atrato,  until  it  reaches  the  ocean  entrance 
to  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  where  it  diverges  northwest  to  the  headquarters 
of  the  river  Tarena,  the  course  of  which,  until  it  empties  into  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba,  serves  as  the  most  northern  section  of  the  boundary  in 
question,  t 

The  frontier  with  Costa  Rica  will,  according  to  the  award  of  Presi- 
dent Loubet  in  1900,  start  from  Cape  Mona,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
and  enclose,  on  the  north,  the  basin  of  the  river  Tarire  (the  lower  course 
of  which  is  sometimes  called  the  Sixola),  and  then,  by  the  watershed 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  (which  is  the  narrow-crested 

♦  Reprinted  from  the  Geographical  Journal^  December,  1903. 
t  See  Perze,  Geografia  Fisica  de  los  Estados  Unidos  de  Colombia, 


Copyright y  igo4^  by  E.  M.  Lehnerts 


I02  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  March 

Cordillera  of  Talamanca),  southeasterly  to  9  degrees  N.  lat.;  thence, 
it  will  take  a  southerly  direction  and  follow  the  divide  between  Chiriqui 
Viejo  and  the  tributaries  of  the  Gulf  of  Dulce,  and  terminate  at  Point 
Burica,  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

A  great  river,  the  Atrato,  flows  in  a  deep  gorge  northward  into  the 
Gulf  of  Uraba  or  Darien,  and  separates  the  "Occidental  Cordillera" 
of  Colombia  from  the  outlying  parallel  coast  range,  washed  by  the 
waves  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  known  as  the  Sierra  de  Baudo.  This 
is  generally  low,  its  highest  peak  being  only  6,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
Its  average  elevation  is  from  2,600  to  3,300  feet,  and  its  lowest  depres- 
sions from  1,000  to  1,600.  It  is  a  wild  chaos  of  ridges,  highlands,  and 
spurs,  terribly  ravined  by  torrential  rains,  thickly  forested,  and  ren- 
dered almost  impassable  by  an  infinite  number  of  rivers,  brooks,  and 
tropical  swamps  and  jungles — a  jjestiferous  region  uninviting  as  a 
home  for  man. 

In  the  latitude  of  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  the  extension  of  the  Sierra  de 
Baudo  pushes  into  the  Isthnms  of  Panama,  on  the  Pacific  side,  as  far 
as  the  mouth  of  the  river  Bayamo  or  Chepo,  where  it  completely  dis- 
appears. En  route  it  breaks  down  to  give  place  to  the  Bay  of  San 
Miguel  and  its  tributary  river  system  of  the  Tuira.  Southeast  of  this 
bay  is  a  low  massif  called  the  Altos  de  Aspave,  and  northwest  of  it 
another  culminating  height,  broadly  spurred  and  counterforted,  con- 
nected by  a  transverse  ridge  with  the  low  range  which  overlooks  the 
Gulf  of  Darien. 

The  Altos  de  Aspave  throws  off,  to  the  northeast,  the  Serrania  del 
Darien,  which  crosses  from  the  Pacific  Coast  to  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba.  Thence  it  skirts  the  Caribbean  coast  as  far  as  Porto  Bello, 
occasionally,  for  long  distances,  rising  from  the  seashore  in  bold  escarp- 
ments.    Its  principal  summits  are  from  500  to  2  JOO  feet  above  the  sea. 

At  the  Cliagres  River,  that  b*^te  noire  of  the  Canal  Company,  the 
Serrania  del  Darien  completely  breaks  down,  and  the  summit  height 
between  the  two  oceans  is  but  300  feet  above  sea  level.  With  the 
exception  of  the  interoceanic  water-divide  in  Nicaragua,  which  is  153 
feet,  it  is  the  lowest  break  in  the  Andean  and  Rocky  Mountain  chain 
between  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  Northern  Alaska. 

The  orographic  system  of  the  western  half  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
is  bolder  and  better  defined  than  that  of  the  eastern  portion.  The 
region  has  a  broad  l)ackbonc  ribbed  by  numerous  counterforts,  but 
occasionally  broadening  into  complex  belts  of  highlands  and  isolated 
cerros.     From  tlie  Costa  Rica  frontier,  the  range  takes  the  name  of 


1904  THE  REPUBLIC  OP  PANAMA  IO3 

Sierra  de  Chiriqui,  then  Veragua,  and  afterwards  is  known  as  the 
Sierra  de  Panama.  In  the  first  is  the  extinct  volcano  of  Chiriqui, 
11,000  feet*  elevation  above  the  sea,  but  the  entire  sierra  has  an 
average  altitude  of  6,500  feet.  The  Sierra  de  Veragua  presents  us  with 
the  dome  of  Santiago,  which  rises  to  9,275  feet,  while  the  Tuta  reaches 
5,000  and  the  Santa  Maria  4,600.  The  Sierra  de  Panama  seems  to  be 
thrown  broadcast  into  disorderly  fragments  without  law  or  regularity, 
and  its  summits  nowhere  exceed  an  elevation  of  1,600  feet. 


C   A    R    I    B    B    E    A    N  SEA 


PA C I F ! C        O C E A N 


Map  I.  THE  REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA. 

Showing  ike  new  boundary  lines,  ihe  route  of  the  Panama  railroad,  and  the  proposed  route  of  the 

Panama  canal. 

West  of  Montijo  Bay,  on  the  Pacific  side,  a  broad  and  massive 
mountain  outwork  forms  the  peninsula  of  Las  Palmas^  and  between 
that  and  the  Bay  of  Panama  lies  the  great  peninsula  of  Azuero,  which 
shows  a  capricious,  distinctive  orographic  system  of  highlands  and 
sierras.  Its  bold  headlands,  which  overlook  the  ocean,  rise  to  an 
altitude  of  3,000  feet. 

About  150  short  rivers  flow  to  the  sea  from  the  northern  side  of 
the  isthmus,  and  over  double  that  number  drain  it5  Pacific  slope.  The 
largest  and  most  important  is  the  Tuira,  which  rises  in  the  Pirn  Moun- 
tains just  north  of  the  Bay  of  San  Miguel,  and  empties  into  this.  The 
Tuira  is  navigable  for  river  schooners  as  far  up  as  the  first  Spanish 
settlement,  Santa  Maria  del  Real;  but,  owing  to  the  bars,  they  can  not 
ascend  to  Pinogava,  which  is  the  highest  point  reached  by  the  tides. 

♦F.  J.  Vergara  y  Velasca,  Nueva  Oeografia  de  Colombia. 


104  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  ManA 

During  the  dry  season,  the  river-bed  above  tidewater  is  a  succession 
of  rapids,  beyond  which  the  river  dwindles  into  a  small  stream.  The 
marks  on  the  trees  indicate  a  rise  of  sixteen  feet  during  the  wet  season, 
when  the  volume  of  water  carried  by  the  Tuira  and  it«  eleven  main  tribu* 
taries  is  immense.  Its  principal  affluent  is  the  Chucunaque  from  the 
north.     It  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  Tuira  itself. 

The  Bayanio,  or  Chepo,  rises  in  the  same  knot  as  the  Chucunaque, 
but  flows  northwest  and  then  west  and  south  until  it  discharges  into 
the  Gulf  of  Panama.  It  is  about  150  miles  long,  and  it  is  claimed  that 
130  miles  of  its  course  can  be  navigated  by  rafts  and  small  craft.  It  has 
a  wide  estuary,  the  entrance  to  which  has  a  bar  \\dth  but  two  feet  of 
water  at  low  tide.  The  remaining  streams  on  the  Pacific  side  are 
short  and  torrential,  and  of  little  value,  even  for  canoe  navigation, 
except  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  their  mouths. 

On  the  Caribbean  slope  of  Panama  there  are  but  two  of  its  many 
rivers  which  merit  attention,  as  offering  some  advantages  as  commercial 
outlets  for  the  districts  they  drain.  These  streams  are  the  Chagres 
and  the  Teliri,  known  now  as  the  Tarire  in  the  decision  of  the  boundary- 
Une  dispute  between  Colombia  and  Costa  Rica.  The  Chagres,  a  historic 
waterway  ever  since  the  discovery  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  by  Colombo, 
flows  into  the  Caribbean  Sea  a  little  to  the  west  of  Porto  Bello.  It  has 
a  bar  on  which  there  are  11  feet  of  water,  just  outside  the  Laja  reef, 
through  which  there  is  a  passage  70  feet  wide  with  14  feet  of  water. 
The  Chagres  is  navigable  for  boats  to  within  fourteen  miles  of  the 
Pacific,  and  is  tame  or  fierce  according  to  the  season.  In  the  dry  season 
it  is  a  deep  ditch  with  a  few  feet  of  muddy  water  at  the  bottom,  but 
when  the  saturated  clouds  burst  over  its  drainage  area  of  1,000  square 
miles,  and  pour  into  it,  at  times,  a  uniform  depth  of  seven  inches  of 
water  in  a  day,  the  river  rises  over  forty  feet  in  twelve  hours,  and 
carries  with  it,  in  its  torrential  race  to  the  sea,  a  vast  mass  of  tropical, 
arboreal  rubbish,  clay,  mud,  and  detritus  which  it  receives  from  its 
swollen  tributaries,  it  will  l>e  extremely  interesting  for  the  engineering 
and  financial  world  to  watch  the  coming  contest  between  the  Chagres 
River  anil  tlie  United  States  Treasury.  In  comparison  to  the  Chagres, 
the  San  Juan  River  of  Nicaragua  is  a  plaything. 

The  Tarire,  the  mouth  of  which  is  in  lat.  9°  34'  14"  N.,  runs  along 
the  southern  base  of  the  great  east^^rn  counterfort  of  the  Talamanca- 
Chiricjui  range,  through  a  spacious,  undulating  wooded  valley  of  100 
to  150  square  miles  area,  having  low  grounds  which  are  sometimes  dry 
and  at  others  swampy.     Its  Ur^n  branch  rises  on  the  northeast  slope 


1904 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA  IO5 


of  the  Pico  Blanco,  the  view  from  the  summit  of  which  is  said  to  be 
"incomparably  more  extensive''  than  that  from  the  crest  of  the  Costa 
Rica  volcano  of  Irazu.  The  Tarire  is  navigable  for  Hght-draft  steamers 
for  fifteen  miles  up,  but,  from  the  Ur^n  to  Gule,  there  are  twentynsix 
rapids  and  numerous  snags.  Boats  carrying  half  a  ton  of  goods  ascend 
to  Sapurio,  one  and  one-half  miles  up  the  Ur^n.  Between  the  Tarire 
and  the  small  river  Tilorio  farther  south  is  the  crooked,  narrow,  and 
deep  estuary  called  the  Laguna  de  Sansdn,  an  ancient  affluent  of  the 
Tilorio,  full  of  sharks,  alligators,  and  fish.  It  receives  a  little  stream 
called  the  Dalni,  which  drains  an  impassable  swamp.  Southeast  of 
and  near  the  Tilorio  is  the  Boca  del  Drago,  one  of  the  entrances  to 
Almirante  Bay.* 

Panama  has  many  bays  and  ports  on  both  oceans,  but  the  greater 
part  of  them  seem  to  be  the  undisturbed  home  of  silence  and  primeval 
solitude.  There  is  no  accessible  country  behind  them  which  offers  an 
easy  field  for  development.  He  is  a  bold  pioneer  who  dares  to  throw 
down  the  gauntlet  to  nature  in  Panama.  There  she  displays  her  forces 
with  magnificent  abandon;  the  very  ocean-margin  is  a  wall  of  vegeta- 
tion; nearly  every  swamp,  hill,  slope,  mountain-side,  and  gorge  is 
densely  packed  with  growth  of  trees,  shrub,  vine,  parasite,  and  grasses, 
forming  a  tangled  jungle,  sweating  with  the  effort  to  maintain  existence 
under  the  vertical  rays  of  a  tropical  sun.  The  view  is  beautiful  from 
the  deck  of  a  vessel,  and  no  wonder  that  Luiz  Colombo  selected  a  part 
of  "Castilla  del  Oro"  as  his  fairyland,  where  his  imagination  might 
revel  to  the  full,  but  which,  unhappily,  could  yield  him  no  other  satis- 
faction. Four  centuries  have  passed  since  he  received  his  grant  of 
ducal  Veragua,  and  although  it  is  within  easy  touch  by  sea  with  North 
America,  it  remains  as  the  great  Colombo  discovered  it,  and  as  it  was 
when  for  centuries  it  was  the  buffer  region  between  Aztec  and  Ingarial 
civilization,  so  called.  With  the  exception  of  bananas,  no  crop  could 
be  planted  which  would  pay  for  clearing  the  lands  of  such  a  region, 
and  keeping  them  cleared;  and  even  bananas  would  not  flourish  suffi- 
ciently well  if  cultivated  at  an  altitude  exceeding  1,500  feet  above  the 
sea.  However  numerous  the  ports  and  bays  of  Panama  on  the  Atlantic 
side,  it  is  probable  that  many  more  centuries  must  pass  before  they 
become  of  any  marked  importance  as  commercial  centers. 

Starting  from  the  Costa  Rica  boundary,  the  first  great  well-protected 
sheet  of  water  is  Almirante  Bay,  which  in  reality  is  the  northwestern 
prolongation  of  the  Laguna  of  Chiriqui.     Together  they  form  a  vast 

♦See  G.  E.  Church,  Costa  Rica  Geographical  Journal,  1897. 
2 


I06  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GBOGRAPHY  SUnA 

sheet  of  water.  The  former  is  thirteen  miles  long  from  east  to  west, 
and  varies  in  breadth  from  two  to  thirteen  miles.  Its  many  harbors 
offer  secure  anchorage  to  ocean-going  ships  of  the  largest  class,  which 
may  often  moor  alongside  the  shore.  A  low  ridge  of  hills  borders  its 
southern  side,  in  some  places  rising  boldly  to  several  himdred  feet 
elevation,  and  two  miles  inland,  reaching  an  altitude  of  1,700  to  2,000 
feet.  The  bay  contains  many  large  and  small  islands.  Its  main 
entrances  from  the  sea  are  the  Boca  del  Drago  and  the  Boca  del  Tore, 
the  former  very  tortuous,  but  having  a  depth  of  nine  fathoms  of  water; 
the  latter  offers  five  fathoms,  but  the  channel  is  only  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  wide,  and  bordered  by  coral  reefs.  The  latter  entrance  gives  its 
name  to  a  small  Colombian  settlement  supported  principally  by 
banana  cultivation,  the  product  being  shipped  to  the  United  States. 

The  Laguna  de  Chiriqui  is  thirty-two  miles  long  and  twelve  wide, 
narrowing  to  five  miles  at  its  southeastern  extremity,  and  ten  at  its 
northwestern.  Vessels  of  any  craft  may  enter  it  from  the  ocean  by  the 
Boca  del  Tigre  by  an  8-fathom  channel,  and  find  ample  security  in 
fifteen  to  twenty  fathoms  of  water.  The  eastern  and  southern  shores  are 
low  and  swampy  for  a  long  distance  inland,  but  at  one  point  a  spur  of 
the  Veragua  range  penetrates  to  wdthin  two  miles  of  the  southeastern 
side  of  the  laguna,  where  it  has  an  elevation  of  2,672  feet.  The  dense 
forest  growth,  which  occupies  the  mountain-and-hill  slope  which  sur- 
rounds nearly  the  whole  of  the  Chiriqui  laguna,  extends  upwards  nearly 
to  the  water-divide  between  the  northern  and  southern  oceans,  and, 
secure  in  its  solitude,  nature  revels  there  in  all  the  fantastic  display 
of  an  exuberant  vegetation.  But,  crossing  the  serraniaf  there  is  a 
marked  change;  the  forests  give  way  to  grass  lands  along  the  mountain 
flanks  towards  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  cultivated  fields,  pastures,  and 
habitations  of  man  indicate  that  here  nature  is  in  a  less  riotous  mood. 
The  distance  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  across  the  district 
described,  is  fifty  miles.  The  mountain  slopes,  owing  to  the  ceaseless 
erosion  of  the  rain-laden  trade  winds,  are  sharper  on  the  Caribbean  side 
than  on  the  Pacific  incline,  whicli  is  also  much  drier  than  the  former. 
This  is  true  of  the  whole  isthmus — at  least,  that  part  west  of  the  Gulf 
of  San  Miguel. 

From  the  Laguna  de  Chiriqui  eastward  to  the  river  Chagres,  the 
forbidding  coast-line  (of  coral  reef,  sandy  beach,  mangrove  swamp, 
and  a  few  precipitous  bluffs)  has  no  sheltered  anchorage.  A  heavy 
surf  breaks  continually  along  nearly  the  entire  shore.  To  the  west- 
ward of  the  Chagres  River  twenty-five  miles,  and  to  the  eastward  of 


i9tH  THE  REPUBLIC  OP  PANAMA  IO7 

it  as  far  as  Porto  Bello,  the  shore  is  low  and  flat,  and  deadly  exhalations 
from  the  swamps  veil  the  interior  of  the  country  from  view. 

The  so-called  Bay  of  Colon,  named  in  honor  of  Colombo,  who  dis- 
covered it  in  1502,  lies  just  to  the  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Chagr^ 
Biver.  It  is  poorly  sheltered,  and,  being  open  to  the  north,  is  exposed 
to  "northers,"  which  frequently  blow  with  such  violence  that  the 
shipping  is  forced  to  run  out  to  sea  or  seek  shelter  at  Porto  Bello.  This 
place,  historic  in  the  colonial  period  of  South  America,  and  then  the 
seat  of  the  galeon  trade  between  Spain  and  the  West  Coast,  is  a  pesti- 
lential port  without  ventilation,  owing  to  the  high  hills  which  enclose 
it  on  the  north  and  south  and  prevent  the  winds  from  sweeping  away 
the  malignant  miasma  which  continually  arises  from  the  swamps  on 
the  east.  A  coral  reef  skirts  the  southern  shore,  and  the  city  and  the 
ruins  of  the  castle  of  San  Jer6nimo  are  situated  on  the  beach  in  the 
southeast  comer.  The  width  of  the  entrance  to  the  port  is  one  and 
one-fourth  miles,  but  it  soon  narrows  to  half  a  mile.  The  depth  of 
the  water  gradually  increases  to  seven  fathoms.  Porto  Bello,  as  a 
harbor,  is  the  best  between  Almirante  Bay  and  that  of  San  Bias.  In 
fact,  there  is  no  other  worth  mentioning. 

Of  San  Bias,  Commander  Self  ridge,  who  surveyed  it,  says:  "It 
extends  in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction  some  twenty  miles, 
and  is  about  ten  miles  in  extreme  breadth.  It  is  formed  by  the  cape 
of  San  Bias  and  the  outlying  islands  of  the  Mulatas  archipelago,  and  is 
a  most  magnificent  bay,  with  deep  passages,  and  perfectly  protected 
from  the  north  winds  in  the  dry  season.  In  the  northwest  comer  is  an 
inner  harbor  formed  by  a  circle  of  islands,  with  a  passage  leading  into 
it.  This  harbor  is  magnificent  for  all  purposes  required  as  the  great 
terminus  of  an  interoceanic  canal."  Gen.  E.  W.  Serrell  says  of  the 
Bay  of  Mandinga,  which  is  at  the  southw^est  side  of  the  Gulf  of 
San  Bias:  "The  water  is  eighty  feet  deep  within  100  feet  of  the  shore, 
and  nowhere  less  than  sixty  feet  deep  all  the  way  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean."  The  width  of  the  isthmus  at  San  Bias,  from  ocean  to  ocean, 
is  thirty-seven  miles.  This  is  the  shortest  interoceanic  distance  on 
the  Western  Continent. 

From  San  Bias  Bay,  for  a  distance  of  about  eighty  miles,  is  the 
remarkable  belt  of  cays,  islands,  and  reefs  known  as  the  Mulatas  archi- 
pelago. The  cays  are  sandy  and  mostly  in  clusters,  but  Uttle  out 
of  water,  and  thickly  wooded.  Between  them  are  found  many  navi- 
gable channels.  East  of  the  Mulatas,  and  as  far  as  Port  Escoc^s, 
many  cays  also  make  the  coast  navigation  dangerous  and  extremely 


lOg  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  March 

difficult;  but  farther  towards  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  these  obstructions 
cease  to  exist. 

Between  Point  Sasardi  and  Point  Escoc^s  is  a  broad  line  of  cajrs, 
sheltering  what  is  knowTi  as  Caledonia  Bay,  in  which  are  two  harbors, 
the  western  called  Sasardi,  and  the  eastern  one  knowTi  as  Caledonia. 
The  former  is  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  extent,  with  four  to  six 
fathoms  of  water;  and  the  latter,  the  entrance  to  which  is  obstructed 
by  dangerous  shoals,  has  from  eight  to  nine  fathoms  at  the  anchorage. 
The  bold  Atlantic  frontage  of  the  Serrania  del  Darien,  from  the  Gulf  of 
Uraba  to  Porto  Bello,  is  thickly  forested,  and  receives  the  full  force  of 
the  northeast  trade  winds,  with  a  resultant  heavy  rainfall. 

Turning  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  we  find  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  or 
"Darien  of  the  south,"  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  great  shallow  Bay  of 
Panama.  At  its  head  is  the  Bay  of  San  Miguel,  which  was  a  great  resort 
for  the  buccaneers,  who  reached  it  from  Cale<lonia  Bay  in  ten  days  by 
one  of  the  routes  which  served  for  conmiunication  between  the  oceans 
by  the  Indian  tribes  before  the  discovery  of  America.  The  bay  is 
over  six  miles  wide  at  its  mouth.  It  has  j)lenty  of  water  on  its  eastern 
side,  but  is  shallow  on  its  western  one.  As  at  Panama,  it  has  a  tidal 
range  of  twenty  feet  or  more,  while  Caledonia  Bay,  on  the  Caribbean 
side,  like  Colon,  is  almost  tideless.  Darien  harbor,  at  the  head  of  the 
gulf  or  estuary  of  San  Miguel,  extends  in  a  southeast  direction  up  to 
the  village  of  Chupigana,  where  it  receives  the  Tuira  and  Savana  rivers. 
Its  deep  water  affords  anchorage  to  the  largest  ships.  Mangrove 
swamps,  backed  by  thickly  wooded  hills,  are  almost  continuous  along 
its  shores. 

The  island-filled  Hay  of  Panama,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  famous 
city  of  the  same  name,  is  well  known.  It  commen«es  at  Cape  Gara- 
china,  at  the  southern  entrance  of  San  Miguel,  makes  a  majestic  sweep 
concave  to  the  south,  and  terminates  at  Cape  Malo,  which  is  the  south- 
east cape  of  the  great  peninsula  of  Azuero.  The  great  distance  between 
the  two  capes  is  about  100  miles.  The  northern  part  of  the  bay  is 
shallow,  and  large  ships  have  their  anchorage  near  the  famous  island 
of  Taboga,  nine  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Panama.  On  this  island 
Pizarro,  Almagro,  and  Luque  made  their  famous  contract  to  discover 
and  conquer  the  empire  of  the  Incas.  The  latter  was  cheated  out  of 
his  share  of  the  plunder,  and  Almagro  was  garroted  in  prison  at  Cuzco 
by  the  brother  of  Pizarro.  Sailing  craft  find  it  extremely  difficult  to 
get  in  or  out  of  the  Bay  of  Panama,  but  especially  out.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  tedious  and  difficult  bits  of  navigation  in  the  world.     Pizarro 


igoi 


THE  REPUBLIC  OP  PANAMA 


109 


was  the  first  to  try  it,  in  November,  1525,  but,  after  seventy  da)rs,  was 
forced  to  abandon  the  effort  to  leave  the  bay;  and  it  is  still  the  similar 
experience  of  nearly  every  craft  unaided  by  steam.  It  is  a  region  of 
calms,  doldrums,  vexatious  currents,  squalls,  rains,  and  tormenting 
heat. 


Tt, 

NWmn 


Billet 


CoplTitfli^  IWS,  Tif  Bud,  Me^uiltr  *  On 
Map  II.     THE  PANAMA  CANAL  STRIP. 


The  city  of  Panama  is  situated  on  high  ground  at  the  foot  of  Ancon 
hill,  but  west  of  old  Panama,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  buccaneers 
imder  Morgan  in  1673.  To  the  mouth  of  the  river  Bayamo,  about 
twenty-five  miles,  and  for  another  equal  distance  to  the  southeast, 
the  coast  is  flooded,  and  at  low  water  mud  flats  are  exposed  for"a  dis- 
tance of  three  miles  from  the  shore;  but  farther  on,  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of 
San  Miguel,  the  margin  is  higher,  with  occasional  small  hills.  From 
Panama  southwest  to  the  Bay  of  Parita,  on  the  westem^side  of  the 
Bay  of  Panama,  the  coast-line  is  considerably  broken,  and  alternates 


I  lO  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  March 

between  high  and  hilly  ground  and  low  flooded  areas,  the  whole  shore- 
line being  generally  of  mud.  The  entire  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Parita  is 
flooded  land,  and  has  a  forbidding  mud  flat  extending  from  two  to  three 
miles  out.  From  this  bay  to  Cape  Malo,  about  forty  miles,  the  coast  is 
well  out  of  water  and  backed  by  the  highlands  of  the  peninsula  of  Azuero. 

The  southern  front  of  this  peninsula  varies  much  in  character; 
west  of  Cape  Malo  for  about  twenty-five  miles  the  lowlands  soon  give 
place  to  the  escarpments  of  the  cerros,  which  rise  to  a  considerable 
altitude  farther  inland,  and  the  remainder  of  the  frontage  overlooks  the 
ocean,  the  mountains,  furrowed  with  gorges,  pushing  boldly  down  to 
the  coast.  The  west  side  of  the  peninsula,  which  partly  shelters  the 
Gulf  of  Montijo,  is  high  ground  at  times,  and  at  others  low  with  occa- 
sional beaches.  It  has  many  little  bays,  with  a  southwestern  exposure, 
which  receive  the  torrents  that  descend  from  the  mountains. 

The  Gulf  of  Montijo,  penetrating  north  about  twenty  miles,  has  an 
opening  of  some  fourteen  miles.  The  short  river  San  Pedro  flows  in 
at  its  head,  and  is  navigable  for  small  craft  about  seventeen  miles  up 
to  the  port  of  Montijo,  where  there  is  a  little  traffic.  The  gulf  has  several 
large  and  small  islands,  the  principal  one,  Sabaco,  lying  off  its  mouth 
and  completely  sheltering  it  from  the  south  winds. 

West  and  northwest  from  the  Gulf  of  Montijo,  as  far  as  the  Bay  of 
David,  the  coast  for  the  first  twenty  miles  is  sharply  defined;  thence, 
as  far  as  Espartal  Island,  many  hill  spurs  push  down  to  the  sea;  the 
shore  then  becomes  low  and  cut  by  numerous  small  streams.  The 
whole  coast,  from  Montijo's  Gulf  to  David  Bay,  has  many  Uttle  bays, 
most  of  which  are  available  for  vessels  of  very  Ught  draft.  The  bay 
last  named  is  filled  with  cays,  reefs,  and  hilly  islands.  At  its  head  it 
receives  the  river  David,  which,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  a  vast 
amphitheater  of  mountains  which  abut  upon  a  broad  plain  surrounding 
the  little  port  of  David  near  the  river  delta.  The  river  has  its  sources 
in  the  serrania  of  Chiriqui,  and  several  of  its  branches  drain  the  south- 
eastern slopes  of  the  great  volcanoes  of  Chiriqui  and  Horqueta,  the 
latter  6,600  feet  elevation.  West  of  the  delta  of  the  David,  the  coast- 
line bends  in  a  great  curve  to  the  south  until  it  reaches  Point  Burica 
at  the  termination  of  a  peninsula  formed  by  a  rugged  spur  of  the  Chiriqui 
mountains. 

The  Pacific  coast-line  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  is  about  one-third 
greater  in  extent  than  that  of  the  Caribbean  side.  There  are  many 
islands  along  both  coasts,  but  those  on  the  Pacific  are  more  numerous 
and  larger  than  those  on  the  Atlantic. 


THE  REPUBLIC  OP  PANAMA 


II  I 


A  thick,  dark,  primitive  forest  covers  at  least  three-fourths  of  the 
State,  and  the  vegetation  in  countless  forms  fights  strenuously  and 
ceaselessly  with  man  for  possession  of  the  soil.  It  is  nature's  favorite 
tropical  hothouse. 

The  extreme  length  of  Panama,  from  Colombia  to  Costa  Rica,  is 
about  480  miles,  and  it  varies  in  width  from  37  to  110.  Its  area  is 
between  33,000  and  34,000  square  miles,  being  more  than  one-half  as 
large  again  as  its  last-named  neighbor.  About  five-eighths  of  it  con- 
sists of  wild,  unoccupied  lands,  and  the  remainder  is  but  very  rudely 
utilized  by  ite  inhabitants.  The  population  was  oflScially  estimated, 
in  1898,  at  340,000,  representing  such  a  heterogeneous  amalgamation 
of  Spanish,  negro,  and  Indian  blood,  stirred  together  by  the  buccaneers 
of  colonial  times,  that  white  may,  in  Panama,  be  strictly  classified  as  a 
color.  Until  I  saw  a  Panama  "army''  of  150  men  at  drill,  I  had  no 
idea  that  the  human  form  could  take  such  shapes  and  colors — Proteus 
would  have  envied  them.  And  yet  these  men,  like  all  the  Colombians, 
are  first-class  fighters,  and,  well  officered,  are  a  foe  not  to  be  despised 
by  the  best  troops  ever  likely  to  come  into  collision  with  them. 

DATA  AS  TO  COST  AND  ENGINEERING  FEATURES  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 
AND  COMPARISON  WITH  THE  ESTIMATES  FOR  THE  NICARAGUAN  ROUTE 

[Inserted  by  the  Ediiar.] 

Panama  Nicaragua 

Cost  of  Canal  as  estimated  by  Isthmian  Canal          Route  Route 

Commission $144,233,358  $189,864,062 

Cost  of  French  Rights 40,000,000  

Total  estimated  cost $184,233,358  $189,864,062 

Annual  cost  of  maintenance,  estimated $1,300,000  less  than  for  Nicaragua. 

Length  of  route 49  miles  186.5  miles 

Length  of  ''danger  zone^'  (above  tide  level) . .  23.5  miles  176    miles 

Time  required  for  passage 11.25  hours  33  hours 

Elevation  of  summit  level 90  feet  110  feet 

Number  of  levels  to  be  maintained 2  7 

Number  of  locks  required 3  8 

Number  of  dams  required 1  1 

Terminal  harbors Ready  for  use  Unbuilt 

Construction  railway Ready  for  use  Unbuilt 

Actual  work  could  begin  At  once  After  2  years 

Rivers  to  be  controlled,  as  to  level 1  2 

Lakes  to  be  controlled,  as  to  level None  1 

Fk)w  per  second  of  rivers 75,000  cu.  ft.  200,000  cu.  ft. 

Area  of  lake 3,000  sq.  mi. 


I  12 


THB  JOURNAL  OP  GBOGRAPHY 


March 


TRANSPORTATION 

PART  I 


BY   JOHN   THOM   HOLDSWORTH 
Profeuor  of  Commercial  Ooography,  Drexd  In^'htU,  Philaddphia 

NO  single  part  of  the  whole  broad  subject  of  economic  geography 
is  more  important,  more  essential  to  an  intelligent  under- 
standing of  commerce,  than  transportation;  yet  strangely 
enough  no  part  has  been  so  scantily  treated  by  the  writers  of  geog- 
raphy text-books.  This  series  of  papers  is  intended  to  help  in  some 
small  way  to  supply  this  lack.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  offer  an 
exhaustive  study  of  the  theory  or  philosophy  of  the  science  of 
transportation;  the  aim  will  be  rather  to  gather  together  and  make 
available  for  teacher  and  student  scattered  facts  and  phenomena 
directly  related  to  the  processes  and  agencies  involved  in  the  move- 
ment of  the  world's  great  staple  products. 

After  a  brief  sketch  of  the  historical  development  of  transportation, 
especial  attention  will  be  paid  to  the  problem  in  our  own  country, 
first  in  its  relation  to  internal  or  domestic  commerce,  then  in  its  relation 
to  foreign  trade. 

The  foUowing  rough  outline  will  suggest  the  general  plan  of  treat- 
ment: 

Transportation  :  An  Outline 


Ancient  trade  rout<?s. 
Early  canal  Vmilding  in  Europe. 
Transportation  in  America: 
The  turnpike. 
Canal  Era  1825-1837. 

Contest    between    canal 

and   railroad. 
Present  status  of  canals. 
Coiimiercial     canals    of 

United  States. 
Erie  Canal. 
Proposed  canals. 
Canada's  waterways. 
Ship  canals  of  world. 
The  Railroad  Era. 
Periods  of. 


Transportation  in  America — ConUnuei 
(Classification. 

By  geographical  groups. 

By  financial  groups. 
Leading  products. 

The  freight  service. 
Railway  abuses. 
Interstate  Commerce  Law. 

Tlie  railway  problem. 

Railroad  control. 

Railway  clearing-houses. 

Traffic  associations. 
Our  Natural  Waterways. 
The  Great  Lakes. 
Isthmian  Canal. 
Systems  of  other  countries. 


i9tH  TRANSPORTATION  I  1 3 

TraDflportation  in  America — Continued    Transportation  in  America — Continued 
Merchant  Marine.  Comparison  with  great   marine 

History.  nations. 

Reasons  for  decline.  Great  Cable  Systems. 

Remedies.  Telegraph  and  Telephone. 

Shipping  trust.  Mail  service. 

Shipping  routes.  Conduits — water,  oil,  gas. 

Trade  of  leading  ports. 

Transportation  is  the  agency  by  which  the  products  of  one  zone  or 
country  are  brought  to  another,  or  by  which  dissimilar  products  are 
exchanged  between  localities  or  regions  within  the  same  country.  It 
is  one  of  the  chief  devices  by  which  producer  and  consumer  are  brought 
"together.  Transportation  makes  possible  (1)  the  production  of  articles 
of  necessity,  the  great  staples  of  trade,  where  they  can  be  most  cheaply 
produced;  (2)  the  wide  distribution  of  products  whose  growth  is  lim- 
ited by  peculiar  conditions  to  certain  regions;  and  (3)  the  localization 
of  manufactures  and  other  industries  where  they  can  be  carried  on  most 
economically.  It  is  the  agency  that  brings  the  wheat  of  Dakota  or 
JBungary  to  the  great  flour  mills  of  Minneapolis  or  Budapest,  dis- 
tributing it  in  turn  to  every  quarter  of  the  globe  as  flour.  By  ite 
»d  the  giant  furnaces  of  the  Pittsburg  mills  are  fed  with  iron  ore  from 
IMichigan,  Cuba,  or  Sweden.  It  makes  possible  the  refining  of  Luz6n 
sugar  in  Brooklyn  or  Philadelphia,  and  the  making  of  pulp  used  in 
CDur  morning  paper  from  timber  grown  in  Northern  Ontario.  In 
short,  it  makes  possible  that  large  territorial  division  of  labor  which 
is  fundamental  to  modern  industry  and  trade. 

This  brief  survey  from  the  economist's  point  of  view  may  serve 
^o  suggest  how  inseparably  transportation  is  linked  with  the  pro- 
eduction  and  distribution  of  world  products.  And  yet  it  is  quite  within 
^he  truth  to  say  that  transportation  is  in  itself  one  of  the  most  powerful 
^md  complex  industries  of  modem  times. 

It  has  been  said  with  truth  that  a  nation's  progress,  its  standard 
CDf  civilization  even,  may  be  judged  by  its  transportation  facilities. 
* '  Empires  and  cities  have  grown  or  decayed  as  they  were  favorably  or 
Vinfavorably  situated  along  the  great  highways  of  commerce."  The 
^t^riteness  of  this  statement  is  attested  on  the  one  hand  by  the  black 
smoke-banners  of  a  score  of  American  factory  towns  that  have  sprung 
xap  over  night  through  the  projection  of  a  new  railroad  branch,  and 
on  the  other  hand  by  the  commercial  desolation  of  one-time  thriving 
oities  side-tracked  through  the  shifting  of  the  great  routes  of  trade. 


114 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GBOORAPHY 


Iferch 


Failure  to  develop  avenues  of  communication  and  trade  has  in 
all  times  marked  nations  and  peoples  as  static  or  decadent.  China, 
hemmed  in  largely  by  nature,  secured  almost  complete  isolation  for 
centuries  by  building  the  Great  Wall  and  seaUng  her  ports  against 
which  the  traders  of  the  world  thundered  vainly  for  admittance.  In 
the  throes  of  a  new  birth,  the  Empire,  recognizing  the  imperative  need 
of  better  transportation,  is  granting  concession  after  concession  to 
railway  engineers  and  companies,  while  a  score  of  open  ports  invite 
foreign  trade.  Whatever  Russia's  purpose  in  building  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railroad,  whether  commercial,  political,  or  strategic,  this  her- 
culean task  has  focused  the  gaze  of  the  world  upon  the  Muscovite. 


i\^fithtml,  IIP>*. 


Map  I.     THE  TOSCAXELLI  MAP.  1474 
//  CAf^Uuns  the  idea,  f>m\ilcttt  at  that  time,  of  the  size  of  the  world,  and  how  sea  nurckants  sailed, 
first,  east  around  Africa;  and  afterunrds  west,  like  Columims  in  discovering  America,  in  the 

search  for  India  and  tlu:  Spice  Islands. 

The  early  pages  of  histor}-  reveal  that  the  commerce  and  civiUzation 
of  Asia  anil  Europe  advanced  conunensurately  with  the  development 
of  roails  and  canals.  (See  Maps  I,  II,  and  III.)  According  to  the 
testimony  of  the  \edas,  the  religious  books  of  the  ancient  Hindus, 
highways  were  built  by  the  State  connecting  the  interior  with  the 
coast  and  with  adjoining  countries.  The  ancient  peoples  of  Mesopo- 
tamia, the  first  to  use  domestic  animals  as  beasts  of  burden,  built  canals 
for  irrigation  purposes  anil  constructed  roads  leading  to  their  depend- 
encies.    The  Babylonians  not  only  buih  highways,  canals,  and  great 


»9<H 


TRANSPORTATION 


115 


Sautktrn  Route  Controlled  by  i'tnict  — • — 1 
CoprrigtiM,  194)4.    Pram  Mmc'i  School  Hlatorr  of  tlw  VaiUA 


SUtos.    UMdl>7p«Mimloaortb« 


Map  II.     OLD  TRADE  ROUTES  TO  INDIA. 

The  ships  and  caravans  traveling  over  these  routes  sought  the  silks  and  spices  from  India  and  beyond, 

from  the  Spice  Islands. 

irrigation  works — they  even  constructed  breakwaters  and  quajrs  along 
the  Persian  Gulf  for  the  encouragement  of  commerce. 

The  earUest  of  the  great  maritime  nations  of  antiquity/ Phoenicia, 
though  depending  chiefly  upon  the  sea  as  a  highway,  built  roads  con- 
necting its  two  great  cities,  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  constructed  caravan 
routes  south  to  Arabia  and  east  to  India  and  China,  which  countries 
sent  their  products  to  Tyre  to  be  exchanged  for  the  produce  brought  by 


CSoWtlibMit,  ItOI.    rVan  Ut-f-t  9«b4«l  HUiiptt  «r  Ih  i  li'allwl  3^i^ 

Map  III.     PORTUGUESE  VOYAGE  TO  INDIA. 
An  all^water  route  to  India  was  sought  by  the  Portuguese. 


I  1 6  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  March 

Phoenician  vessels  from  the  west.  So,  too,  Egypt  and  Carthage,  each 
of  which  attained  commercial  eminence  in  this  early  time,  maintiuned 
highways  leading  in  all  directions. 

The  great  Roman  Empire,  which  embraced  every  civilized  nation 
then  known,  and  which  counted  some  120,000,000  people,  was  covered 
with  a  network  of  roads  many  of  which  remain  to  this  day  the  admiifr- 
tion  and  wonder  of  the  world.  It  is  estimated  that  50,000  milcB  of 
these  highways,  built  mainly  for  military  purposes,  connected  the 
various  parts  of  the  Empire.  Over  many  of  them  the  Government 
maintained  an  efficient  postal  service,  using  fast  couriers. 

A  survey  of  the  history  of  the  great  nations  that  led  in  trade  and 
civilization  after  the  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire  shows  a  widening 
use  and  growth  of  the  improved  transportation  facilities.  Thus,  Em- 
peror Maximilian  of  ^Germany  established  a  postal  route  between  Brus- 
sels and  Vienna,  in  1516,  and  at  a  later  date  Frederick  the  Great, 
recognizing  the  need  of  better,  means  of  conmiunication,  began  the 
construction  of  turnpikes  and  canals  on  a  large  scale,  ^noe  the 
organization  of  the  various  German  States  into  an  Empire,  Germany 
has  made  vast  improvements  in  her  internal  communications.  She  has 
canalized  many  of  her  rivers,  and  has  constructed  thousands  of  xnileB  of 
artificial  waterways  connecting  all  the  large  rivers  and  affording  cheap 
transport  of  raw  materials  to  her  great  industrial  centers.  The  railway 
system  of  modern  (IcTuiany  is  highly  efficient,  being  controlled  for  the 
most  part  by  the  States. 

As  early  as  the  twelfth  centur}-,  the  Dutch  began  the  construotion 
of  canals,  which,  owing  to  the  flatness  of  The  Netherlands,  became  the 
conmion  roadways,  as  they  are  to-day.  The  great  conmfiercial  cities  of 
Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  have  been  made  possible  by  deepening 
and  canalizing  the  rivers  on  which  they  are  situated.  Similarly, 
Brussels  and  Antwerp  in  Belgium  have  secured  access  to  the  sea. 
That  great  advances  were  made  in  marine  transportation  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  is  attested  by  the  colonial  empires 
built  up  by  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  Spanish,  French,  and  English. 

In  1006  France  projected  her  first  artificial  waterway,  the  Lan- 
guedoc  Canal,  148  miles  long,  connecting  the  Mediterranean  with  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  To-day  France  has  a  splendid  system  of  artificial 
waterways  connecting  the  headwaters  of  the  three  most  important 
rivers,  and  forming  a  network  over  the  entire  country.  Russia,  that 
new  candidate  for  commercial  honors,  has  not  only  pushed  to  prac- 
tical completion  the  great  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  nearly  5,000  miles 


TRANSPORTATION 


117 


in  length,  linking  the  Pacific  with  the  Atlantic,  but  also  has  under  con- 
struction one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  canals,  connecting  the  Black 
Sea  with  the  Baltic.  The  Unit^  Kingdom  commenced  canal  building 
in  1767,  since  which  time  waterways  have  been  dug  all  over  Great 
Britain  to  connect  the  main  water  courses.  Enormous  sums  have  been 
voted  by  cities  like  Manchester  and  Glasgow  to  improve  their  shipping 
facilities.  So,  too,  on  the  Continent,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Rotterdam, 
Le  Havre  have  made  lavish  expenditures  for  dredging,  wharfing,  and 
improving  their  harbors. 


Fn>ini  Pn.i^'1  EI^IHQlUj  U#v,T*|.lif 


Fig.  I.     ANIMALS  USED  FOR  TRANSPORTATION 
Long  trains  or  caravans  of  camels  carrying  merchandise  over  a  desert  region. 


On  the  Western  Hemisphere  there  still  remain  traces  of  the  wonder- 

^Xil  roads  built  by  the  Incas  of  ancient  Peru.     One  of  these  roads, 

V>uilt  of  stone,  at  an  elevation  of  over  12,000  feet,  Humboldt  estimated 

'^^  be  2,000  miles  long.     In  its  route  engineering  difficulties  that  would 

¥>uzzle  the  modern  engineer  w^ere  met  and  successfully  overcome.     The 

Spaniards  allowed  the  roads  to  go  to  ruin,  and  they  now  lie  as  broken 

"ttionuments  to  the  skill  and  enterprise  of  these  wonderful  people. 

The  early  settlers  of  the  North  American  continent  depended  almost 
"Wholly  upon  the  natural  water  courses  for  transportation.  Heavy 
forests    and    the    dangers    from    unfriendly    Indians    made    interior 


ii8 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


Slarch 


Fig.  2. 


FriM  Ma«^  S«hMt  HtaMqr  of  ite  1M«i«  ItaMS. 
Vmt  fcy  p— IwliB  of  tt»  piMlit  in. 

A  TRADING  AND  WAR  VESSEL  USED 
BY  THE  NORTHMEN. 


communication  difficult;  hence 
the  settlements  at  first  clung 
close  to  the  river  courses  or  to 
the  seaboard.  As  settlement 
gradually  spread  to  the  interior, 
roads  of  inferior  sort  were  made, 
but  these  were  for  local  pur- 
poses, and  road  building  was 
left  largely  to  individual  exer- 
tion. Thus  in  colonial  days  it 
took  a  week  to  go  from  Boston 
to  New  York  by  stage.  Many 
of  the  earliest  wagon  roads  fol- 
lowed the  trails  originally  made 
by  deer  and  buffalo  through  the 
forest  and  over  the  mountain 
passes,  and  naturally  the  rail- 
roads at  a  later  date  were  projected  along  the  same  general  routes. 
The  history  of  internal  transportation  in  this  country  can  be  divided 

roughly  into  three  periods: 

1.  Turnpikes.* 

2.  Canals. 

3.  Railroads. 

The  first  American  turn- 
pike was  built  in  Pennsylvania 
in  1790,  and  ran  from  Phila- 
delphia to  Lancaster,  a  dis- 
tance of  sixty-six  miles.  In 
the  next  thirty  years  that 
Stato  expended  $8,500,000  for 
such  roads.  From  Pennsyl- 
vania the  system  spread  into 
New  York  and  New  England. 
Those  roads  were  constructed 
and  operated  by  private  enter- 

j)rise  and  were  supported  by  tolls,  which  often  yielded  large  profits. 
Tliey  greatly  cheapened  transportation,  and  gave  reasonable  satis- 


FlG. 


Frin  M»rr>  !"<-h.H>l  IliilorT  i.f  tli»  Tnlt^!  St»tr* 
r**<!  hr  |»enuli>iikiB  of  thi»  iMiMlAlirm. 

A  TRADING  VESSEL  OF  THE 
FIFTEENTH  CENTURY. 


*  "  Tliese  roads  were  called  tumiNlcMi 
collected  there  wuti  placed  acrooi  tl 
pikes,  and  so  hung  us  to  turn  upo 


at  the  places  irhere  toUs  were 
b«  eoniiBtiiig  of  a  pole  aimed  with 
MMI,  p.  13. 


t9B4 


TRAKSPURTATIOK 


119 


faction.  In  1807,  Gallatin,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  proposed  that* 
the  Government  shoiihi  undertake  the  construction  of  roads  and  canals 
on  a  large  and  systematic  scale.  Local  jealousies  and  the  opposition 
of  a  powerful  faction  in  Confess  who  did  not  believe  that  the  Gov- 
ernment should  earrv'  on  internal  improvements  delayed  for  many 
years  the  active  interest  of  the  Government  in  road  making.  Only 
one  important  national  road  was  actually  constructed  —  the  "Oid  Cum- 
berland Road/'     This  road  was  begun  in  1811   at  Cumberland,  Md., 


rT«»  i^<\ 


Fio.  4     THE  THOMAS  W.  LAWSON. 
.-i  snten'maslcd  tcfwonrr.     The  largest  stiilinK  vcssft  carrj,'in^  frHght  in  the  ztHxrid 

^-Hd  continued  almost  due  west  in  practically  a  straight  line  through 

^Xar}dand»  Pennsylvania,   Ohio,    Indiana,    and    Illinois   to    St,  Louis. 

^  t^  is  said  to  be  the  longest  straight  road  ever  built  by  any  Govern* 

lent  in   the  world.     It  was  about  700  miles  long,  and  cost  nearly 

FpOOO^OOO. 

Along  this  great  ** National  Pike"    a  stream  of  emigration  flowed 

toward  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys.     Another  movement  set  in 

farther  north  toward  tho  prairies  of  the  Great  Lakes  States.     '^Pitts- 

y>urg  and  Cincinnati,  the  two  main  points  of  tranashlpmcnt  on  the 

Bouth western   route,  had  become   flourishing   business  centers,   while 

Bxiffalo  and  Cleveland  were  yet  the  merest  frontier  settlements.''* 


♦Hadley,  Railroad  Trarispi^rtation,  p.  29  < 


I  20  THE  ;OL'aXAL  OP  •>EOOR-K?HY 


TH?:  CANAL  ZKA,  1S25-1S37 

Toward  the  ciof?^  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  the  people  of  the 
new  tVleral  Union  bjef  ame  c«>nvince»l  of  its  permanence,  attention  was 
directe<i  to  the  neceAr-ity.  in  the  interests  of  commerce,  of  binding 
t^igether  it*  varioa"^  r?cattere»i  parts  by  a  system  of  canals.  G«i»al 
\Vaf>hington  had  called  attention  to  the  possibilities  of  a  canal  westward 
frr*m  the  Hudson,  and  the  pe*»ple  of  New  York  had  from  an  earhr 
pfrnrA  realize^!  the  inip*?nance  of  connecting  the  Hu«json  with  the  Great 
I^kes. 

Tlie  Alleghenies.  alnK^st  unbroken  from  New  York  to  Alabama. 
f}\f\f<f^'^\  a  nerious  obstacle  to  the  construction  of  a  canal  from  east  to 
west,  but  in  New  York  State  the  Mohawk  Valley  opened  a  passage 
through  the  chain  and  suggeste^l  a  level  canal  route.  In  1810  the 
Erie  Canal  Commission  was  appointed  Ti^ith  De  Witt  Clinton  at  its  head, 
and  a  sur\'ey  was  made  of  the  entire  route  from  the  Hudson  to  Lake 
Erie.  Aid  was  expected  from  the  Federal  Government,  but  at  first 
Madis^jn  opfKisei^l  Fe^leral  aid  to  "internal  improvements,"  and  later 
the  War  of  1812  stopped  all  progress.  In  1S17  New  York,  through  the 
restless  energ>'  of  Clinton,  decided  to  go  on  with  the  project  on  her 
own  resources.  The  whole  canal  was  completed  and  opened  for  traffic 
amid  national  rejoicing  in  1n25. 

The  canal  was  'iTs  miles  long  and  4  feet  deep;  it  had  a  width  of 
4f)  fffet  at  the  surface  and  carrieil  boats  of  76  tons  burden.  The  first 
CfiSt  of  the  canal  was  $5,700,000,  but  subsequent  enlargements  have 
made  the  total  cost  over  $50,000,000.  The  utility  of,  and  the  returns 
from,  the  canal  exceeded  the  most  sanguine  expectation.  Cities  sprang 
up  wherever  the  canal  met  a  water  course,  c.  g.,  at  Buffalo.  Rochester, 
Syracuse.  In  1826.  the  year  after  the  canal  o|)ened,  the  receipts  from 
tolls  were  $726,000;  in  IStVS,  they  had  douViled.  Tolls  were  constantly 
reduced  until  iSo.S,  when  they  were  only  about  one-third  the  original 
figure,  but  even  then  the  revenues  amounted  to  over  $3,000,000  a  year. 
"Tlie  constniction  of  the  Erie  Canal  reduced  transportation  charges  to  a 
little  over  one-tenth  their  former  figures.''  ♦ 

Tlie  oj^ening  of  the  Erie  Canal  marked  the  beginning  of  a  mania 
for  (runal  building.f  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illi- 
nois all  projected  extensive  canals,  while  in  many  other  States  private 
companies  commonly  aided  by  the  State  constructed  canals  of  greater 

♦  Hadlev,  p.  :n . 

t  JohriHtoii,  Jnlaud  Waterways,  p.  .31. 


1904  TRANSPORTATION  121 

or  less  importance.  "In  1834,  Pennsylvania  had  589  miles  of  State 
canals,  among  them  the  Central  Division  Canal  172  miles  long,  and 
the  Western  Division  Canal  104  miles  long."*  In  1832,  Ohio  opened 
two  important  canals,  the  Ohio  Canal  from  Cleveland  to  Portsmouth, 
and  the  Miami  &  Erie  from  Toledo  to  Cincinnati.  The  traffic  on  these 
canals  t  reached  in  1857  a  tonnage  of  1,635,774  tons.  Indiana  com- 
pleted the  Wabash  &  Erie  Canal  from  the  junction  of  the  Miami 
Canal  to  Evansville  on  the  Ohio  in  1855.  The  Illinois  &  Michigan 
Canal,  102  miles  long,  from  Lake  Michigan  to  LaSalle  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Illinois,  was  opened  in  1848.  It  was  intended  to 
make  this  canal  deep  enough  to  carry  vessels  through  from  the  Lakes, 
a  project  recently  completed  by  the  city  of  Chicago  for  sanitary 
purposes  at  a  cost  of  $30,000,000. 

Besides  these  great  State  waterways  many  canals  were  constructed 
and  are  still  operated  by  private  companies.  Chief  among  these  were: 
the  Raritan  connecting  the  Delaware  River  with  New  York  harbor; 
the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  from  Cumberland,  Md.,  to  Washington;  the 
Morris  Canal  across  New  Jersey;  the  Delaware  &  Chesapeake  connect- 
ing Chesapeake  Bay  and  Delaware  Bay ;  and  several  canals,  mainly  in 
Pennsylvania,  for  the  transportation  c»f  coal,  e.  g.,  the  Delaware  & 
Hudson,  Schuylkill,  Lehigh,  and  others. 

The  panic  of  1837  almost  completely  stopped  canal  building,  and 
when  the  country  had  recovered  from  that  shock,  it  was  felt  that  the 
chief  means  of  transportation  was  to  be  rail  not  water.  Some  local 
canals,  chiefly  coal  canals,  continued  a  profitable  local  traffic,  but  the 
extension  of  railroads  compelled  the  steady  abandonment  of  the  canals. 
Only  two  great  systems  of  water  communication  —  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  Erie  Canal  on  the  north  and  the  Mississippi  to  the  south — 
have  been  able  to  continue  in  competition  with  the  railroad.  It  is 
to  be  noted,  however,  that  at  one  time  we  had  5,000  miles  of  canal  in 
operation,  built  at  a  cost  of  $150,000,000,  and  carrying  in  1857  traffic 
amounting  to  3,344,000  tons. 

♦Larrabee,  The  Railroad  Question,  p.  41. 
t  Jeans,  Waterway Bj  p.  195. 

(To  be  continued  in  April.) 


122 


THE  JOURXAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


THE  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  IN  THE  CHICAGO 
NORMAL  SCHOOL* 

PART  II 


BY    FRANK    W.    DARLIXG    AND    i:UZ.\BirrH    SlfTTH 
O!  tk*  C4toa9»  .V«rMa/  5dl«rf,  Ckitmgm,  iB$mm0 

SEXXJXD  YEAR  OF  GEriGRAPHY 

(Fourteen  Kceek^,  fire  fijUj-minute  periods,  \r€€kly.) 

I.   THK   Jif'BJKrT-MATTER   OF   CEOGRAPHY 

-I.  Content  of  Geography:    A  stUily  of  the  relations  existing  between 

earth  and  man. 
B.  Arramjement  of  (he  Snhject-mntter  in  it*  Satural  Causal  Order, 


1.  Earth. 
Top<^igraphicaI   con<li- 
tion>. 

Elevation. 

Drainage. 

Soil. 
Climatic  conditions. 

Temperature. 

Wind<. 

Rainfall. 


2.     Man. 


Productive  condi- 
tion<. 
X'eeetable. 
Animal. 


Industrial  conditions. 
Social  " 

Commercial      " 
Locative  ** 

Political 


C.  Relations  of  Cause  and  Effect  Existing  beturen  these  Factors. 

I.  Trar-ing  the  effect  of  each  factor  in  determining  the  ultimate  con- 

ditions of  life  in  typical  regions;  as,  a  tropical  forest  region;  a 
savanna  region;  a  desen  region;  a  tundra  region;  some  tem- 
perate regions. 

II.  THK   child's   ATTITLDK   OF   MIND   TOWARD   THE   SUBJECT-MATTER 

OF   GEOGRAPHY 

A ,  Dependent  on  Stages  of  Mental  Development. 

1.  Discuf><ion  of  child's  mental  growth  from  obser\'ation  and  theory. 

2.  Determination  of  characteristics  of  childhood  at  T^idely  differing 

ages  and  then  in  the  different  grades. 

♦Continued   from  the  Jourxal  of  Geography,  Vol.  III..  No.  2,  February, 
19^)4,  page  64. 


A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  I  23 


3.  Naming  of  stages. 

a.  Stage  of  gathering  conceptions.     Characterized  by  sense  per- 

ception of  simple  wholes. 

b.  Stage  of  relating  conceptions.     Characterized  by  natural  tend- 

ency to  compare  and  relate  the  simple  conceptions  with  each 
other. 

c.  Stage  of  constructing  conceptions.     Characterized  by  ability 

to  put  together  the  conceptions  gathered  through  the  senses 
and  to  construct  a  new  whole  distant  from  sense  perception. 

4.  Discussion  to  determine  relation  of  stages. 

a.  No  distinct  demarcation,  but  gradual  growth  of  one  into  another. 

6.  When  one  stage  is  attained  it  continues  throughout  life  of  indi- 
vidual. 

c.  Determination  of  the  grades  in  which  teacher  should  count  on 
average  child  maturing  to  each  stage  and  formulate  work 
accordingly. 

(1)  Gathering  conceptions  in  grades  I-II. 

(2)  Relating  conceptions  in  grades  III-IV. 

(3)  Constructing  conceptions  in  grades  IV.  to  the  end. 
-fi.  Dependent  on  Child's  Environment. 

1.  City  child  and  his  conceptions. 

a.  Mainly  concerning  subject-matter  noted  under  I,  B,  2.  **Man," 

and  end  at  products  of  industry. 

b.  Necessity  of  supplementing  his  knowledge  with  conceptions  of 

natural  phenomena. 
2.  Country  child  and  his  conceptions. 

a.  Mainly  concerns  subject-matter  noted  under  I,  B,  1;    natural 

phenomena,  products,  and  simple  industrial  processes. 
6.  Necessity  of  supplementing  his  knowledge  with  conceptions  of 

social,  commercial,  and  political  conditions. 

III.      THE   ARRANGEMENT   OF   A    PSYCHOLOGICAL   COURSE   FOR 
THE    GRADES 

^  •  Determining  Factors  in  Arranging  Subject-matter  for  Different  Grades. 

1.  Child's  mental  ability  as  indicated  in  II,  A. 

2.  Child's  environment  as  indicated  in  II,  B. 

3.  The  causal  order  of  arrangement  inherent  in  the  subject-matter 

as  indicated  in  I,  ^. 

4.  General  aim  and  motive  for  teaching  geography. 

a.  As  indicated  by  the  content  1,-4. 

b.  Mental  discipline  of  constructive  development. 


I  24  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  March 

5.  Number  of  years  the  average  child  attends  school.* 

B.  Relation  One  Graders  Work  should  Bear  to  Another. 

1.  Unity  of  purpose  in  course  as  a  whole. 

a.  Continuity  only  broken  into  grades  because  of  arrangement  of 
school  year. 

2.  Necessity  for  each  grade  having  a  special  aim  and  accomplishment. 

but  in  harmony  with  the  purpose  of  the  course  as  a  whole. 

3.  Each  grade's  work  a  whole  in  itself,  but  also  a  base  for  the  upper 

grade's  work  and  growing  out  of  the  previous  grade's  work, 

C.  Relaiion  of  Geography  to  Other  Subjects  in  the  Curriculum. 

1.  Grouping  of  subjects. 

a.  Language  group:  Reading;  writing;  composition;  grammar. 

b.  Art  group:   Manual  constniction ;  drawing;  music;  literature. 

c.  Number  group:    Number  perception;  number  relation;  algebra, 

etc. 

d.  Science  group:   Nature  study ;  geography ;  history . 

2.  Disciplinary  value  of  each  group. 

a.  Each  contains  a  part  especially  adapted  to  child's  ability  in 

each  stage. 
6.  Some  one  part  of  each  worthy  of  special  emphasis  because  of 

social  demand. 

D.  Analysis  of  the  Science  Group  to  Ascertain  the  Importance  of  and 

the  Emphasis  on  Geography. 

1.  Nature  study  or  gathering  of  single  conceptions  through  sense 

perception  especially  emphasized  in  grades  I-III. 

2.  Geography  or  study  of  man's  earth  relation  especially  emphasized 

in  grades  III-VII. 

3.  History  or  study  of  effects  of  man's  relation  to  earth  seen  through 

man's  relations  to  each  other  especially  emphasized  in  grades 
Vll-VIII. 

E.  Analysis  of  Geography  Itself  to  Ascertain  Its  Importance  and  Determine 

the  Divisions  of  Its  Subject-matter  to  Correspond  to  the  Different 
Stages  of  Child^s  Ability. 
1.  Divisions  of  subject-matter  inherent  in  subject-matter  with  order 
determined  by  child's  ability. 
a.  Must  have  conceptions  of  objects  and  conditions  in  immediate 
environment  in  order  to 


*  III  Chicago  this  is  an  important  factor.  In  the  schools  of  the  foreign  and 
overcrowded  districts  of  the  city  a  large  per  cent  of  the  pupils  drop  out  before  the 
fifth  grade  and  a  majority  before  the  sixth  grade  is  finished. 


A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  I  25 


(1)  understand  relations  of  objects  and  conditions  in  immediate 

environment.     This  is  essential  in  order  to 

(2)  comprehend  simple  and  complex  conditions  and  relations 

in  regions  distant  from  immediate  environment. 
2.  Arrangement   of   these   divisions   of   subject-matter   by   grades 
dependent  on  stages  of  child's  ability  in  different  grades. 
a.  Conception  of  immediate  environment  with  simplest  relations 
in  grades  I  and  II,  as: 

(1)  Physical  and  climatic  conditions. 

(a)  Directions;  time;  heat;  clouds;  rocks;  soils,  etc. 

(2)  Products  seen  in  home,  market,  and  field. 

(a)  Harvest  crops;  domestic  animals ;  wool ;  fruits ;  lumber,  etc. 
h.  Interrelation  of  these  immediate  conditions  as  causal  to  an 
organized  geographical  whole,  in  grade  III. 
(1)  Relations  observable  between  abstract  parts  of  the   local 
center: 
(a)  Parts  of  the  city :  Residence  portion;  productive  portion; 
manufacturing  portion ;  trade  portion ;  shipping  portion. 
(6)  Transportation  means. 

(c)  Products  as  relating  center  to  surrounding  regions:   Shel- 

ter; food;  clothing. 

(d)  Organization:  Commercial;  social;  political. 

c.  Simplest  conditions  and  relations  in  regions  distant  from  imme- 

*  diate  environment,  in  grade  IV. 
(1)  Relations    of   immediate    environment    to    distant    regions 
leading  to  a  conception  of  the  world  as  a  whole, 
(a)  Northern   North   America;    Mexican   Plateau;    Amazon 
Basin;   La  Plata  Basin;  Congo  Basin;   Sahara  Desert; 
Eastern  Eurasia,  etc. 
(h)  Summary  in  Earth's  physical  and  climatic  relations. 

d.  More  detailed  conditions  and  relations  in  regions  distant  from 

immediate  environment,  in  grades  V-VII. 
(1)  Physical,  climatic,  productive,  industrial,  social,  locative, 
and  political  relations  in  related  regions  of  continents, 
(a)  North  America;  South  America;  Eurasia;  Africa;  Aus- 
tralia. 

e.  Relations  of  great  regions  to  each  other,  in  grade  VIII. 

(1)  Physical  relations,  climatic  relations,  productive  relations, 
commercial  relations,  and  political  relations  of  the  earth 
as  a  whole. 


J  26  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  March 

IV.      METHODS   OF  TEACHING   AS   APPLIED   TO   SUBJECT-MATTER 
DETERMINED    FOR   EACH   GRADE 

A,  EmnronmerU  Study,     Aim,  as  determined  in  III,  E,  to  give  concep- 

tions of  objects  and  conditions  in  child's  immediate  environ- 
ment, and  show  the  simple  relations  existing  between  these  and 
the  child. 
1.  First  grade. 

a.  Subject-matter:  The  physical  and  climatic  conditions. 

b.  Order  and  choice  of  the  subject-matter. 

(1)  Determined  by  child's  natural  contact. 

(2)  Determined  by  season  of  year  for  economy  of  effort. 

(3)  Determined  by  necessity  for  continuity. 

c.  P^ssentials  of  presentation: 

(1)  Awaken  child's  interest  by  showing  a  motive  for  knowledge 

of  the  topic. 

(2)  Observation  of  the  object  or  condition. 

(3)  Bring  out  relations,  of  the  object  or  condition,  to  the  child. 

(4)  Relations,  of  the  object  or  condition,  to  other  objects  and 

conditions. 

(5)  The  next  topic  for  study  determined  by  an  intimate  relation 

with  the  one  being  studied,  and  by  so  doing  strengthen : 

(a)  Sense  of  relation  in  child,  and 

(b)  The  continuity  of  the  subject-matter. 

Note: — Together  with  the  discussion  of  each  grade's  work  the  class 
(1)  observes  a  recitation  in  each  grade,  (2)  writes  a  plan  for  teaching 
some  topic  in  the  grade,  (3)  collects  materials  (drawings,  pictures,  maps, 
specimens,  etc.)  for  teaching  the  topic. 
2.  Second  grade. 

rt.  Subject-matter:  The  products  seen  in  home,  market,  and  field. 
b.  and  c.  Same  as  in  first  grade. 

B.  Geographjf  of  the  Local  Center.     Aim,  as  determined  in  III,  E,  to 

bring  out  tlie  relations  of  objects  and  conditions  studied  in  the 
first  and  second   grades  as   causal  to   the  organization   of    a 
geographical   center.     Incidental   aim:    The   construction   and 
interpretation  of  maps. 
1.  Third  grade. 
a.  Order  and  choice  of  the  subject-matter. 

(1)  Determined  by  child's  natural  contact:   Conditions  of  com- 
munitv  in  which  he  lives. 


A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  127 


(2)  Determined  by  continuity  inherent  in  the  subject-matter, 
(a)  Because  of  relations  to  locations  in  the  city. 

(h)  Because  of  causal  order  as  indicated  in  I,  B, 

(3)  Statement  of  order. 

(a)  Directions  in  schoolroom  and  community.  Making  of 
drawings  and  plats  according  to  horizontal  directions. 

(6)  Study  conditions  along  the  most  direct  thoroughfare  to 
the  business  center,  making  map  of  same. 

(c)  Physical  features,  slope,  drainage,  etc. 

Modeling  of  surface  in  sand. 

(d)  Parts  of  city  and  relation  of  parts:   Retail  and  wholesale, 

manufacturing  and  shipping,  residence,  farm,  or  suburb 
portion.     Making  and  interpretation  of  complete  map. 

(e)  Transportation  means. 

(/)  Products:  Shelter,  food,  clothing;  use  in  home;  location 
of  industries  in  city  and  reason ;  how  products  come  to 
city  and  from  where. 

(q)  Organization:  Need  of  each  working  to  supply  another's 
need.  Need  of  organizing  to  supply  lights,  protection, 
etc.  Study  of  organization  of  fire  department,  etc. 
Need  of  political  organization  to  select  heads  over  all. 
Need  for  and  determination  of  city  Umits. 
'b.  Essentials  of  presentation. 

(1)  Procedure  from  that  easily  observed  by  child  to  that  more 

distant. 

(2)  Observation  by  excursion  work. 

(3)  Stimulate  spirit  of  inquiry  outside  of  the  school. 

(4)  Make  use  of  each  individual's  observations  throughout  year. 

(5)  Presentation  of  subject-matter  not  as  isolated  facts,  but 

related,  and  in  relations  are  found  causes  for  location,  etc. 

(6)  For  making  and  interpretation  of  maps: 
(a)  First  drawing  of  a  whole  seen  at  once. 

(h)  By  easy  gradations  build  on  to  map  of  thoroughfare  map 

for  whole  city. 

(c)   Mark  directions  on  map  and  hang  on  north  wall  for  first 

comprehension  of  map  directions. 

Superficud  Study  of  the  World  as  a  Whole.     Aim,  as  determined  in 

III,  Ey  to  bring  out  (1)  relation  of  child's  community  to  distant 

regions,  (2)  physical,  cUmatic,  productive,  and  life  conditions 

in  the  distant  region.     (3)  Incidental  aims:  The  comprehension 


I  28  'TH^  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  UanA 

of  land  forms.     To  gain  a  conception  of  the  shape  and  climatic 
conditions  of  the  earth. 
1.  Fourth  grade. 

a.  Order  and  choice  of  the  subject-matter. 

(1)  Determined  by  intimacy  and  evidence  of  relation  of  the 

distant  region  to  the  child's  enWronment. 

(2)  Determined  by  simplicity  of  relations  within  the  r^on. 

(3)  Determined  by  necessity  of  selecting  such  r^ons  that  the 

whole  may  represent  typical  conditions  in  earth's  climatic 
belts. 

(4)  Statement  of  order: 

(a)  The  sphere  as  a  whole:   Relative  size;  shape;  surface. 

(b)  Distant  land  masses;    as:    Use  and  appearance  of  seal 

skin;  use  of  fur  coats  to  animals;  determination  of 
kind  of  climate  seals  must  live  in;  life  and  appearance 
of  seal;  appearance  of  country,  physical  and  climatic 
conditions;  land  form  of  plain  and  island;  productive 
conditions;  social  conditions;  chalk  relief  of  northern 
North  America  on  blackboard-globe;  direction  and 
distance  from  child's  home. 

(c)  Summary  and  determination  of  location  of  hot,  cold,  and 

temperate  regions  of  the  earth. 

b.  Essentials  of  presentation: 

(1)  In  presenting  shape  of  earth: 

(a)  Avoid  use  of  symbol  until  after  child  strives  for  it  by 
attempting  to  determine  shape  from  the  earth  itself. 

(6)  Sizes  and  distances  must  be  in  terms  of  things  experienced 
by  child. 

(2)  In  presenting  distant  regions : 

(a)  Distant  region  introduced  by  a  product  familiar  to  child, 
and  one  in  itself,  to  some  extent,  characterizing  condi- 
tions in  the  region. 

(h)  Conditions  must  be  imaged,  not  memorized.  Use  of  pic- 
tures, etc. 

(c)  Land  form  should  be  studied  when  it  forms  a  part  of  the 

region  studied,  and  there  shown  as  affecting  the  life  of 
the  region  and  its  form  represented  by  pictures,  sand 
model,  etc. 

(d)  By  representation  of  relief  on  slated  globe  relation  of  land 

masses  may  be  shown. 


1904  A  GEOGRAPHY  COURSE  I  29 

(3)  In  presenting  earth's  climate: 
(a)  By  reviewing  conditions  of  climate  and  life  in  each  region, 
showing  relation  of  tropical,  polar,  and  temperate  regions, 
climatic  conditions  of  earth  will  be  brought  out. 
D.  Intensive  Study  of  Regional  Geography,  or  Continental  Geography, 
Aim:  To  apply  in  every  specific  instance  the  relations  existing 
between  topographic,   climatic,   productive,  industrial,  social, 
locative,  and  political  conditions  that — 

(1)  The  reasoning  power  of  the  child  may  be  developed  through 

his  self-activities  or  original  effort. 

(2)  The  facts  learned  may  be  seen  as  something  more  than 

arbitrary  facts,  as:   reasons  for  location,  products,  etc. 

(3)  The  child  may  image  conditions  in  distant  regions  through 

the  comparison  with  conditions  he  has  sensed. 
1.  Fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  grades, 
o.  Order  of  arrangement  of  the  continents. 

(1)  Determined  by  child's  contact  and  association. 

(2)  Determined  by  simplicity  and  unity  of  relations  in  each. 

(3)  Determined  by  importance  of  each  in  commerce  and  current 

events. 

(4)  Statement  of  order  of  arrangement: 

(a)  North  America  and  important  islands:  Fifth  grade; 
because  of  child's  natural  association. 

(6)  South  America:  Sixth  grade;  because  of  simplicity  and 
unity  of  relations,  especially  topographic,  climatic,  and 
productive,  and  because  of  the  growth  of  intimate  asso- 
ciations. 

(c)  Eurasia,  Africa,  and  Australia:  Seventh  grade;  (Eurasia 
30  weeks,  Africa  7  weeks,  Australia  3  weeks),  because 
of  complexity  of  arrangement  in  Eurasia  and  its  great 
commercial  importance,  it  is  left  till  more  mature  age 
of  child. 
b.  Order  of  arrangement  of  subject-matter  in  continent  study. 

(1)  Determined  by  causal  order  as  stated  in  aim  and  in  I,  B, 

(2)  Determined  by  natural  deductive  and  inductive  reasoning 

from  image  of  the  whole  to  study  of  the  parts  in  detail  and 
synthesis  of  the  parts  into  a  detailed  whole. 

(3)  Statement  of  order  of  arrangement  of  subject-matter, 
(a)  Continent  as  a  whole. 

Physical  basis  of  topography  in  relief. 


130  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Uaitb. 

Means:    Sand  model,  chalk  model,  interpretation  of 

relief  map. 
Division  into  natural  topographic  regions. 

Climate  of  continent  as  a  whole  and  climatic  belts 
dependent  on  location  of  continent  and  its  topo- 
graphic regions. 

Life  belts  of  continent  as  a  whole  dependent  on  topo- 
graphic regions  and  climatic  belts. 

(b)  Topical  study  of  each  topographical  region  to  bring  out 

more  in  detail  the  physical,  climatic,  productive,  indus- 
trial, social,  and  locative  relations. 

(c)  Political  divisions  of  continent  in  which  a  review  of  the 

essential  characteristics  of  each  region  is  built  into  con- 
tinent as  a  whole, 
c.   Discussion  of  methods  of  presentation. 
E.  Extensive  Study  of  Regional  Geography;   World  Relations.     Aim:  To 
show  world  relations  existing  between  its  parts,  especially  as 
influencing  conditions  in  child's  home  country.     Incidental  aim: 
A  review  of  geography  of  the  United  States,  especially  through 
the  commercial  and  political  relations. 
1.  Eighth  grade, 
a.  Order  of  presentation  of  the  subject-matter. 

(1)  Determined  by  the  natural  causal  order. 

(2)  Determined  by  the  importance  of  tlie  relation  of  the  different 

regions  upon  the  home  region. 
6.  Statement  of  the  order  of  presentation  of  the  subject-matter. 

(1)  Pliysical  relations: 

(a)  The  earth  as  a  whole.     Primary  highlands.     Great  slopes 

and  drainage  areas. 
(/>)  Tlie    earth    as    a    planet.     Movements,    inclination,    and 

division  of  time. 

(2)  Climatic  relations:    Temperature  and  seasons;   winds,  rain- 

fall. 

(3)  Life  relations:  Tropical  forest,  Savanna,  Desert,  Temperate, 

Sub-arctic,  and  Tundra  belts. 

(4)  Commercial  relations  of  other  regions  with  United  States. 

Of  other  regions  with  each  other.     Routes,  etc. 

(5)  Political  relations  of  great  powers,  dependencies,  and  protec- 

torates, 
c.   Discussion  of  methods  of  presentation. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  I  3  I 


Laboratory  work  accompanying  the  second  year's  work.     Done  out- 
side of  the  r^nlar  class  periods. 

I.  Picture  library:   Collecting,  mounting,  and  classifying  pictures. 

II.  Reference  library:    Collecting,  classif)nng,  and  binding  of  articles 

from  periodicals. 

III.  Picture  drawing:   Chalk  modeling  of  geographical  forms.     Black- 

board drawing  of  pictures. 

IV.  Map  making. 

A  study  of  the  development  of  map  making. 
Sand  modeling. 
Chalk  modeling. 

Making  of  one  papier-mach6  model. 
Study  of  map  projections. 

Making  diagramatic  outlines  of  continents  indicating  parallels 
and  meridians  to  determine  relative  sizes  and  distances. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Controlling  Sand  Dunes  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. — In 
many  parts  of  the  United  States  there  are  areas  of  drifting  sand  which 
«re  of  much  econon^c  importance  from  the  fact  that  they  not  only 
«,re  useless  for  agricultural  purposes,  but  may  seriously  encroach  upon 
valuable  property.  These  areas,  known  as  sand  dunes,  consist  of  hills 
of  sand  which,  when  bare  of  vegetation,  readily  shift  from  place  to 
place  when  acted  upon  by  the  wind,  and  are  then  called  wandering  or 
shifting  dunes.  Such  dunes  occur  along  sandy  shores  of  the  ocean, 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  or  even  along  our  large  rivers,  notably  the  Columbia 
Hiver  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  These  dunes  are  formed  from  the 
sand  which  is  washed  up  during  the  tides,  storms,  or  high  water  in  case 
of  rivers.  The  sand  soon  dries,  is  blown  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing 
^nds,  and  forms  drifts  in  the  same  manner  as  snow.  The  drifts  may 
Attain  the  size  of  hills,  in  some  cases  as  much  as  200  feet  in  height. 
Continuous  winds  blow  the  sand  over  the  brow,  and  the  whole  dune 
thus  moves  slowly  but  irresistibly  forward,  covering  whatever  is  in 
its  track — fields,  forests,  ponds,  rivers,  buildings.  The  direction  of 
"the  prevailing  winds  determines  whether  dunes  will  be  formed  along  a 
sandy  coast.  On  Lake  Michigan  dunes  are  found  at  various  places 
along  the  south  and  east  shore,  but  none  along  the  west  shore.     It  is 


132  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Ifwdi 

interesting  to  note  that  the  dunes  in  this  region  are  probably  the  largest 
and  highest  to  be  found  on  the  continent,  and  are  scarcely  exceeded 
by  any  in  Europe. 

In  nature  sand  dunes  are  not  formed  where  the  conditions  will 
allow  a  covering  of  vegetation;  consequently  they  are  not  found  in 
warm  regions,  or  only  exceptionally,  as  the  long  vegetative  season  allows 
opportunity  for  a  covering  to  become  established;  but  in  northern 
regions,  where  vegetation  lies  dormant  for  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  year,  the  severe  winter  storms  may  prevent  such  covering  from 
forming. 

The  chief  areas  of  shifting  dunes  to  be  found  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast  are  on  Cape  Cod,  in  the  vicinity  of  Provincetown;  Southern  New 
Jersey,  near  Avalon  and  Stone  Harbor;  Cape  Henlopen,  near  Liewes, 
Delaware;  Cape  Henry,  Virginia,  and  less  extensive,  though  quite 
troublesome,  dunes  at  Currituck,  North  Carolina;  Isle  of  Palms,  near 
Charleston,  South  Carolina;  and  Tybee  Island,  near  Savannah,  Georgia. 

Sand  dunes  occur  at  various  places  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  as 
Ventura,  Monterey,  and  Mendocino  counties,  California,  and  the  coast 
of  Oregon.  The  latter  are  minimized  by  the  moist  climate.  Extensive 
and  exceedingly  troublesome  dunes  are  found  along  the  Columbia  River 
in  Oregon  and  Washington  from  The  Dalles  to  Riparia.  The  sand  is 
brought  down  during  the  floods  and  blown  about  during  the  long  dry 
summers.  Here  the  conditions  as  to  rainfall  are  reversed,  the  rain 
coming  in  the  winter  and  the  dunes  forming  during  the  dry  summer. 

More  or  less  successful  efforts  have  been  made  at  various  times  to 
**fix"  the  dunes  and  thus  prevent  the  serious  injury  which  they  cause 
to  valuable  property. 

In  order  to  attack  these  problems  more  intelligently,  the  writer  was 
sent  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  investigate  the  methods  used 
in  Europe,  where  work  of  this  character  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  various  Governments  for  fifty  years  or  more,  and  where  the  efforts 
in  fixation  or  reclamation  have  been  more  successful  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  world. 

For  this  purpose  typical  dune  areas  in  Holland,  Denmark,  Prussia, 
and  France  were  visited.  In  all  cases  the  reclamation  is  carried  on  by 
the  general  government,  sometimes  assisted  by  the  local  government, 
as  private  individuals  are  unable  to  bring  to  bear  upon  the  problem 
sufficient  means  or  continuity  of  purpose. 

The  fundamental  principle  of  dune  fixation  is  to  cover  the  sand  with 
a  layer  of  any  material  which  will  prevent  the  access  of  the  wind  to 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  133 


the  surface,  and  thus  prevent  drifting.  The  kind  of  covering  used 
depends  upon  climatic  conditions  and  the  availability  and  cost  of 
material.  The  aim  is,  when  possible,  to  produce  a  forest,  as  this  is 
I)ermanent,  and,  moreover,  if  properly  managed,  yields  an  income. 
However,  a  forest  can  not  be  produced  with  certainty  upon  a  surface 
of  drifting  sand,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  temporarily  fix  the  sand 
in  some  other  manner.  Although  any  covering  of  inert  material,  such 
as  chips,  gravel,  brush,  etc.,  would  answer  the  purpose,  economic  factors 
have  reduced  the  preliminary  methods  of  fixation  to  these:  (1)  trans- 
planting beach  grass;  (2)  covering  with  heather;  (3)  covering  with  a 
network  of  sand  hedges. 

(1)  Many  plants  have  been  tried,  but  the  most  satisfactory  is  beach 
grass  (Ammophila  arenaria  Link).  This  grass  grows  naturally  upon  the 
sand  dunes  of  the  north  Atlantic  Coast  of  Europe  as  far  south  as  Morocco, 
and  of  America  as  far  south  as  North  Carolina,  and  also  along  our  Great 
Lakes.  This  is  the  grass  which  was  used  in  reclaiming  the  land  which 
is  now  Golden  Gate  Park  in  San  Francisco.  It  has  also  been  imported 
at  various  other  points  along  the  Pacific  Coast.  To  fix  the  sand  the 
grass  is  transplanted  in  spring  or  fall  and  set  two  or  three  feet  apart  in 
the  sand.  The  blowing  sand  is  caught  and  held  by  the  grass,  but  it 
has  the  power  to  grow  up  through  the  accumulated  sand,  and  thus, 
with  care  to  replant  where  necessary,  it  becomes  a  permanent  covering. 
As  a  forest  can  not  be  established  close  to  the  ocean,  a  strip  a  few  rods 
wide  must  be  permanently  fixed  in  this  manner. 

(2)  In  localities  where  heather  is  abundant  this  is  cut  with  brush 
scythes  and  laid  upon  the  surface  of  the  sand.  It  is  held  in  place  by  a 
little  sand  thrown  over  the  edge  of  each  layer. 

(3)  Where  neither  beach  grass  nor  heather  is  available,  or  where 
the  conditions  are  especially  severe,  sand  hedges  are  used.  These 
consist  of  rows  of  cut  brush  or  stakes  or  of  cut  reeds,  which  are  inserted 
in  the  sand  in  rows  or  quadrangles,  allowing  the  upper  end  to  project 
for  six  inches  or  more. 

After  the  sand  is  temporarily  fixed  by  one  of  these  methods,  young 
trees,  usually  conifers,  are  transplanted,  and  the  forest  soon  removes  all 
danger  of  further  shifting.  In  southwestern  France  the  forest  was 
established  by  sowing  the  seed  of  Pinus  mariiima  upon  the  sand  and 
covering  with  brush,  but  this  method  has  not  been  successful  in  Northern 
Europe.  In  France,  and  also  the  Kurische  Nehrung,  in  Prussia,  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  form  artificially  a  long  barrier  dune  between 
the  ocean  and  the  forest  which  protects  the  latter.     This  barrier  dune 


I  34  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  SUrch 

is  fixed  by  means  of  beach  grass,  but  requires  constant  oversight  to 
keep  it  in  order.  During  severe  storms  dangerous  breaches  are  formed, 
which,  if  neglected,  would  soon  destroy  the  dune  and  seriously  injure 
the  forest  in  its  lee.  These  breaks  are  mended  by  sand  fences,  such  as 
already  described,  but  taller,  which  rapidly  accumulate  the  sand  until 
the  hole  is  filled. — National  Geographic  Magazine,  January,  1904. 

Climate  of  San  Francisco. — On  the  coast  of  California  there  is 
a  city  justly  famed  for  the  abnormalities  of  its  climate.  Overcoats 
and  heavy  wraps  are  worn  in  midsummer,  while  the  lilies  bloom  in 
December.  From  May  until  September  very  little  rain  falls,  yet  during 
this  period  with  clock-like  regularity  great  banks  of  fog  march  in  every 
afternoon  and  cover  the  bare,  brown  hills.  The  city  of  San  Francisco, 
the  gateway  to  the  Orient,  as  it  has  been  termed,  is  strangely  situated 
with  respect  to  ocean,  bay,  mountain,  and  valley.  It  may  perhaps  be 
said  of  this  city  that  nowhere  else  can  such  a  strange  mixture  of  marine 
and  continental  climates  be  found.  The  topography  is  such  that 
marked  contrasts  can  be  found  within  comparatively  short  distances. 
Certainly  the  climatologist  finds  in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  so 
many  climatic  anomalies  that  he  feels  as  if  he  were  in  fact  present  in  a 
great  natural  aero-physical  laboratory  where  daily  experiments  were 
being  performed  on  a  large  scale.  In  building  this  meteorological 
laboratory  at  San  Francisco  nature  also  provided  seats  wherefrom  we 
can  obtain  excellent  views  of  the  experiments  while  in  progress.  From 
the  Weather  Bureau  station  on  Mount  Tamalpais — elevation  of  station, 
2,373  feet — one  looks  down  on  the  broad  expanse  of  the  Pacific,  nearly 
20,000,000  square  miles  of  water,  to  the  north,  west,  and  south.  From 
the  open  roadstead  of  Drakes  Bay,  the  eye  passes  over  the  Sausalito 
hills  to  the  headlands  of  Points  Bonita  and  Lobos,  marking  the  entrance 
to  the  Golden  Gate.  This  passage  plays  an  important  rdle  in  connection 
with  the  winds,  temperatures,  and  fogs  of  the  San  Francisco  Bay  re^on. 
At  mean  tide  the  area  of  San  Francisco  Bay  is  about  450  square  miles. 

Far  on  the  eastern  horizon,  especially  on  clear  i^inter  days,  the 
snow  of  the  Sierra — 155  miles  distant — can  be  seen  glistening.  These 
mountains  vsiTy  in  height  from  8,000  to  14,000  feet. 

Extending  from  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  to  the  Coast  Range  is  a 
great  basin  500  miles  long  and  about  50  miles  wide.  The  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin  rivers,  flowing  through  this  basin,  unite  in  Suisun 
Bay.  This  great  inland  basin,  surrounded  by  mountain  walls,  is  con- 
nected ^v^th  the  Pacific  Ocean  ])y  the  gate  at  San  Francisco,  San  Fran- 


x^(H  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  1 35 

Cisco  Bay,  San  Pablo  Bay,  Karquines  Straits,  and  Suisun  Bay.  Here, 
tihen,  is  an  aero-physical  laboratory  par  excellence.     Now  for  the  results. 

When  a  native  of  San  Francisco  is  asked  which  is  the  coldest  month 
of  the  year,  he  is  generally  at  a  loss  for  an  answer;  and  if  asked  which 
is  the  warmest  he  may  say  November.  This  confusion  arises  from  the 
comparatively  small  range  of  temperature.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature, as  determined  from  the  records  of  the  Weather  Bureau  for 
thirty-one  years,  is  56.1°  F.  May  and  November  have  practically  the 
same  temperature.  The  warmest  month  is  September,  60.8°;  the 
coldest,  January,  50.2°.  The  other  months  have  mean  temperatures 
as  follows:  February,  52°;  March,  54°;  April,  55°;  May,  57°;  June, 
July,  and  August,  59°;  October,  60°;  November,  56°;  December,  52°. 

The  highest  temperature  ever  recorded  in  San  Francisco  was  100°, 
on  June  29,  1891,  and  the  lowest  29°,  on  January  15,  1888.  Abnor- 
mally warm  and  cold  periods  last,  as  a  rule,  about  three  days.  The 
mean  of  the  three  consecutive  warmest  days  at  San  Francisco  has 
never  exceeded  76.3°.  A  period  of  warm  weather  during  the  summer 
months  is,  as  a  rule,  brought  to  a  close  about  the  evening  of  the  third 
day  with  strong  west  winds,  dense  fog,  and  temperatures  ranging  from 
49°  to  54°.  The  mean  of  the  three  consecutive  coldest  days  was  40.7°. 
The  greatest  daily  range  of  temperature  was  43°,  on  June  29,  1891. 
This  was  the  date  when  the  temperature  reached  100°.  The  range  of 
temperature  was  from  100°  to  57°.  The  morning  was  calm  and  very 
warm,  while  at  5  p.  m.  the  temperature  was  80°,  and  next  morning  74°. 

In  the  past  thirty  years  the  number  of  days  on  which  snow  has 
fallen  can  be  counted  on  ten  fingers.  Thunderstorms  likewise  are 
infrequent,  but  not  altogether  unknown.  Earthquakes,  meaning  by 
this  all  slight  shocks  and  tremors,  average  about  seven  per  annum. 
Little  damage  has  been  done  by  earthquakes  during  the  past  fifty  years. 

The  people  in  San  Francisco  have  long  realized  that  winter  and 
summer  are  purely  relative  terms.  Thus  at  any  of  the  ferries  on  a 
midsummer  day  one  can  see  summer  fabrics  worn  with  heavy  wraps, 
and  it  is  not  unusual  to  see  white  duck  and  sealskin  in  combination. 
Visitors  to  the  city  should  by  all  means  wear  heavy  wraps  or  overcoats 
during  the  summer  afternoon. 

The  experiments  of  the  observers  of  the  Weather  Bureau  during 
the  past  two  years  with  kites  have  thrown  much  light  upon  the  causes 
of  the  climatic  abnormalities  experienced  at  San  Francisco;  and,  among 
other  things,  it  has  become  evident  that  in  summer  as  we  ascend  from 
the  ground  the  temperature  rises.     For  each  155  feet  of  elevation  the 


I  36  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  March 

temperature  is  1°  F.  warmer,  and  so  on  any  of  the  hills  or  mountains 
in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  one  can  find  with  very  little  effort  the 
climate  best  suited  for  him.  In  other  words,  the  citizen  of  the  San 
Francisco  Bay  section  can  regulate  the  temperature  to  suit  himself^ 
having  a  choice  between  55°  at  sea  level  and  85°  at  2,000  feet  above. 
With  regard  to  rainfall  during  the  summer  months,  San  Francisco 
is  practically  rainless.  The  average  rainfall  is  about  23  inches, 
and  mast  of  this  falls  during  the  months  of  November,  Decem- 
ber, January,  Febniary,  and  March.  Looking  over  the  records  of  the 
past  fifty  years  we  find  that  the  year  1898  had  but  9.31  inches,  while 
in  1893  there  was  38.82  inches.  In  1861  there  was  38.51  inches.— 
BvUetin  L,  Climatology  of  California,  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry. — 

JAXrARY 

Automobiles  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.  (Special  Edition),  January  30. 

Canada's  Ability  as  a  Wheat  Producer,  BradstreeVs,  January  9. 

Cod-liver  Oil  of  Norsvay,  BradstreeVs,  January'  23. 

Colombia:  The  Government  and  People  and  Country  (Illus.), 
World's  Work. 

Com:   The  World's  Corn  King  (Illus.),  Export  Implement  Age. 

Cuba :  Commercial  Notes,  Consular  Rep. 

Engineering  Retrospect  of  1903,  Sci.  Am.,  Januar>'  2. 

p]nglish  Walnut  in  Southern  California  (Illus.),  Rei\  of  Revs. 

Erie  Canal,  Electricity  on  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.,  January  9. 

Ciermany,  Commerce  and  Industries  of,  Consular  Rep. 

Hudson  Bay:  Canada's  I^ndeveloped  Empire  (illus.), World  To-Day, 

India:  Impressions  of  the  Far  East  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 

Invention,  Connecticut  the  Home  of.  World's  Work. 

Japan,  Industrial  Development  in,  Consular  Rep. 

Korea,  Commerce  and  Resources  of,  BradstreeVs,  January  23. 

Locomotive  Industry  (Illus.),  System. 

Logging  in  the  South,  Miss.  Valley  Lumberman,  January  22. 

Lumber  By-products,  Miss.  Valley  Lumberman,  January  29. 

Mississippi:  The  Great  River  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 

Oil:  New  Texan  Deposits  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.,  January  30. 

Oil  Industry'  of  the  Southwest  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 

Panama  Canal  and  Railway  Traffic,  BradstreeVs. 

Peach  Farm  in  Michigan  (Illus.),  Country  Life. 

Philippines:  How  They  A<lvertise  Shoes,  Hide  and  Leather,  Jan- 
uary 30. 


RECENT  PUBLICATIONS  I  39 


those  days  when  accessible  sessions  of  the  Congress  are  held.  It  is 
probable  that  the  educational  aspects  of  geography  will  be  made  the 
special  subject  of  one  or  more  sessions,  in  which  contributions  will  be 
especially  appropriate  from  experienced  teachers  of  geography  in  col- 
leges and  normal  schools.  The  Journal  will  publish  the  plans  as  they 
mature  and  will  make  special  note  of  any  details  of  particular  interest 
to  teachers. 

Correspondence   regarding   membership   and   general   information 
should  be  addressed  to  International  Geographic  Congress,  Hubbard 

Memorial  Hall,  Washington,  D.  C. ;    regarding  the  general  scientific 

program  of  the  sessions,  to  Professor  W.  M.  Davis,  Cambridge,  Mass. ; 

regarding  the  educational  division  of  the  program,  to  Professor  Richard 

JE.  Dodge,  Teachers  College,  New  York  City. 


RECENT  PUBLICATIONS 

-^^     Laboratory  Manual  of  Physical  Geography.      Part  I,  Directions  for  Teachers; 

Part  II,  Laboratory  Exercises.     By  Frank  W.  Darling  and  four  instructors  in 

the  Chicago  High  Schools.    Chicago  and  Boston:  Atkinson  &  Mentzer,  1903. 

The  authors  have  prepared  a  helpful  and  suggestive  manual  of  value  to  all  High 

'^•'»^<i  Normal  School  teachers.    There  is  some  question  as  to  the  advisability  of  includ- 

*  *^^  the  study  of  minerals  in  Physical  Geography  as  is  done  here.    To  be  reviewed 

^^«.t^r. 


le  Cumberland  Road,   Being  Volume  X  in  the  Historic  Highways  of  America 

Series.     By  Archer  B.  Hulbert.     Pp.  208.    Cleveland,  Ohio:    The  Arthur  H. 

Clark  Company,  1904. 

^  The  latest  volume  in  the  series  of  Historic  Highways  of  America  is  much  like 

^"^-CR    predecessors  in  scope  and  form.     Of  interest  to  all  students  of  the  history  of 

^Sc^c^graphy  and  the  geography  of  history  in  the  United  States. 


ic  Philippine  Islands,    1493-1898.     Edited  and  annotated  bv  Emma  H.  Blair 
and  James  A.  Robertson.     Vol.  VIII,  1591-1593,  pp.  320,  1903;   and  Vol.  IX, 
1593-1597,  pp.  329,  1904.     Cleveland,  Ohio:  Arthur  H.  Clark  Company. 
These  voliunes  continue  the  account  of  the  Philippines  begun  in  the  other  volumes 

^^■J^^ady  noted  in  the  Journal,  and  carry  the  story  to  the  end  of  the  first  century. 

^^^jiy  facts  are  of  interest  to  the  general  reader,  but  the  series  is  of  particular  value 

^o  the  student  of  geographical  history. 

^imxxuoary  and  Outline  of  Geography  Course  for  the  Grades  of  Chicago  Pub- 
lic Schools.    Pp.  160.     PubRshed  by  the  Board  of  Education,  1903. 
A  valuable  contribution  to  educational  geography.    A  well-ordered  and  sensible 
^^ourae  of  study.    Contains  excellent  references  and  is  of  value  to  all  grade  teachers. 

"^lie  Tree-Dwellers.    By  Katherine  E.  Dopp.     Pp.158.    Chicago:  Rand,  McNally 
&  Co.,  1903.  PH         F  ^^  ,  y 

The  first  of  a  series  of  books  on  primitive  life,  for  use  as  a  reader  in  elementary 
Si^es.     Pleasing  in  form  and  illustration.     To  be  reviewed  later. 


140  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  March 


NEWS  NOTES 

PRELIMINARY  ANNOUNCEMENT 

Eighth  International  Geographic  Congress,  Washington,  i904. 

Hubbard  Memorial  Hall, 
Washington,  D.  C,  U.  S.  A.,  January,  1904. 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  Seventh  International  Geographic 
Congress  held  in  Berlin  in  1899  having  voted  to  convoke  its  next  ses- 
sion in  Washington,  the  National  Geographic  Society,  as  the  organ- 
ization responsible  for  the  management  of  the  sessions  in  the  United 
States,  will  welcome  the  Eighth  Congress  and  its  friends  to  the 
National  Capital  of  the  United  States  in  September,  1904. 

Geographers  and  promoters  of  geography  throughout  the  World, 
especially  members  of  Gcograpliic  Societies  and  cognate  institutions 
of  scientific  character,  are  cordially  invited  to  assemble  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  on  September  8,  1904,  for  the  first  international  meeting  of 
geographers  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

On  the  invitation  of  the  National  Geograpliic  Society,  the  following 
Societies  join  in  welcoming  the  Congress  and  undertake  to  codperate 
toward  its  success,  especially  in  so  far  as  sessions  to  be  held  in  their 
respective  cities  are  concerned  : 

The  American  Geographical  Society. 

The  Geographic  Society  of  Baltimore. 

The  Geographic  Society  of  Chicago. 

The  Geographical  Society  of  California. 

The  Mazamas. 

The  Peary  Arctic  Club. 

The  Geographical  Society  of  Philadelphia. 

The  Appalachian  Mountain  Club. 

The  Geographical  Society  of  the  Pacific. 

The  Sierra  Club. 

The  American  Alpine  Club. 

The  Ilarv^ard  Travellers  Clul). 

Sessions,  The  Congress  will  convene  in  Washington  on  Thursday, 
September  8th,  in  the  new  home  of  the  National  Geographic  Society, 
and  will  hold  sessions  on  the  9th  and  10th,  the  latter  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Geographic  Society  of  Baltimore.  Leaving  Washington  on  the 
12th,  the  members,  associates,  and  guests  of  the  Congress  will  be  enter- 
tained during  that  day  by  the  Geographical  Society  of  Philadelphia, 


NEWS  NOTES  I4I 


and  on  the  13th,  14th,  and  15th  by  the  American  Geographical  Society 

in  New  York,  where  scientific  sessions  will  be  held;  on  the  16th  they 

will  have  the  opportunity  of  visiting  Niagara  Falls  (en  route  westward 

by  special  train),  and  on  the  17th  will  be  entertained  by  the  Geographic 

Society  of  Chicago;  and  on  Monday  and  Tuesday,  September  19th  and 

20th,  they  will  be  invited  to  participate  in  the  International  Congress 

of  Arts  and  Science  connected  with  the  World's  Fair  in  St.  Louis. 

Arrangements  will  be  made  here  for  visiting  exhibits  of  geographic 

interest. 

Excursions,    In  case  any  considerable  number  of    members    and 

associates  so  desire,  a  Far-West  excursion  will  be  provided  from  St. 

X.«oiiis  to  the  City  of  Mexico,  thence  to  Santa  F^,  thence  to  the  Grand 

Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  and  on  to  San  Francisco  and  the  Golden  Gate, 

"^irhere  the  western  Geographic  Societies  will  extend  special  hospitality; 

^a^terward  returning  by  any  preferred  route  through  the  Rocky  Moun- 

^t^^dns  and  the  interior  plains  to  the  eastern  ports. 

If  the  membership  and  finances  warrant,  the  foreign  delegates  will 

!:>«  made  guests  of  the  Congress  from  Washington  to  St.  Louis,  via 

^^ialtimore,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Niagara  Falls,  and  Chicago.     On 

"fciie  Far-West  excursion  special  terms  will  be  secured,  reducing  the 

•^^^gregate   cost  of  transportation  with  sleeping-car  accommodations 

^^iKid  meals  materially  below  the  customary  rates.     It  may  be  necessary 

limit  the  number  of  persons  on  the  Far-West  excursion.     It  is 

Lanned  also  to  secure  special  rates  for  transportation  of  foreign  members 

3m  one  or  more  European  ports  to  New  York,  provided  requisite 

S.:a::ftJormation  as  to  the  convenience  and  pleasure  of  such  members  be 

^>"lzDtained  in  time.     Final  information  on  these  points  will  be  given  in 

"t::»l:^e  Preliminary  Program  of  June,  1904. 

The  subjects  for  treatment  and  discussion  in  the  Congress  may  be 
<:^l^issified  as  follows: 

1.  Physical   Geography,    including    Geomorphology,    Meteorology, 

Hydrology,  etc. 

2.  Mathematical  Geography,  including  Geodesy  and  Geophysics. 

3.  Biogeography,  including  Botany  and  Zoology  in  their  geographic 

aspects. 

4.  Anthropogeography,  including  Ethnology. 

5.  Descriptive  Geography,  including  Explorations  and  Surveys. 

6.  Geographic  Technology,  including  Cartography,  Bibliography,  etc. 

7.  Conunercial  and  Industrial  Geography. 

8.  ffistory  of  Greography. 

9.  Geographic  Education. 


142  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  March 

A  special  opportunity  will  be  afforded  for  the  discussion  of  methods 
of  surveying  and  map  making,  and  for  the  comparison  of  these  methods 
as  pursued  in  other  countries  with  the  work  of  the  Federal  and  State 
Surveys  maintained  in  this  country. 

Membership,  Members  of  the  Congress  will  be  entitled  to  partici- 
pate in  all  sessions  and  excursions,  and  to  attend  all  social  meetings  in 
honor  of  the  Congress;  they  will  also  (whether  in  attendance  or  not) 
receive  the  pubUcations  of  the  Congress,  including  the  daily  Program 
and  the  final  Comptc  Rendu,  or  volume  of  proceedings.  Membership 
may  be  acquired  by  members  of  Geographic  and  cognate  Societies  on 
payment  of  S5  (25  francs,  one  pound,  or  20  marks)  to  the  Conmiittee 
of  Arrangements.  Persons  not  members  of  such  societies  may  acquire 
membership  by  a  similar  payment  and  election  by  the  Presidency. 
Ladies  and  minors  accompanying  members  may  be  registered  as  asso- 
ciates on  payment  of  $2.50  (12^  francs,  or  10  sliillings,  or  10  marks); 
they  shall  enjoy  all  ])rivileges  of  members  except  the  rights  of  voting 
and  of  receiving  publications. 

Geographers  and  their  friends  desirous  of  attending  the  Congress 
or  receiving  its  publications  are  requested  to  signify  their  intention  at 
the  earhest  practicable  date  in  order  that  subsequent  announcements 
may  be  sent  them  without  delay,  and  that  requisite  arrangements  for 
transportation  may  be  effected.  On  receipt  of  subscriptions,  members' 
and  associates'  tickets  will  be  mailed  to  the  subscribers.  The  privileges 
of  the  Congress,  including  the  excursions  and  the  social  gatherings, 
can  be  extended  only  to  holders  of  tickets. 

Societies  and  Delegates.  It  is  earnestly  hoped  that  the  Congress 
of  1904  may  be  an  assemblage  of  Geographic  and  cognate  Institutions 
no  less  than  of  individual  Geographers;  and  to  this  end  a  special  invita- 
tion is  extended  to  such  organizations  to  participate  in  the  Congress 
through  Delegates  on  the  basis  of  one  for  each  one  hundred  members 
up  to  a  maximum  of  ten.  No  charge  will  be  made  for  the  registration 
of  Institutions,  though  the  Delegates  will  be  expected  to  subscribe  as 
Members;  and  in  order  that  the  hst  of  afTiUated  Institutions  (to  be 
issued  in  a  later  announcement)  may  be  worthy  of  full  confidence,  the 
Conmiittee  of  Arrangements  reserve  the  right  to  withhold  the  name 
of  any  Institution  pending  action  by  the  Presidency.  The  publications 
of  the  Congress  will  be  sent  free  to  all  Institutions  registered.  It  is 
especially  desired  that  the  Geographic  Societies  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere may  utilize  the  opportunity  afforded  by  this  Congress  for  estab- 
lisliing  closer  relations  with  those  of  the  Old  World,  and  to  facilitate 
this,  Spanish  will  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  languages  of  the  Congress 


igo4  NEWS  NOTES  1 43 

with  French,  English,  German,  and  Italian,  in  accordance  with  previous 
usage;  and  communications  before  the  Congress  may  be  written  in 
any  one  (or  more)  of  these  languages. 

Institutions  not  strictly  Geographic  in  character,  Libraries,  Univer- 
sities, Academies  of  Science,  and  Scientific  Societies  are  especially 
invited  to  subscribe  as  members  in  order  to  receive  the  publications  of 
the  Congress  as  issued. 

Communications.  Members  and  Delegates  desirous  of  presenting 
communications  before  the  Congress,  or  wishing  to  propose  subjects 
for  discussion,  are  requested  to  signify  their  wishes  at  the  earliest  prac- 
ticable date  in  order  that  the  titles  or  subjects  may  be  incorporated 
in  a  Prehminary  Program  to  be  issued  in  June,  1904.  The  time  required 
for  presenting  communications  should  be  stated,  otherw^ise  twelve 
minutes  will  be  allotted.  It  is  anticipated  that  not  more  than  twenty 
minutes  can  be  allotted  for  any  communication  unless  the  Presidency 
decide  to  extend  the  time  by  reason  of  the  general  interest  or  importance 
of  the  subject.  The  Presidency  with  the  complete  Organization  of  the 
Congress  (including  Delegates)  will  be  announced  in  the  Preliminary 
Program  of  June,  1904. 

Program,  All  papers  or  abstracts  designed  for  presentation  before 
the  Congress,  and  all  proposals  and  applications  affecting  the  Congress, 
will  be  submitted  to  a  Program  Committee  who  shall  decide  whether 
the  same  are  appropriate  for  incorporation  in  the  announcements, 
though  the  decisions  of  this  Committee  shall  be  subject  to  revision  by 
the  Presidency  after  the  Congress  convenes. 

Any  proposal  affecting  the  organization  of  the  Congress  or  the  pro- 
gram for  the  Washington  session  must  be  received  in  writing  not  later 
than  May  1,  1904.  Communications  designed  to  be  printed  in  con- 
nection with  the  Congress  must  be  received  not  lat^r  than  June  1,  and 
any  abstracts  of  communications  (not  exceeding  300  words  in  length) 
designed  for  printing  in  the  General  Program  to  be  published  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Congress  must  be  received  not  later  than  August  1, 
1904.     Daily  Programs  will  be  issued  during  the  sessions. 

All  correspondence  relating  to  the  Congress  and  all  remittances 
should  be  addressed:  The  Eighth  International  Geographic  Congress, 
Hubbard  Memorial  Hall,  Washington,  D.  C,  U.  S.  A. 

COMMITTEE   OF  ARRANGEMENTS 

W.  J.  McGee,  National  Geographic   Society,  Washington,   D.  C, 

Chairman, 
Henry  G.  Bryant,  Geographical  Society  of  Philadelphia. 


144  '^^^  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  March 

George  B.  Shattuck,  Geographic  Society  of  Baltimore. 

A.  Lawrence  Rotch,  Appalachian  Mountain  Club,  Boston. 

Zonia  Baber,  Geographic  Society  of  Chicago. 

George  Davidson,  Geographical  Society  of  the  Pacific,  San  Francisco. 

Frederick  W.  d'Evelyn,  Geographical  Society  of  California,   San 

Francisco. 
John  Muir,  Sierra  Club,  San  Francisco. 
Rodney  L.  Glisan,  Mazamas,  Portland. 
Angelo  Heilprin,  American  Alpine  Club. 
Herbert  L.  Bridgman,  Peary  Arctic  Club. 
William  Morris  Davis,  Harvard  Travellers  Club. 
J.  H.  McCormick,  Secretary. 

FINANCE    COMMITTEE 

John  Joy  Edson,  President  Washington  Loan  &  Trust  Company, 

Cliaimian. 
David  T.  Day,  United  States  Geological  Sur\'ey. 
Charles  J.  Bell,  President  American  Security  &  Trust  Company. 

National  Educational  Association,  1904. — The  first  of  the  many 
importa,nt  educational  meetings  to  be  held  at  St.  Louis  in  1904 
is  the  National  Educational  Association.  This  convention  will  be 
held  from  June  28  to  July  1.  Details  of  the  geograpliical  program 
will  be  published  in  the  Journal  of  Geography  when  it  has  been 
completed.  In  anticipation  of  this  meeting  the  Journal  will  issue,  the 
last  of  May  or  early  in  June,  a  special  number  devoted  to  "The  Geog- 
raphy of  the  Louisiana  Purchase*."  The  Purchase  has  never  before 
been  so  completely  written  up  from  a  geographical  standpoint. 

Bulletin   of   the   American   Geographical  Society.  —  The  Editors 

of  the  Journal  note  \\4th  pleasure  a  change  in  plan  whereby  the  Bidleiin 
of  the  American  Geographical  Society  will  hereafter  be  published 
monthly  instead  of  five  times  a  year.  The  BxiUetin  is  the  oldest  regular 
geographical  periodical  in  the  country,  and  represents  the  oldest  and 
most  renowned  Geographical  Society.  The  geographical  interests  of 
America  are  so  large  and  so  increasing  in  scope  that  there  is  plenty  of 
opportunity  for  two  monthly  periodicals  devoted  primarily  to  advanc- 
ing the  science  of  geography.  Although  the  Bulletin,  like  its  com- 
panion, the  National  Geographic  Magazine,  will  devote  a  certain 
amount  of  attention  to  educational  geography,  neither  paper  will 
cover  the  field  which  the  Joijrnal  of  Geography  and  its  predecessors 
have  occupied  for  more  than  seven  years. 


Newest  and  Best  Text-Books 


IN 


GEOGRAPHY 


Morton^s  Geographies 

By  Eliza  H.  Morton,  Member  of  the  National  Geographic  Society. 

Elementary  Geography f  0.55 

Advanced  Geography z.20 

Natural  Geographies 

By  Jacques  W.  Redway  and  Russell  Hinman. 

Elementary  Geography fo.6o 

Advanced  Geography 1.25 

Brief  Geography 80 

TarbeH's  Geographies 

By  Horace  S.  Tarbell,  A.M.,  LL.D.,  formerly  Siiperintendent  of 
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Introductory  Geography f  0.50 

Complete  Geography  z.oo 

The  same.    With  Special  State  Editions       ....      z.zo 

Carpenter's  Geographical  Readers 

By  Frank  G.  Carpenter. 
North  America  .    $0.60  Europe      ....    $0.70 

South  America  .60  Asia 60 

Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea  (in  preparation). 

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An  Announcement  to  Teachers  of 
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RAND,  McNALLY  &  COMPANY  will  publish 
this  fall  and  winter  a  new  series  of  Geographies 

By  Richard  Elwood  Dodge 

Professor  of  Geograthfy  Teachers  College y  Columbia  University^  New  York  City : 

Oh-editor  of  The  Journal  of  Geography:  and  author  of  **A  /deader 

in  Physical  Geography  for  Beginners.^' 

B..k  On,  ELEMENTAR  Y  CEOGRA PH Y  «•«<!» 

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In  Part  I.  the  purpose  has  been  to  show  the  relation  of  the  individual  pupil  to  all 
parts  of  his  own  country,  and  thereby  to  emphasize  the  interdependence  of  people  com- 
mercially and  industrially.  Any  treatment  of  Home  Geography  must  be  general  in 
order  to  make  it  true  for  all  children  in  all  localities.  In  the  **  Suggestions  for  Review '' 
the  pupil  is  asked  to  study  his  own  environment  and  to  explain  its  geography  by 
the  universal  facts  presented  in  the  text. 

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dependence of  nations  is  here  brought  out.  The  last  part  is  devoted  to  the  several  con- 
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THIS  book  has  been  written  with  the  idea  of  emphasizing  particularly  the  ''causal 
notion"  in  geography  teaching.  Part  I.,  called  "The  Principles  of  Geography," 
treats  of  those  phases  of  general  geography  which  are  necessary  as  a  founaation 
for  an  intelligent  and  disciplinary  study  ot  the  several  continents.  The  topics  in  this 
part  of  the  book  are  considered  as  far  as  possible  in  the  order  of  their  mutual  depen- 
dence, and  the  pupils  are  thus  led  to  see  the  dependence  of  the  higher  and  more  compli- 
cated phases  of  geography  on  the  simpler  but  fundamental  conditions. 

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tance of  their  physical  characteristics.  Especial  attention  is  given  to  their  economic 
conditions,  because  it  is  believed  that  the  greatest  value  from  a  study  of  the  continents 
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'T^HE  attention  of  geographers  and  geography  teachers  is  especialljr  invited  to  the 


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large  number  and  excellence  of  the  maps,  all  of  which  have  been  made  expressly  for 
these  geographies.  Each  continent  and  the  United  States  is  represented  by  three 
maps,  a  relufmat  to  give  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  contour,  a  physical  map  showing,  in 
accordance  with  tne  international  color  scheme,  the  land  heights  and  water  depths,  and  a 
political  map  giving  the  latest  information  in  regard  to  boundaries  and  other  varying 
points^  In  Book  Two  appear  commercial  mapSy  showing  the  railroads  and  principal 
industries  of  each  region.  For  the  first  time  m  a  school  geography  water  depths  are 
shown  on  all  maps. 

The  drawings  for  the  maps  have  passed  under  the  critical  eye  of  Dr.  J.  Paul  Goode, 
Assistant  Professor  of  Geography  in  the  University  of  Chicago,  an  expert  in  cartogrraphy. 

Write  US  for  further  information  regarding  these  books 

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COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

Teachers  CoUegre  is  the  professkmal 
school  of  Columbia  University  for  th* 
study  of  education  and  the  theoretloal 
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and  Doctor*8  Diplomas  of  the  CoIlMre 
and  to  the  University  degrees  of  A.  H. 
and  Ph.  D.    ^   Many  courses  in  other 
parts  of  the  University  are  open  to 
qualified  students. 

For  circulars  and  further  information 
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QPrriAl     EDUCATIONAL  QAZETTE 
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Address 
EDUCATIONAL  GAZETTE  PUB.  CO. 
D.  H.  Cook,  Mgr.  .-.•  .-.•  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

School  Work 


Poblished  Quarterly  by  the 
Editors  of  School  Work 


A  Forum  for  the  Discussion  of  Practicai 
Problems  in  Elementary  and  High  Schools 

EACH  NUMBER  A  TItEATISE.  BEING  140  PAGES.  QUAKTEKLY,  OF  APPLICABLE 
DEVICE,  OF  THE  UTMOST  VALUE  TO  TEACHERS 


BOARD  OF  EDfT0R8—LEOH  W.  Qoldrioh.  John  T.  Nicholson.  John  8.  Roberts 


AOTE  THE  COXTENTS  OF  ONE  NUMBER. 

THE  "SCHOOL  WORK"  TREATISE  ON  GOOD  TEACHING. 

TOPICS  I  Weekly  CIum  ProgramB— For  all  Grammar  Grades  Including  Departmental  Work. 
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Wrttinv 

Penmanship  In  the  First  Team. 
HablU  to  be  formed  and  min- 
takes  to  be  avoided. 

Arithmetic 

Number  Work  In  the  Kinder- 
garten. 


Arithmetic  of  the  Last  Year. 
Giving  atniM.  suggestions,  and 
model  leKHons. 

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Geoffraphy 

In  the  Fourth  Year.    A  coin- 

{Uete  outline  plan   arranged 
)y  weeks  for  the  term. 
Comparison  In  Geography— 
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centres  of  comparison, 
(ft)  Methods  to  be  employed 
In  comparing  new  topics 
with  familiar  ones. 


Hintory 

Historic  New  York-///MJif mfi^. 
Facts    a    teacher    should 
know. 

HIstor>'  In  the  Upper  Grades. 

How  to  Teach  Civics. 

Logic  In  the  Public  Schools. 
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l}e»\ien  — III uMtratfd.  How  to 
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Journal  or  Pedagogy 

"C^ROM  the  first  issue  the  Journal  of  Pedagogy  has  been  edited  solely  in  the  interest 
-*■  of  sound  education  and  correct  teaching.  Some  of  the  most  important  contribu- 
tions to  pedagogical  literature  in  this  country  have  appeared  in  its  pages  during  the 
past  decade.  It  is  the  aim  of  the  magazine  to  offer  from  issue  to  issue  a  full  and  impar- 
tial account  of  the  progress  that  is  being  made  toward  better  things  in  educational 
thought  and  practice. 

It  has  become  a  necessity  to  every  library,  and  teachers  who  wish  the  best  must 
include  it  in  their  list  of  periodicals. 


XVI 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

SEPTEMBER 


1903 


EDITORIAL — The  Batavia  System — What  the  Batavia  System  Is  —  A  Quickened  Intellec- 
tual Life  —  The  Right  View  of  a  Superintendent's  Duties  —  A  Needed  Amendment  — 
Muaac  in  the  High  School — A  Difficult  Undertaking  Well  Done  —  The  Boston  Meeting 
— Medical  Inspection  of  Schools  —  College  Entrance  Examination  Board. 

TEXT-BOOK  LIBRARIES,  Robbrt  MacDougal. 

COMMERCIALISM  AGAmST  CULTURE,  J.  H.  Atkinson. 

THE  TEACHER'S  PRACTICAL  APPLICATION  OF  THE  RESULTS  OF  CHILD  STUDY, 
P.  E.  Spaulding. 

THE  AIM  OF  EDUCATION.  M.  A.  Carringer. 

THE  PEDAGOGICAL  VALUE  OF  MEDIATE  INTEREST,  L.  W.  Hoffman. 

MUSIC  STUDY  VS.  PERFORMANCE,  H.  H.  Langton. 

AMBIDEXTERITY  AND  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT,  Samuel  S.  Maxwell. 

A  SCHOOL  OF  PRACTICAL  SOCIOLOGY,  D.  C.  Parr. 

NEW  BOOKS. 

Published  Quarterly.    Subscription  Price,  $1.50  per  year.    Single  numbers^ 
50  C9nts.    For  terms  to  new  subscribers^  address 

Journal  of  Pedagogy    ^     Syracuse,  N.  T. 


\ 


Read  This! 


AN  AUTHOR'S  OPINION 

Since  the  first  dav  n[  pul)licatit)n  T  have  been  a  subscriber  to  THE  JOURNAL 
OF  GEOGRArnv  ancT  its  predecessors.  It  is  so  helpful  and  sujf j^estive  that  I  can 
not  afford  to  do  without  it.  It  is  an  excellent  means  of  keeping  one's  ideas 
up-to-date  both  in  methods  of  teaching:  and  in  the  evcr-growinjiC,  ever-widening 
science  of  geography,  as  well  iis  in  kindred  sciences.  ^j  fxis  E   Frve 

Former  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Cuba; 

Hotel  Trot c ha ^  Havana,  Cuba.  author  of  Fryers  Geoj^raphies. 


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A  SUPERINTENDENT'S   TESTIMONY 

For  several  years  past  all  of  our  teachers  who  teach  geography  have  taken 
The  Journal' of  Geocraphv.  and  we  see  no  reason  tor  changing.  The 
Journal  gives  to  the  teachers  scientific  information,  pedagogically  arranged, 
on  the  most  vital  subjects  in  the  curriculum.  (Geography  has  ceased  to  be  a 
memory  study  in  our  schools  and  has  become  a  thought  study.  THE  JOURN a  L 
has  done  much  to  help  to  that  result.  Teachers  of  geography  can  not  do 
better  than  to  take  this  very  readable  and  profitable  Journal. 

John  A.  Long, 

Streator,  Illinois.  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

Send  for  a  Free  Sample  Copy 

Thf  JournnI  of  n^^niphy,  Rtmm  HHK  IW  Adtimtt  fit..  Chicago.  lU. 


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S 
C 
H 
O 
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E 
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I 

T 
A 
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5 


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EXERCISES 

By  Supt.  C.  W.  Htickeni 


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yftj  pa^feft  *cm  Openm^ 
Exereises.  s^j  Fridsy 
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phy^  Fun,  Sentiment,  Manner a^ 
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Pa  Re' «  Theory  aij*l  i^rnrtiteof  Triithliitf  J  W 

Moofe'ft  The  rtdetic*  tif  ht«dy, ... I  *W 

I.ind  *  Best  Methwla  fn  C'tuntry  Hctititirii  I  Xf 
Mistake?*  in  Teaching  (Ptenlon  PMpemf,  J  «l 

il</w  lo  St«dy  r^itentnrc. * ~h 

The  Wf>rt  h  of  Word*    . , , , 1  .ST* 

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Sir*.  Dewey's  MHnnerji,  Morn  I  a  ,. . .  .<w/A  J'» 
Characrtrr :  A  Moral  Te Jtt  IVif »k   . .  I  Vi 

nmcm  a  pioeLe.  pufntoiwra 

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p^l  schoolroom  methods  and  educational  news,  and  one  discuss- 
^^^g"  the  deeper  problems  of  the  profession.  The  latter  is  by 
*^^x*  the  more  important  of  the  two,  for  it  will  keep  you  growing 
^•^cl  make  you  worth  more  as  a  teacher.  The  first  will  be  read 
^^^  thrown  aside  ;  the  second  will  be  preserved  and  bound  up 
"•-^^x*  permanent  reference. 

We  publish  "EDUCATION,"  the  oldest  of  the  high-class 
^^c^nthly  educational  magazines,  now  in  its  twenty-fourth  year. 
'■--^^  voted  especially  to  the  problems  of  secondary  educatiofi.  All 
^^''^x*  articles  are  strictly  original ;  none  of  them  are  copied  from 
^^^lier  journals.  $3.00  a  year  ;  35  cents  a  number.  Sample  for 
^^^^  two-cent  stamps.  Send  us  your  entire  periodical  list  for 
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World's  Fair 

and  National  Educational 

Association  Number 


The  JOURNAL  of  GEOGRAPHY 

Tht?  Juny  numbernf  TA*- TOUHSal  tt/'(iEfirrKAf»n  V  will  be  a  World'if  Faif  und 
Bl  Naticinul  KduciLtidnQl  AssoQiAtion  Number.    It  will  be  devuted  entirely  to 

Bhe  Geography 

of  the  Louisiana 

Purchase 

Amofijc  ilie  numerous  articles  that  may  be  expected  are  the  followln|| : 
THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  VALUE  OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

THE   SURFACE   AND  CLIMATE   OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

Iy\  X.  11.   i>AKl(^N%  ('////('  Litift'ti  Sfafi's  Gtt^js^t'itpknai  Surt^v 

THE    HISTORY   AND    EXPLORATION   OF   THE   LOUISIANA 
PURCHASE 

By  Dk.  a.   C.    HowlaS'u,  of  tbr  I\'a<ht'f.<  Ct^Hf^e^  Coiumbia  Lfniversiiy, 

^  Xeii}   Yi*rk  Ctfy 

THE   INDUSTRIES   OF  THE  LOUISIANA   PURCHASE 

By  l*k[>KEssf]H   Sr-EM'Kk  TKDni-ik.  i*f  Su;tr//iniotr  Ce/ii-jiT'',  Stiar/A»i0re^ 

I\t.,    ijiillii}r  iff  "A  Lommti-ciai  (ftiW^'^My" 
THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  PRESENT  CONDITIONS  OF  IRRIGATION 

/lytirifj^'^riipht'r  J\}r  the  Ctnitd  Sfuifs  Gt'tfiQ^iOii  Survey 

ST.  LOUIS 

By  Kllkn  C.  Skmple,  0/  /AmtM'iih\  AV,.-  aufh&r  n/  **Jmtfri'£0tt  Hiifery 

DENVER 

By  CBAkLES  E.  CifJ^ttiiKV.  Asshfanf  Snf^eriHtendcnf  iif  tkr  Deftf^, 

t'titiyradif^  Schiwis 

The  iirtielcs  will  be  tlllufitnited  exletislvely  \%y  phfitn^s^mphs  and  nmpAi 
there  waU  h^'  u  Ifirj^c  foUlinK  ttiuii  nf  ihi-  Lt>u(?iiiHna  Purchase  Inserted,  and 
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West  and  especially  of  the  LfiuiKiJina  PurL^lui^^e.  available  for  elas^  ase.  The 
nuuibtr  will  alrin  include  t*  brief  Kelccted  biblio^raphv  im  the  j?ei>j?raphy  of 
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merte,  indu»trie»^  sind  relative  eLnmoniic  inijiortuncr. 

The  price  is  2Qc,  postpaid 

Thijs  remarkable  Special  Issue  should  be  m  the  handps  of  everv  teacher 
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ia  thf  ^cenKiaphicul  wurld.    <Jrdcr  now  and  be  Hure  i*f  a  cupy, 

if  ub^^eriptiutifi  and  adverli,'iement5i  shimld  be  jieai  to 

Tlu-  JOURNAL  of  GEOGRAPHY 

Room  jfKj.  Un  Adams  St.,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 


World's  Fair 

and  National  Educational 

Association  Number 


77/6'  JOURNAL  ^'/GEOGRAPHY 

The  Tunc  nuinburof  77/»:  lOL'KNAl.  o/  CIkograi'HV  will  be  a  World's  Pair  and 
a  Nationsil  Rducatiunul  Association  Number.    It  will  be  devoted  entirely  to 

She  Geography 

of  the  Louisiana 

Purchase 

Amon>c  the  numerous  articles  that  may  be  expected  are  the  followinsr: 

THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  VALUE  OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

/fy  Prokksmik  a.  \\  IlRlciiAM,  0/  Co/fTii/i'  Cfiiz'trsity 

THE  SURFACE   AND  CLIMATE   OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

/>y  N.  H    i)Akic)\,  of  tlw  L' nit  id  S/a/tS  lii'O^rapfticai  Surzev 

THE   HISTORY   AND   EXPLORATION  OF   THE   LOUISIANA 

PURCHASE 

Fy  Dr.  A.  C.  Howi.axp,  of  tlw  Teachers  College^  Columbia  University^ 

AV:t'  York  Lity 

THE   INDUSTRIES   OF  THE  LOUISIANA   PURCHASE 

fi\  PR(»KKssi)R  Si'KNrFK   TRoriLR.  of  Swat  tliviort'  CoUt'f^e^  Stvarthmorey 

Pa.:  author  of  "A  Comtmrcial  (iio^'raphy" 

THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  PRESENT  CONDITIONS  OF  IRRIGATION 

/?v  Gko.   H.   Hni.i.isiKR.  .l.\soi/a/r  liditor  ot   1  ho  Journal  of  Gcoj^rapMy : 
llydro.i:raphor  for  (ho  I'm  fed  Sfatcs  Gooloxncal  Survey 

ST.  LOUIS 
A'y  Ki.LKN  C.  SK-MTLK,  of  l.oui.\',tllt\  Ay.-   aufhor  of  '\lnierican  History 

a nd  ( rt\\i,'rj/>hio  ( i uiditi\  'fts ' ' 

DENVER 
Jfy  Chari.es  E.  Ciiadsicv.  Assistant  Superinfcndcnt  of  the  Denver^ 

Color  ado  .^  Schools 

The  articles  will  be  illustrated  extensively  by  phi»tn>craphs  and  maps: 
there  will  be  a  l;u>ie  foldiuvr  map  of  the  I.,uuisiaha  Purchase  inserted,  ana 
the  number  will  be  invaluable  tD  all  teachers  wh«)  inten<l  to  visit  St,  I^iuis  in 
M-. 4,  or  who  wish  to  have  well  selected  .iceovjraphical  maurial  on  the  Great 
West  and  especially  of  the  Louisiana  I'urcliaso.  available  for  cla.ss  u.se.  The 
number  will  also  include  a  brief  selected  biblio>,'raphy  on  the  Keojjraphy  of 
the  Louisiana  Purchase,  antl  statistical  notes  showinjlc  its  population^  com- 
merce, industries,  and  relative  economic  importance. 

The  price  is  20c,  postpaid 

This  remarkable  Special  Issue  shouUl  be  in  the  hands  of  every  teacher 
before  attendmvr  the  (.'onvention.  Its  publication  is  of  decided  importance 
in  the  ^LTr;. graphical  world.     ( )riler  now  and  be  sure  of  a  copy. 

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LUt  of  Counties  of  every  State,  givinj^  Popylation  and  Index  to  T^ocatjon  on  Map. 
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I 


PUBLISHED    MARCH     1.     1904 


Dodge's 
Elementary  Geography 

By  RICHARD   ELWOOD   DODGE 

Profess&r  of  G^og^raphy^  /'rachers  Cot/cif,'^^^  CoiuMbid  UHh*frsif\\  New   York  City; 

i&'Cditcr  i*f  tht  Journat  of  Geography,   tiutfiar  o/^'A  Reader  in 

Pkysicai  Geography  f0r  heginners^'*  etc, 

Consislinjj^  of 

'Part  I 

Home  Geographic 

Showing  the  relation  of  the  individual  pupil  to  his  own  country,  empha- 
sizing thereby  the  interdeijendcnce  ot  people  com- 
mercially and  inaustrially  ;   .ind 

Vart  II 
World  Relations  and  the  Continents 

Treating  of  those  factrtrs  necessary  to  an   understanding  of  the  pupil's 
relation  to  the  world  as  a  whole. 

With  jiS  iiiu  St  rat  ions  in  hn/f-font,  ^  dia^^rams,  /o  text  maps, 

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Cioth,  square  Svo.  (St  lo  inc/it's),  ^^i  pages.     75  cents, 

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5_ 


M4ps 


The  necessity  of  Physical  Maps  as  aids  to  the 
teaching:  of  fi^eography  and  allied  subjects  is  gen- 
erally recognized.  For  many  years  the  Physical 
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' ^      '    ^   de 


CZ  coloring: 

^.^.^  highest^  and  the  water  depths  in  three  shades  of  blue  ^  the  darkest  sha^ 

^^^mg  the    r\g^t^^r\  r*in-«-<»rif  c    Ocean  currents  which  are  one  of  the  great 

^^^sr^srpest.      ^^ean  L^urrenis   factors  in  determining  the  climate  of 

^r^:^  M^ntries  are  clearly  indicated,  the  warm  currents  being  shown  in  brown 

^^^^      j>ink  and  the  cold     c\rt^'>r\  FlAnffie      i^^l^^  depths  of  less  than 

^x^  ^-rents  in  dark  blue,     ^ccan  i^epins     (y^o  feet  are  shown  in  light 

A^  .M^e,  depths  fro  fn  6jo  to  6,joo  in  darker  blue,  and  depths  greater  than 

^'.t.jSroo  in  a  still  darker  shade  of  blue.     This  is  an  important  addition 

^<^        ^he  information  usually  shown  on  Physical  Maps,  and  enables  the 

•^^  ^:^  dent  to  study  intelligently  the  interesting  geography  of  the  ocean 

^^^J^  Joms  as  well  as  the  physi-    oi-*  «4.  ri;c4>«-;Ki«4>:^««     These  are  the  only 

^^S-^aphy  of  the  land  surface,     r'lant  LUStHDUtlOn    physical    Maps 

"^^^^  Jch  show  correctly  and  clearly  the  plant  distribution  of  North  America, 

■^^^^' ^ope,  and  Asia.    And  this  feature  alone     Te./%4.ViA«-mfi1  T  ;«ao     ti,^ 

^/^^^hasizes  the  completeness  if  preparation.     ASOtnermai  J^meS.    i  ne 

^^^■^  thermal  lines  for  July  and  January  are  shown  in  red,  and  degrees  of 

^^^  ^rxi  and  cold  are  marked  on  the  margins  of  the  maps,     b^ccwrvLCv 

^^^^^ing  the  curious  effect  of  topogrc^hy  upon  climate,     ■accuracy     ^^^ 

'^^  ^^^  J:ing  of  these  maps  the  latest  official  information  and  the  results  of 

^^^r-    most  recent  explorations  have  been  utilized.     They  tell  the  truth. 


THE   LIST 
)-  2  ted  States         North  America         South  America         Europe         Asia 
World  on  Mercator's  Projection  Pacific  Ocean  and  Australia 

FRANCIS  W.  PARKER   SAID: 


Africa 


*' Equal  to  the  Best  Work  in  Germany" 


Chicago,  III. 


^'^ Allow  my  hearty  thanks  that  an  American  publisher  has,  at  last,  met  the  pressing 
^•^"^ais  of  genuine  geographical  teaching  by  publishing  such  excellent  wall  maps. 

_  *^''\our  Physical  Maps  are  equal  to  the  best  work  done  in  Germany.     They  are  well 
*^Mted  and  very  cheap,  compared  with  the  best  ivall  maps  published  at  Got  ha. 

^'■/t  is  seldom  that  I  have  an  opportunity  to  endorse  so  emphatically  a  means  of 
J    ^*="^/«^  true  geography.    I  trust  these  maps  will  make  their  appearance  in  every 
"    ^^<^4>l'room  in  America.    J  should  prefer  them  in  grammar  and  high  schools  to  any 
"dT-book  in  geography  ever  yet  printed. 

'^FRANCIS  IV.  PARKER:' 
Late  Director  of  the  School  of  Education,  The  University  of  Chicago. 


^^^  .^^nd-book  giving  a  full  description  of  these  maps, 
•j-r*-«>  special  suggestions  for  their  use,  has  been 
^r^P>ared  by  Dr.  J.  Paul  Goode  of  the  University 
»^^  ^^nnsylvania.  There  is  an  introduction  by  Dr. 
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EOGRAPHY  is  a  study  of  the  earth 
as  the  home  of  ^pnan,  he7ice  we  have 
two  elements  in  the  study  of  geography: 
the  earth  and  man.  In  one  extreme 
the  study  of  geography  is  led  toward 
pure  physiography  which  is  a  branch  of  geology, 
on  the  other  extreme  toiuard  sociology  or  history j 
or  some  other  branch  of  the  study  of  man.  Neither 
aspect  of  geography  should,  however,  be  studied  for 
itself,  but  solely  with  reference  to  the  relation  of 
earth  and  man.  The  utilization  of  physiography 
in  geography  study  is  rational,  well  founded,  and 
scientific.  If  we  are  to  have  a  study  of  the  earth 
as  the  hom^e  of  man,  we  must  have  some  famil- 
iarity with  the  earth.  Physiography  in  the  rela- 
tion of  the  earth  to  m^an  tells  not  merely  the  facts 
of  importance,  but  the  reasons  as  well,  and  helps 
in  geography  study  to  introduce  the  element  of 
interest — an  ele^nent  sadly  lacking  in  7nuch  geog- 
raphy work.  Physiographic  features  determine 
the  industrial,  commercial,  and  political  aspects 
of  a  section  of  country.  Knowing  the  climate  and 
products  of  the  United  States  one  can  predict  with 
a  considerable  degree  of  certainty  what  occupations 
would  be  carried  on  in  that  country.  Therefore, 
physiography  should  be  taught  in  a  way  that 
brings  out  this  relationship.  Make  use  of  causes 
in  explaining  effects  of  a  geographic  nature  and 
you  will  make  geography  interesting.  This  is 
rational  geographic  teaching. — RALPH  S.  TARR. 


The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  APRIL,  1904  No.  4 

THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH 

PART  I 

BY    FOREST    R.    MOULTON 
0/  the  Univernty  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois 

lXTRODi:CTION 

THE  relative  positions  of  the  earth  and  the  various  heavenly 
bodies  continually  change,  and  these  changes  imply  that  some 
of  them,  at  least,  are  in  motion.  The  difficult  part  of  the 
question  is  to  determine  the  i)art  of  the  change  wliich  is  due  to  the 
motion  of  each.  Tliis  is  illustrated  and  emphasized  by  the  fact  that 
in  antiquity  it  was  believed  by  some  philosoi)liers  tliat  the  earth  was 
absolutely  at  rest,  and  that  all  apparent  motions  were  due  to  actual 
motions  of  the  moon,  sun,  planets,  and  stars;  by  others,  that  the  earth 
rotated  on  its  axis,  but  that  the  moon,  sun,  and  planets  all  revolved 
around  it;  by  others,  that  the  i)lanets  revolved  around  the  sun,  and  that 
the  sun  with  its  retinue  of  planets  revolved  around  the  earth;  and  by 
others,  chief  of  whom  was  Aristarchus  of  Samos  (810-250  B.  C),  that 
the  earth  rotated,  and  that  the  earth  and  planets  revolved  around  the 
sun.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  each  one  of  these  theories  agreed 
with  all  the  data  which  their  authors  possessed  as  well  as  any  other, 
for  it  was  only  the  relative  motions  they  were  explaining.  If  they  had 
had  any  fixed  point  of  reference  to  start  from,  it  could  easily  have 
been  determined  which  theory  was  correct.  The  difficulty  is  illustrated 
by  the  experience  which  ever^^one  has  had  of  sitting  in  a  railway 
coach  with  another  coach  very  near  at  the  side.  When  one  of  the 
coaches  starts  the  observer  at  once  knows  that  one  is  moving,  but 
he  can  not  tell  w^hich  it  is  until  he  sees  some  object  known  to  be  fixed 
on  the  earth.  If  we  ever  get  airships  passing  each  other  at  high  alti- 
tudeS;  some  amusing  experiences  along  this  line  may  be  expected. 

Copyright^  tgo4^  by  E.  M.  Lehnerts 
2 


1^6  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Apnl 

At  -presont  it  is  uiiivorsally  believed  by  civilized  i)eoples  that  the 
earth  rotates  on  it.s  axis  and  that  it  revolves  around  the  sun.  It  is 
also  known  that  this  has  been  proved,  but  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  it  has  been  proved  except  on  the  basis  of  certain  assumptions, 
or  axioms,  as  doubtless  everything:  is  proved.  This  may  appear  to 
weaken  the  case  a  little,  but  most  of  the  axioms  involved  have  an 
immeasurably  wide  verification  in  human  ex[)erience.  It  is  something 
like  the  residts  obtainecl  in  ordinary  (leometry,  which  are  always  suj)- 
posed  to  be  of  the  most  certain  character  althoujrh  they  are  directly 
based  on  axioms  which  are  admittedly  incapal)le  of  proof.  The  rec- 
otrnition  of  tlii^se  conditions  simj)ly  sliows  us  that  there  is  a  possibility 
of  other  pt^rfectly  logical  explanations,  just  as  there  are  Geometries 
other  tlian  tlie  ordinary  which  are  just  as  logical  and  at  the  same  time 
ajrree  just  as  well  witli  every  expericMice.  l)ut  which  seem  to  our  minds 
nnich  less  simpl(\  How  ohvn  <lo  we  unconsciously  accei)t  as  an  axiom 
that,  of  a  number  of  j)ossil)ilities.  tlie  one  which  seems  simplest  is 
necessarily  correct  I 

The  objects  of  this  paper  are  to  describe  what  are  beheved  to  be 
the  actual  motions  of  tlu*  earth  and  th(*  reasons  for  these  beliefs,  to 
state  on  what  axioms  they  are  founded,  and  to  discuss  some  of  the 
indirect  conclusions  which  follow. 

TUK    HOTATIOX    i)F   THK    KAKTII 

The  first  j)hiloso))her  of  anti(iuity  after  Pytha^roras  (500-470  B.  C) 
who  seems  to  have  advocated  tin*  rotation  of  the  (»arth  was  Heraclitus 
of  Pontus  (about  :iS()-.S2()  H.  ('.).  Ih^  was  a  friend  and  disciple  of 
Plato  (42S  :U7  H.  ('.).  a  contemix.rary  of  Aristotle  (384-322  H.  C), 
and  an  innnediate  ])re(lecessor  of  Aristarchus  of  Samos  (310-250  B.  C.) 
who  strongly  su])port(Ml  his  views,  and  argued  for  the  heliocentric 
theory  of  the  solar  system.  Tufortunately  Aristotle,  whose  towering 
t:;enius  wa>  a  «iuid(^  not  only  for  most  ot"  his  contemporaries  but  also  for 
the  civilizcMJ  world  for  more*  than  a  tlKuisand  years,  maintained  that 
the  earth  was  tlu*  fi\(Ml  cent(M'  of  the  universe,  although  admitting 
and  attcMuptiniz:  to  i)rove  its  sphericity.  It  follows  from  the  statements 
in  the  Introduction  that  thi-  error  should  not  le.*<sen  our  resjject  for 
his  remarkal)le  talents,  for  physical  theories  bear  necessarily  the  imprint 
of  the  epoch  in  which  they  were  born.  To  judge  them  justly,  it  is 
necessary  t(^  exclude  from  our  consideration  all  their  faults  which 
a|)pear  only  in  the  liiiht  of  sub-secjuent  discoveries. 

Since  the  tinu^  of  Copernicus  (1473-1543)  the  Dresent  theory  of 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  has  been  almost ' 
Copernicus  ^ave  no  proof  that  the  e 


,,jo4  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH  I  47 

more  .simi)lc  than  that  the  whole  heavens  should  turn  around  it.  After 
tialileo  (1564-1642)  had  applied  the  telescoi)e  to  celestial  objects  the 
idea  of  rotation  was  supported  by  analoj2;y  with  the  other  planets 
£Lnd  sun,  whose  apparent  rotations  could  not  be  explained  except  on 
the  hypothesis  that  they  actually  turn  on  their  axes.  So  far  we  have 
*the  uncertain  proofs  (?)  of  simplicity  and  analo^ry. 

After  Newton  (1042  1727)  published  his  celebrated  laws  of  motion 
ill  16SG  a  new  series  of  demonstrations  based  on  these  axioms  became 
|30S.sible.  The  first  was  (hie  to  Newton  himself  who  showed  that,  assum- 
i  xig  that  the  earth  rotates,  it  will  be  bul<red  at  the  ecjuator,  and  conversely. 
The  demonstration  was  completed  in  174o  ])y  the  verification  of  the 
ol>lateness  from  the  nu^asures  of  IMcanl  in  France,  of  Houguer  La 
Oondamine,  and  Godin  in    Peru,  and  of  Maupertuis  in   Lapland.* 

Newtcm  also  pointed  out  the  fact  that  if  a  body  is  dropped  from 
a.  jjjreat  elevation,  it  will  strike  the  earth  a  little  east  of  the  foot  of  the 
|>lumb  line  let  fall  from  the  startin.t»;  point.  Tlie  reason  for  this  is  (piite 
i=^imple.  The  body  is  subject  to  an  cnistward  motion  du(*  to  the  rotation 
of  the  earth  which  is  j^reater  than  that  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  where 
it  strikes.  Now,  the  fact  that  it  falls  does  not  interfere  with  its  east- 
\var(l  motion;  consequently,  durin*^  tlie  time  of  its  fall  it  goes  farther 
c^ustward  than  the  foot  of  the  plumb  line  goes,  and  the  deviation  is 
the  result.  The  variation  is  snudl,  amounting  to  about  two  inches  in 
^  fall  of  oOO  feet  in  our  latitude,  and  air  curnMits  make  its  successful 
execution  very  difficult.  Nevertheless,  it  was  successfully  performed 
*>y  Benzenberg  at  Hamburg,  in  1S02.  l)v  Reichert  at  FreibiTg,  in  1831, 
*^ii(l  more  frecpiently  in  recent  times,  mostly  in  deep  mine  shafts.  This 
^fgument  is  based  directly  on  the  laws  of  motion. 

It  follows  from  the  laws  of  motion  that  a  pendulum  tends  constantly 
tcj  swing  in  the  same  plane.  It  is  (»asy  to  see  tliat  if  a  pendulum  were 
*^tispended  at  the  pole  of  the  earth,  the  (»artli  would  rotate  under  it; 
tliat  is.  the  plane  of  the  swing  of  the  pendulum  would  apparently 
Rotate  in  the  opposite  direction  with  tlie  |)eriod  of  a  day.  At  the  earth's 
^^^liiator  there  would  be  no  rotation  at  all.  At  intermediate  latitudes 
'^J'lere  would  be  a  rotation,  though  slower  than  at  the  poles,  the  rate 
^l^pending  upon  the  latitude  in  a  way  which  can  not  be  derived  by 
simple  methods.  This  ex])eriment  was  devised  and  carried  out  with 
S^^eat  success  by  Foucault  at  Paris,  in  1851,  and  has  been  many  times 
^^peated  by  others. 

The  gyroscope  experiment,  also  due  to  F^oucault,  is  essentially  of  the 
^ame  character,  the  pendulum  being  replaced  by  a  heavy  rotating  wheel. 
♦See  The  Journal  of  Gkogr.aphy.  November,  1903.  p.  485. 


There  are  other  proofs  of  the  .^ame  general  character,  though  less 
conclusive*  such  as  the  direetinn  of  trade  windis,  ocean  currents,  direc-  m 
tion  of  rotation  in  cyclone?^,  etf%  f 

A  niethoti  of  independent  character  consists  in  me^isuring  motion 
in  the  line  of  sight  liy  means  of  the  spectroscojie.     When  a  celestial 
object^  as  the  sun,  is  rising  in  the  east  the  obser%^er  is  approaching  it 
owing  to  the  earth's  rotation,  and  when  it  is  setting  he  is  receding  at  J 
the  same  rate.    It  follows  from  the  wave  theor}^  of  light  that  this  motion  ™ 
causers  a  slight  change  in  the  apparent  color  of  the  source  of  hght, 
just  as  the  motiou  of  a  locomotive  has  an  effect  upon  the  pitch  of  itafl 
whistle.     The  s|)ectroscoix>  is  an  instrument  which  can  be  used   to  ■ 
measure  extremely  slight  changes  in  color,  and  conseciuently  motion 
in  the  line  of  sight.     By  observations  of  stars  near  their  times  of  rising 
and  setting  the  lotation  can  be  |)roved,  thongli  the  amount  f>f  motion 
is  near  the  hmits  of  observation. 

The  question  of  whether  the  rotation  is  imiform  or  not  was  discussed 
in  the  paj>er  on  Time/     The  conclusion  was  that  while  the  rate  of] 
rotation  is  almost  certainly  not  exactly  uniform,  the  variations  are] 
extremely  shght  and  very  nmch  below  the  lituits  of  observation. 

THE    VAEIATION    OF   LATrrUDE 

The  latitude  of  a  place  on  the  earth  depends  upon  its  distance 
from  the  earth's  pole,  wliich  is  detenuined  by  the  earth's  rotation. 
Now  if  the  earth*s  axis  of  rotation  is  not  always  the  same,  the  pole 
will  not  always  be  at  the  same  point,  and  the  latitude  of  every  place 
will  vary.  There  is  no  dynamical  reason  why  it  may  not  change  if 
the  earth  is  given  tlie  proper  ilisturbance  but  the  period  of  variation  M 
will  be  a  perfectly  definite  interval  of  time  depending  upon  the  size.  ■ 
UHisg,  distribution  of  density,  rate  of  rotation^  and  rigidity  of  the  earth. 
It  is  something  like  the  wafibling  which  may  be  set  up  in  a  ** sleeping** 
to]i  by  a  little  external  disturbance,  though  the  analogy  is  not  perfect. 
Assuming  that  the  earth  is  pvrfnihj  rigid  Euler  and  Laplace  sf vowed 
that  such  a  walihling  in  its  rotation  must  take  place,  if  at  all,  in  305 
days.  It  was  not  su|>posed  that  the  lack  of  perfect  rigidity  would 
mako  very  nmcli  tlifference  in  tfie  period.  Since  no  wabbling  with 
this  period,  or  indeed  any  other,  had  been  found,  it  had  come  to  be 
firmly  believed  that  the  earth's  axis  is  sensibly  fixed;  but  between 
1S80  and  IS90  new  observations  of  extraordinarj^'  ]>recision»  chiefly  by 
Kiistner  at  Berlin,  showed  beyond  a  doubt  that  there  is  a  variation 
of  at  least  two-  or  three-tenths  of  a  second  of  arc  corresponding  to  a 

♦The  Journal  of  Geogbaphy,  September,  1903,  p.  3,^, 


I 


1 


*VN 


MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH 


149 


shifting  of  the  pole  by  twenty  or  thirty  feet.  This  work  has  since  been 
amply  verified  by  observers  in  many  plaeei?,  and  the  question  is  of 
such  importance  that  by  international  cooperation  observatories  have 
been  estahUshed  in  Mar\'land,  ('Ldifoniia,  Japan,  and  Italy  t<i  make 
further  investigations  along  this  line.  The  whole  amount  of  the  varia- 
tion does  not  excee<l  six-tenths  c»f  a  second  of  arc.  or  about  sixt}'  feet, 
ami  18  exceedingly  irregular  The  aecomiianyinfj  fignre  whicli  repre- 
sentii  sixty  feet  s:|uare  shows  the  variation  of  I  lie  po^ition  of  the  pole 
from   IS<M1  to  1898  according  to  the  computations  of  Albrecht.     Dr. 

^lO         ♦o3o        <o.1o  qjto       -P.I0        -oJio       -oJa^, 


-tin 


•I^^B 


fOiD 


foSo 


^oSi~ 


+(iio      +atio 


^-N.. 


-oio 


-vsr 


-tiM 


4A0 


9U 


^-olk 


>^ote 


A 


Fig.  t 


Aibrechts  compulations  xhaa*ing  Ihex^rtation  of  fht  pvsitiovs  of  the  pok,  lAoo-iSo?** 
From  Yoiinfi's  Mantntl  of  Astronomy. 


Chandler  has  shown  that  this  motion  is  the  resultant  of  at  least  two 
simpler  ones,  the  smaller  <jne  having  a  iH?riod  of  one  j^ear  and  the  larger 
one  a  period  of  428  days.  Ahhongh  the  eoml)ined  effect  is  always 
small  it  is  conceivable  that  it  may  si>me  tiiTie  give  rise  to  interna- 
tional complications  where  bomidaries  are  defined  by  latitude  alone. 

There  are  two  fpicstituis  which  at  once  arise  in  one's  mind.  One 
it;,  what  is  t he  sotirce  of  the  disturbance,  and  the  other,  how  it  happens 
that  the  larger  peri<ul  difTers  so  mucli  from  tltat  given  by  theory. 

Any  change  of  nuitcrial  on  the  surface  or  in  the  interior  of  the  earth 
will  cause  a  change  in  the  axis  of  rotation. 

Large  masses  are  shifted  b}"  atmospheric  currents,  the  How  of  rivers, 
the  deposit  of  snow,  etc,»  but  these  causes  very  nearly  balance  each 
other,  and  even  if  they  did  nrU.the  nias.ses  involved  in  thent  are  sosnniU 
compared  to  that  of  the  whfjie  earth  that  the  results  would  be  qtiite 
inappreciable.  At  present  the  cause  of  the  variation  of  latitude  is 
nut  certairdy  known,     .Much  less  is  there  any  assignable  cause  for  such 


Inrm  viuiMtimis  in  latitude  a."^  some  have  iujapned  in  attemptinu  lo 
explain  tlie  marked  clianj^es  in  climate  wliich  different  parts  of  the  eartl*^ 
have  undergone.  The  researches!  of  Darwin  and  Schiaparelli  have^ 
shuwn  cnntdusively  the  inernnpetency  of  such  a  theory. 

The  sef'i>nd  question  has  been  ^iveii  a  reasonalik*  answer  by  Professor — 
Newcorab  xiiid  ulhers.  As  lias  been  sti^erl,  the  3()5-(lay  ]»eriod  i^  founfM_ 
under  tfie  hypotliesis  that  tfie  eartli  is  perfectly  riirid.  The  thoughtr.^ 
that  a  nearly  ri|;id  1>ody  would  behave  st'iisibJy  as  a  perfectly  rigid  one?^ 
is  suggested  by  our  experience  with  v(^ry  small  bodies.  The  leverage^' 
for  strain  increases  so  imich  faster  I  ban  the  resisting  power,  as  the  siz<^^ 

increases,  tliat  matters  are  (|uite  ahered  in  large  l)odies  like  the  earth 

A  glass  marble  will  lie  oh  a  rigid  support  and  preserve  its  shape  almost:. 
i>erfectly;  but  if  it  were  a  few  miles  in  rlia meter,  it  would  flow  out  afc. 
tlu'  bottom  like  a  visi-ous  mass.     Xewcomb  njade  a  tost  of  the  effee'^ 
of  a  lack  of  rigidity  on  the  period  i>f  wabliling  by  assuming  that  thc*^ 
earth  has  the  rigidity  <rf  steel     His  coiufHitatioii  slicnved  that  if  this 
hypothesis  were  true,  the  jieriod  would  be  448  days,  soniewliat  gmat<*r 
than  that  observed.     Cons€*r|uently  Uie  actual  efTective  rigidity  must 
lie  between  i)erfoct  rigidity  anil  that  of  sleel,  i»r  tin   period  of  vanaiiofi 
of  liitttttde  S'lmn's  (hat  tin   nirth   />  tin  tftt  tttrntin    u  fitflt    mort'  ritjkf  thtin 
Btci'l,     It  should  be  added  thiit  a  uundjcr  of  otlier  tests,  such  as  certain 
tidal  phenomena  ;md  tlie  transmission  of  earthquake  wavers,  lead  to  the 
same  conclusions.     Here  Dynamies  and  -\stronomy  unite  in  giving  the 
geologist   i>recious  results  respecting  the  condition  of  the  interior  of 
the  earth  which  his  own  metho<ls  seem  powerless  ever  to  reach. 

( 7^^  itr  cottrluthtl  hi  Ihr  Mny  ii<,^m\) 


TRANSPORTATION^ 


PART   H 


nV  Jr»HN  THOM  HOLDsWnKTH 
Ptof^snor  of  Comnierciai  Gvitqrtipht/,  Drexd  InMitHit,  Phittuit/i*ktH 

CONTEST   BETWFJCN    CANAL    AND    RAILWAY 

X  no  country  has  there  licen  a  longer  or  more  severe  struggle  between 
eanab  and  railroads  than  in  the  United  States.  ,  .  .  In  no 
countiy  have  railroads  antl  canals  lieen  affonled  etiiuilly  free  scope 
for  develi»pment,  and  in  nrr  country  have  transi)ortation  rates  been 
cut  so  fine  and  reduce^^l  so  low.''  t     At  the  outset,  however,  this  struggle 

Vol  III 


I 


*  CVintiiiue<I  from  Thk  JnrrtXAi.  of  GEtHiKAPHV 
page  120. 


No.  3,  :\ffirT  h,  19t^, 


TRANSPORTATION 


151 


%^'as  waged  under  very  unequal  conditions.  Up  to  1S51,  the  railroads 
v^'ere  greatly  handicapped  by  having  to  pay  canal  tolls  on  their  tonnage, 
^ud,  in  some  instances,  being  prohibited  from  carrying  freight.  **The 
State  authorities  looked  upon  the  canals  as  a  trust  confided  to  their  keep- 
i.  xig,  and  protected  them  against  the  railroads/'*  With  the  repeal  of  these 
discriminating  laws  in  1S51,  railroads  developed  rapidly.  In  1S57, 
the  total  traffic  of  the  canals  declined  772,000  tons,  while  at  the  same 
trime  railroad  traffic  had  a  large  increase.  The  railroads  not  only 
c:>fTered  much  more  rapid  transportation,  but  also  very  low  rates,  and 
e^xitered  into  arrangements  with  steamers  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  to 
divert  freight  from  the  canals  over  their  roads.     Hadley  says  of  this 


Cop/rinht,  lWit4.     Krmii  Do-lnf'.  .\<lvanc«>l  <ie<>era|>h.?. 

Fig.  5.      Traveling  alottf:  the  Eric  Canal. 

The  passage  is  only  xvidc  cuourIi  for  the  passat^e  of  canal  boats,  and 

the  canal  is  not  deep  enoufih  ;or  larf:e  boats. 

contest:  *^From  1853  to  1X59  there  was  a  fight  for  supremacy  between 
canal  and  railroad.  For  twelve  years  more  there  was  a  contest  for 
profits.  Then  it  became  a  (juestion  whether  the  canal  could  pay 
expenses  of  maintenance;  a  question  which  was  finally  decided  in  the 
negative/'  t 

At  present  only  three  States — New  York,  Ohio,  and  Illinois — own 
or  give  aid  to  canals.  (See  Figs.  5  and  13.)  All  the  others  have 
leased,  sold,  or  abandoned  these  waterways  which  have  l)een  unable 
to  meet  the  competition  of  the  railroads.    (See  Map  IV,  page  153.) 

A  statement  is  appended  showing  the  cost  and  date  of  construction, 
length,  number  of  locks,  and  navigable  depth  of  the  principal  canals 
of  this  country  used  for  commercial  purposes. t    (See  Map  R',  page  153.) 

♦Jeans,  p.  197. 
t  Hadley,  p.  30. 
t  World  .\lmaiiac,  10(«. 


■  ^^^^  ^^^^^ 

^^B 

THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY                                        Aprii       ^^^B 

^ 

J 

I 

J 

*! 
^ 

i 

^^^1 

^^m                            CANALS. 

H 

-a 

i 

*                 LOCATrON.                 ^^^B 

^^H 

*f 

"^ 

^1 

^^H 

e 

o 

2 

6 
35 

H 

^^H           Allienmrlo  &  ChesafM*fike 

,    .  $1,6413^3  1S60 

44 

1 

7JXorfolk,  Vh.,  to  Curri-           ^H 

^^H 

tuck  Sound,  X.  C.                  ^H 

^^H           Aui^Hta.  ,  . 

K50{),tJCK) 

1S47 

9 

11  Savannah    H,.    Ga,,    to            ^^M 

^H             Blui'k  Jihi^r 

3.581,194 

1849 

35 

109 

4  Ronif,  \\  Y.,  to  LvoiiS            ^^1 
Falls.  X.  V.                            ^H 

^H             ( !ayuga  &  Seneca 

2,232,a32 

1839 

25 

H 

7  Moiitpieuiim,    N*.  V.,   to            ^^M 
C*avu|ia  ^  SeniMii  L.             ^^| 

^H              L*hanipUii[L  . 

4JM4,nrH1 

IH22 

SI 

32 

0  Whitehall.    X.    Y,.    to            ^H 
\\e.st  Trov,  X.  Y.                  ^H 

^V               Chcsai>eake  &  Dt'luwiirt-  . 

.  ,      3.730;23U 

1829 

14 

3 

9  Che^ipeiike'ritv.    Md.,            ^H 
to  IM.  City,  l>d.                   ^H 

H                Chcsiipeake  A'  Ohio  ... 

li;>CMVi27 

IS50 

1S4 

73 

0  Cuniherlaud.     Md.«     to            ^^B 
Wai^hin^ton,  D.  V.                  ^^M 

1                  Corii[mMy8         

tHKO(K) 

1K47 

22 

1 

B  MisH.    HivtT   to   Bavou           ^^H 
Black,  La.                              ^M 

1                  1  Jplnwar*' *t  Ranlflu.  . 

4.K8,H,749 

1838 

(ill 

14 

7  Xew  Brunswick.  X\  J,,            ^^| 
to  Trent  on,  X.  J.                    ^^H 

1                   Deb  ware  !>iYision  . 

2,433,3r>l> 

IS30 

(M> 

33 

6  Easton,  Pa.,  to  Hri^tol.            ^H 

1                    Des  Moines  llapids. 

4,.S.s2.0tHJ 

IN77 

74 

3 

5  At  Des  Moines  Rapids,            ^^M 
Misf^Wtppi  Riv.                    ^^H 

i>isin:d  Swaiiip 

2,800.O(K) 

1822 

22 

7 

6  Connect^s     Chesafx^'ake            ^^B 
Bav  wit  h  A  Ibeiuarle  S.            ^H 

Krie 

F)2M0,Hm 

1826  387 

72 

7  All  Kill  v,  X.  Y.,  to  Buf-           ^H 

lalo'.  X.  Y.                              ^M 

Fairfield.  . 

4  J  None 

Allii^ator    R.    to    Lake                  J 

MatiiniUHkeet,  X.  C.                     1 

Galveston  tk  Hraxos.  .  .  . 

340,000 

1851 

38 

3JGalveston.  Tex,,  to  Bra-                   1 

sjos  River,  Tex.                              1 

Hocking 

975,481 

1843 

42 

26 

4  Carroll.   O,,   to   Xelson-                  1 

villi',  th                                                      ■ 

lUiuDif}  l\:  MichifCHiv. 

7,357.787 

184K 

102 

15 

6  Chi<Ti^o,     111.,     to     1ji                  fl 
Salle.  Ill                                       ■ 

Illinois  &  Mississippi  ,  . 

5as,r>43 

1895 

4J 

3 

7  Anjund  lower  rapidi*  of                H 
K  ork  R .  <  o  1  \ .  v^-itli  M  i« .                H 

Lehigh  Coal  &  Xavigatioi 

iCo.  4,455,001) 

1821 

108 

57 

6  Coalport,  IVu,  to  EaistoUt                ^| 
At    FnlW   of   nhio    R,.              ■ 

Lovimville  &  Port  lain  J  .  .  . 

5,578.631 

1873 

24 

2 

Louitiville.  Ky.                          ^H 

Miami  &  Erie  .  , 

.   8,0B2,aS0 

1835 

274 

93 

54Cinfintiati.    t >,    to    To-              ^H 

Morris . 

CpOOO/MKJ 

1S30 

103 

33 

5  Efii^ton,   Pa,,   to  Jersev             ^^M 
City.  X.  J.                               ^B 

Muscle  Sboals  &  Elk  R.Shoals  3.1.^,919 

1889 

16 

11 

6  Bis^    Musete    ShoaJ^    to            ^^M 

Flk  H,  Shoab.  Term.           ^H 

Xe whence  &  Beaufort 

3 

Xoiic 

Clidifoot  Cri'ok  to  Har-          ^^H 
low  Creek.  X.  C.                    ^^1 

Ogeechee  . . 

407,SI<* 

1840 

10 

5 

3  Savannah    IC.    Ga,.    to          ^^H 
( >^iH>rlu*e  River,  Ga,           ^^^H 

Ohio. ... 

4,695,204 

1835  317 

150 

4  Cleveland.  0,,  to  Port^-        ^^H 

^^^H 

Oswego 

5,239,526 

182.S 

38 

IS 

7  (J^wego,  X.  Y,,  to  Syrn-       ^^^H 
nisc,  X.  Y.                        ^^^H 

154  'THK  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHV  April 


CANALS  ^'=  x-|       j=  ^       J-  LOCATION. 


w  _:        :«?:     '-' 

PeMinsvlvMiiia $7,731,750  IS'M)  193  71  (>  Columbia,  Northumber- 
land. W-B.  Hunting- 
don. 

Portage  Lako  iV:  L.  Superior. .      5'2s,s92  1873     25    Xonelo  From  Keweenaw  Ray  to 

Lake  Superior. 

Port  .\rthur 1S09       7  20  Port    Arthur,    Tex.,    to 

Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Santa  Fe 70,(MK)  IssO     10  5  Waldo,  Fla.,  to  Melrose, 

Fla. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie 4,000.000  ls9o  3  1  IS  Connect.s  Lakes  Supe- 
rior and  Huron  at  St. 
M.  River. 

Schuylkill  Xaviiration  Co.  .  .  r2.4(il  .000  1S20  lOS  71  OiMill  Creek,  Pa.,  to  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa. 

Sturgeon'.s  Hay  i'c  L.Michi«:an        09.0(>1   ISSI       1\  Xonelo  Het ween  Green  Bay  and 

Lake  Michigan. 

St.  Mary's  Fall^^ 7.909,007  ls90  1^  1  21  Comiects  Lakes  Supe- 
rior &  Huron  at  Sault 
Ste.  Marie. 

Susquehanna  i^' Tidewater  ..    4.931,3  45  1.S40     45       32     5ACoUnnl>ia,  Pa.,  to  Havre 

de  Grace,  Md. 

Walhondinj: (i07.2(')9  1M3     25       11     4  Rochester,  O.,  to  Ros- 

coe.  (). 

Welland 23.790.353  2(>       55  14  Comiects  Lake  Ontario 

and  Lake  Erie. 

Despite  tlic  ahaiuloiiniont  of  many  lines  of  State  and  private  canals, 
the  interest  and  faith  in  canal  transportation,  properly  adapted  to 
modern  conditions,  has  not  died  out  l>v  any  means.  "Canals  as  they 
were  a  century  ago  have  no  longcM*  any  function  to  fidfill  that  is  worthy 
of  serious  consideration.  Their  mission  is  ended,  their  use  is  an 
anachronism.  Tlie  canal  of  the  futun*  must  be  adapted  to  the  new^ 
conditions  of  commerc(\*'  Cliief  int(M'est  continues  to  center  about 
the  Erie  Canal,  comiecting  \ew  York  witli  the  steadily  increasino; 
trade  of  tlie  (Ireat  Lakes,  in  trrain,  ow.  timlx^r.  animal  products,  coal, 
etc.  (See  l''i<rs.  o  and  (>.)  These  hidkier  raw  {)roducts,  which  originate 
lar<i;ely  in  the  States  drained  by  llu»  (Ireat  Lakes  system,  are  shipped  to 
the  foot  of  navi<iation  at  HutTalo.  Thence^  lh(\v  are  transported  by  barges 
througli  the  3.S7  miles  of  the  I'^rie  Canal  to  Albany,  and  down  the  broad 
Hudson  to  the  docks  of  X(nv  \'ork.  The  comj)etition  of  the  railways,  how- 
ever, has  gradually  overshadowed  the  canal,  and  now  it  retains  only 
a  very  small  ])art  of  the  traflic  l)etween  the  lakes  and  the  seaboard. 
The  canal  has  brought  such  inestimable  benefits  to  the  JState  of 
Xew  York,  and  especially  to  the  cities  of  New  \'ork  and  Huffalo,  that 
many  plans  have  been  proJtM'ted  to  improve  it  so  as  to  meet  the  demands 


*9H 


TRANSPORT  ATIO>« 


155 


of  modern  traffic.  M  eomiAvXvd  iji  ls25  it  was  4tJ  feet  wide  nn  the 
surface,  2fl  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  4  feet  deeix  Eniarjienieut??  were 
made  from  1836  to  1S62  so  tliat  the  dimensions  were:  Surface  width, 
70  feet:  bottom  width,  o(>  feet;  dej^tlu  7  feet.  This  canal,  improved 
but  little  ^ince.  acconuiiodated  liuats  i>s  feet  long,  17^  feet  beam, 
drawing  6  feet  uf  water,  and  having  a  cargo  capacity  of  about  250 
tons.  In  1S95.  the  legislature  voted  SO.OOO.CKK)  ff»r  deepening  the 
Erie^  Chamiihiin,  aiul  Osvvegci  canals,  biU  this  sum  i>ri*vcH|  jpiite  inade- 
quate. 

For  matiV  years  tliere  ha*^  been  an  earnest  agitation  for  a  <h:e|i-.sea 
waterway,  large  enmigli  ta  carry  iK-ean-going  vessels,  from  the  lakes 
to  the  Hudsrm.     Two  snrvevs  have  actuallv  hetm  made:    the  St.  I.aw- 


Vtc._  >t.      I  anal  f'oafs  Jri>in   the  l£rir  Cunal  b^in^':  iiKt'^:J  fo  sUiifHi  r'j   i\: 
Xne  York  Harbor  jt*r  the  inmsshiptttcni  oj  ihcir  caraoii^s, 

rence-rham|>lain  route,  suggested  by  the  Cleveland  Commission  of 
ISlKi,  and  the  Oswego  rf)Ute,  approved  by  the  Raymoud-Xoble-Wisuer 
Commission  appointerl  by  Fresiilent  Mclvinley.  The  first  route  would 
re*iuire  a  canal  froniToiiawanda.  near  Huffalo,  to  <  )h*ott  \n\  Lake  ( >ntario, 
thence  down  the  St*  Lawrence  to  a  point  op|iosite  Montreal.  From 
here  a  canal  wouhl  cross  to  the  Riclielieu  River,  thus  giving  ctnmection 
with  Lake  Chamjilain.  which  in  turn  is  comuH*ted  liy  the  Champhun 
Canal  with  the  Hudson.  The  Oswego  route  would  foUovv  a  canal  from 
near  Buffalo  Ui  Olcntt.  thc^n  Ijv  Lake  Ontario  to  Oswegii.  where  it 
would  turn  inland  along  <  tneida  Lake  and  the  Mohawk  TFiver  To  rolu»e8 


'56 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Aprn^ 


-^^I^JI 


^ii 


Fig   7,     CatuiJ  IhhUs  abtfut  io  <nUt  the  htcks.     A  canal  v^rry  frcqncntiy  runs  aton^isidv  a 
Hvtff,     Here  a  dam  has  htrti  buiil  across  tkt  river  in  order  t0  supply  that  canal  with  water. 

Oil  I  he  Hudson.  This  hittt^r  nnite,  besides  being  244  miles  shorter  than 
the  Chaniplain  route,  has  the  advantage  of  being  entirely  within  the 
American  line. 

The  latest  project  to  fin<i  fawir,  liuwever,  is  the  barge  canal  rectun- 
rnended   hy  the  ex|>ert  Cnnnnitfee  nn  Canals   appointed   by  Ctovernor 
R<»(>8evelt.     A  bill  embodying  the  refonnnen<lations  of  this  Omnnission 
recently  passc^d  the  New  York  Legislature,  and  in  No%'emher  last  the 
voters  of  the  Stale  ar^^reed  to  make  the  proposed  impr(»vements  at  a 
cost  of  f  l()l,()tK).n(K).     The  bill  provides  for  ihc  eidarijjing  and  rebnikhng 
of  the  Erie  and  Oswego  canals  to  carr}^  boats  1.50  feet  long.  25  feet  ■ 
wide,  and  10  feet  draft,  with  a  rartro  capacity  of  1,000  tons  each.     The 
Champlain  Canal  is  \i)  accommodate  boats  of  250  ton>.     The  proposed 
new  canal  over  the  old   l%rie  mute  is  to  follow  the  present  canal  for 
about  two-thirds  of  the  ilistance.     It  will  be  fit  for  use  by  steamers  of  M 
900  tiHis  cat>acity  lowing  two  barges  of  l,OtMJ  tons  each.     It  is  estimated  1 
that  these  Inirges,  capable  of  carrying  33,333  bushels  of  wheat  each, 
could  do  a  profitable  business  at  eight-tenths  of  a  cent  per  busliel  from 
Buffalo  to  New  York. 

With  the  enormous  development  of  traffic  in  the  new  raw  products™ 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  demand  for  an  inland  waterway  coutiecting 
the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Mississippi  has  become  more  urgent.  The 
marvelous  growth  of  the  [>ort  of  New  Orleans  in  recent  years  shows  a 
how  the  trade  of  the  great  valley  has  increased,  and  the  construction 
by  the  United  States  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  will  undoubtedly  greatly 
augment  the  volume  of  river  tonnage.  President  Madison  urged  the 
great  need  of  a  ship  canal  connecting  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mississippi 


TRANSPORTATION 


157 


SO  that  light-draft  war  vessels  eooM  reach  the  great  inland  seas  in  case 
of  war  with  Canada.     When  repeated  attempts  to  secure  the  aid  of  the 
t^ederal  Government  had  failed,  the  city  of  Chicago,  unaided,  under- 
took to  build  a  connecting  waterway*  which,  however,  was  to  answer 
stiiiitar}^   rather   than    niiUtary   or  eonnnercial   needs.     Work   on    the 
Sarxitar\'  and  Ship  Canal  was  begun  Septend>er  3»  1892,  and  conipieted 
January  2.    1900.     It  connects   Lake   Michigan  at  Chicago  with   the 
XlUnoLs   River  at   Lockport,   a   distance   of    thirty-four   mile^s.     **Tiie 
oaual  was  cut  for  the  purpose  of  giving  to  the  city  of  Chicago  proper 
clrainiige  facilities  hy  reversing  Ihe  movement  of  water  which  formerly 
flowed  into  Lake  Michigan  through  the  Chicago  River,  and  turning 
ia.  current  from  Lake  Michigan  through  the  (*hicago  River  to  the  Illinois 
I^iver  at  I^ockport,  and  thence  down  the  Illinois  Kiver  to  the  Mississipfn. 
"^^he  niinimuni  depth  of  the  canai  is  22  feet;   its  width  at  bottom,  100 
€^eet;   and  the  width  at  the  top  from  162  to  290  feet."     (See  frontis- 
;|3iece,  facing  page  145.)     The  channel  discharges  360.000  (ndnc  feet  per 
Bminute,  which  capacity  can  be  largely  increased.    The  total  cost  of  this 
jarreatesii  feat  of  sauitar>^  engineering  in  the  world  was  $34,000,(X)0.     It 
is   expected    that    Congress    will    make  it   a  coimnercial   highway  by 
vleepening  the  Illinois  ami  Mississip|)i  rivers  to  fourteen  feet  and  con- 
structing locks  for  fleets  of  l^arges  from  Lockport',  the  terminus  of  the 
«lrainage  canal,  to  St.  Louis. 


■  af  iVru'  Or U  arts. 


Fin.  S,      Shipf'ing  u-harj  on  in.-:  Missisiippi   , 
if  a  sktp  eanal  were  built  eonntciin^  the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Mississippi  River,  the  vaUt*  of  Nww 
Orkans  as  a  shipping  port  ^or  the  Mississippi  Volley  States  urn* id  be  vastly  ificreas«d. 


158 


THE  JOL^RNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


April 


PROPOSKD   CANALS 

In  the  lti8t  Tpvv  years  Congress  Ikis  liepii  (lpliit!;e<l  vvitli  nieinorials 
pleading  i'or  shi|>-eaiml  (Hmnertiiniis.  i^liihulclpliia  has  Iniii!^  iirit«:ed  the 
necessity  of  a  canal  aeross  New  Jerfcipy  to  New  Vnrk  harbor;  Baltimore 
demands  a  passage  across  Dehiware;  PittshurL;  seeks  a  ship  eanal  from 
the  Allegheny  River  to  Lake  Erie,  and  Cincinnati  demands  a  similar 
channel  to  Ti)ledi>:  Chicago  urges  the  rnni[jlctinn  uf  a  22-foot  water^'ay 
to  St.  Louis,  ajid,  also,  a  cana!  west  to  rhe  Mrssissifjpi;  and  Minneapolis 
expects  to  get  a  ship  eanal  to  Dulnth, 

<  ANADV*S    Vv  \Tt  UWAVS 

Relatively  to  her  trade  uiul  [^npulntion.  Canada  has  one  of  the 
most  extensive  and  jnTfect  systems  of  canal  connnunication  in  the 
world.  Inasmuch  as  tli*»  prim'ijnd  articles  of  her  trade  are  raw  prod- 
ricts,  she  has  carefully  develope<l  cheaj>  water  transportation,  nsing  as 
a  basis  the  great  drainage  system  of  the  Great  Lakes-St.  Lawrence. 
Canada  has  sjient  on  her  canals  S12  per  heatl  as  against  our  15  cents, 
and  has  un<ler  consideration  yet  larger  canal  pr*)jections.  Canadian 
vessels  (and  liy  the  Washington  treaty  of  1S70,  American  ve-ssels  ako) 
now  have  a  14-f(yot  waterway  from  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  to  tide 
water,  a  distance  of  over  2,UI)0  miles.  Som«'  boat.s  loaded  at  Chicago 
have  actually  made  the  passage  through  the  Canadian  canal  system 
to  Kngland  without  breakint:  l>u]k. 


) 


Pig,  Kt.     L<~-ui;cj,u\i  trt.iitspcrta!ion. 
This  flici  of  idki!  <ankfs  is  tud  up  at  Stsult  St^.  Maru  bfcanse  af  a  bhckadt^  caused  by  heavy 

traffic  in  the  canaL 


■«*M 


TRAN&l>ORTATION 


159 


444^:--^| 


A  whttUhack  jt^ifituer  passing  through  tiw  "Soo"  iMks  »»t  iht*  >i«//  Sfe.  Afarv  cmtat  t>etitWM  Liihe 

Snffcrior  and  Lake  Hnron, 

The  important  rujials  uf  ihv  J)fiiniiiit>a  arr  as  follows:* 
I,  The  thrcmpfh  route  lietwceii  Moiitreal  anJ  t!ie  hi^ad  of  Lake  Superior. 

1.  Laehiiie,  8i  miles,  exteialhijj:  from  Montreal  to  Laehine,  uver- 
eoming  the  St,  Louis  rapids, 

2.  ir^uulangps,  14  miles,  exteiidiiiii;  from  Taspinle  Tnini  to  Coteau 
Lanilin;r,  overeomin^  several  rapids. 

3.  (*ornwalL  11  miles,  frnm  foriuvall  to  Dickenson's  Larnling,  past 
the  Lon^  Sault  li:i])i(ls. 

4.  Williamsburfr  t'anals  (the  Inrrans  I'niul.  Jlapide  Hat,  and  Galops 
canals)  1 12  miles, 

5.  Murray,  o  miles,  extending  through  tlie  Lsthm\is  of  I\lurray 
between  the  Bay  of  Qiiinte  and  Lake  Ontario,  thus  etuibling 
vesselj?  to  avoid  the  open-lake  navigation. 

0.  \A>lland,  26 J  miles,  connecting  Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  and 
avoiding  Niagara  Falls,  This  canal  was  constructed  in  IS33, 
enlarged  in  1S71,  mid  again  in  11)00.  It  has  25  locks,  with  a 
total  rise  of  327  feet,  and  cost  S2riX)00.nnn. 

7.  Sault  Ste,  Marie,   1^  miles,  through  St,  ,Mary's  Island  on  the 
north  side  of  the  rapids  in  the  St,  Mar}'  River,  and  connecting 
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior, 
IL  Ottawa  River  canals,  avoiding  rapiils  between  (  htawa  and  Montreal. 

♦Report  Cmindiiin  Depart ineiit  of  Railways  anil  Canab,  1900. 


•'r<tTiv1tt,  ItOi     FftMB  1M(b'*  KlMBiiMmj  timgntfttf. 


,4f  this  port  all  v«sseh  f^assing  titrougk  the  canal  fioy  ftili. 


II L  Rideau*  126  miles,  connecting  Ottawa  on  the  Rivor  Ottawa  with 

Kingston  at  the  eastern  eml  of  Lake  Ontario. 

IV.  The  Trent  extends  from  Trenton   on   tlie   Bay   of  Quinte,   Lake 

Ontario  J  through  a  chain  of  lakes  imd  rivers  to  Lake  Hnron. 

As  yet  tliere  is  not  a  eonnerted  system  of  navigation. 

\'.  The  Riehelien  &  Lake  Chamjilain  commences  at  Sorel,  at  the  eon- 

fluence  of  the  St.  LawrerK'o  ami  the  Richelieu,  46  miles  below 

Montreal,    extends    alon*r    the    river    Richeheii,    through    the 

Chamldy  Canal   to  St.  Johns,   thence  down  the  Richelieu  to 

Lake  Champlain.     Lt  is  eighty-one  miles   from   Surel   tu   the 

boundary  line. 

VL  St.  Petei-s  connects  St.  Petem  I^ay  <>ri  the  southern  side  of  Cape 

Breton  with  Bras  d'Or  Lake, 

Camula's  total  expenditure  on   her  canals   up   to   June  30,    1900, 

anunmted  to  S95. 31 7,000.     Still  other  canal  projects  are  couteniplated, 

notably  the  Montreal,  Ottawa,  and  Cierirgian  Bay  Canah  intended  to 

divert  the  trade  of  the  Lakes  to  Montreal.     When  completed  it  wnll 

bring  Duluth  and  Okicago  500  miles  nearer  to  Mont  real,  and  will  afford 

a  direct,  air-line  route  to  Liverpool,  saving  1,000  miles  over  the  route 

via  New  York,     Much  interest  has  been  shown,  too,  in  the  ]>roject  to 

connect  Winnipeg,  in  the  center  of  the  great  Manitnba  wheal   fields, 

with  the  Great  Lakes  by  a  ship  canal.     That  Canada  realizes  the  great 


TRANSPORTATION 


i6i 


importance  of  her  chief  water  route  is  shown  by  the  n^ittition  to  deei>eti 
the  Lakes-St,  Lawrence  I'lianiiel  to  ei|[f;hteeii  feet  thr<iun;hout. 

GREAT   SIMP    TANALS   OF   THE    WORLD 

The  artificial  w^aterways  of  the  Avorld,  properly  termed  ship  canals, 

Suez  Canal,  begun  1859,  completed  1S60.  In  its  present  form  the 
canal  cost  about  ?  100,000.000.  It  is  without  locks,  bcin^  at  the 
sea  level  throughout  the  SK)  miles  of  its  length.  Passage  througli 
the  canal  averages  about  18  hours.  The  tolls  arc  9  francs  per  ton 
net  register  (Danube  measurement),  which  is  a  little  more  than 
S2  per  ton  U,  S.  measurement.  In  1900.  »1441  vessels  with  a  gross 
tonnage  of  13,G90.2H7  tons  passed  throu<i;h  the  canal. 

Kronstadt  &  St.  I'eterslnirg  CanaL  begun  1S77,  completed  1890. 
This  canal  extends  from  Kronstadt  on  tfu*  Gulf  of  Finland  to  St. 
Petersburg,  a  distance  of  10  miles,  though  the  canal  proper  is 
only  6  miles  long.  It  has  a  navigable  depth  of  204  feet,  and 
represents  a  total  cost  of  »lf).(H10.n00. 

Corinth  Caruil  was  begun  1S.'»9  and  completed  1K93.  It  connects 
the  Ciidf  of  Corinth  witli  tlie  Gulf  of  .Kgina,  and  is  about  4  nulcs 
hmg.  It  has  a  tleptJi  of  261  ^^^^^*  ^^^^^  ^^^^  about  $5,000,000.  The 
average  tolls  are  IS  cents  ]ier  ton  and  20  cents  per  passenger. 
Like  the  Suez  and  Knnista^lt  canals,  it  has  no  locks. 

Manchester  Ship  Canal  crjonecting  Manchester  witli  the  Mersey 
River,  Liverpool,  and  the  AlJantie  Ocpan,  was  openetl  January^, 
1S94.     The  canal  is  35 i  miles  long,  and  cost  S75 ,000,000. 


*  Great  Canali*  of  tlip  WorUi,  Bureau  of  Statislirs,  Monthly  Siimmnry,  May.  1902. 


st^^. 


:-'?*-•« 


Plc,  I  J,     The  Suc2  Canal  at  tlte  entrance  to  Lake  Timsak, 
Tht  canal  «  1 50  U'ft  u^^d*  /A*?  whok  distance. 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


ApriL 


5,  Kaiser  Wilhelm'or^Kiel  Canal,  boguu  in  1SS7»  completed  1895.    This 

€aiial,  61  miles  long,  ami  29^  feet  deep,  connects  the  Xurlh  Sea^ 
with  the  Baltic  at  Kiel     The  total  cost  was  about  $4O,OUUv0iK)- 

6,  Elbe  Sc  Trave  Canal,  opened  in  1900,  connects  the  North  Sea  an  A 

the  Kllie  River  with  Lubeek  on  the  Baltic,  It  is  41  rniles  loiig;^ 
has  a  depth  of  10  feet,  and  cost  S5,s;il,()00,  of  which  Liibeck  con — 
tribiited  over  $4,000,000. 


Fjc,  13.     A  strtct  canal  iti  Amsterdam, 
Mu£h  of  rfc#  ammwrce  af  Itu  city  is  carried  on  by  titc  me  oi  thfic  numerous  ciHots, 


OTHEK    IMPORTANT   CANALS 

^  In  athlition  to  the  above  great  ship  canals,  there  are  a  number  of 
important  waterways  worthy  of  notice : 

1.  North  Ilohand  Canal,  cut  in  1845  from  Amsterdam  to  Helder,     It 

is  51  miles  long,  20  feet  deep.  125  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  and 
carries  ves^si^b  of  \,'Si}0  tons.  Tlie  great  ]>rosperity  of  Amsterdam 
in  recent  year^  is  largely  due  to  this  canaL 

2.  The  Caledonian  Canrd  runs  through  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  con* 

nects  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  North  Sea.  The  canal  proper 
h  250  miles  long,  117  feet  deep,  126  feet  wide  at  the  surface,  and 
cost  about  $7,0(KK000, 

3.  The  Canal  du  Midi,  cut  through  France  from  Toulouse  on  the  Garonne 

River  to  Cette  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  150  miles  long,  6^  feet 
deep,  60  feet  wide,  has  114  locks,  and  at  its  highest  point  is  600  feet 
above  sea  level.     It  cost  $3,500,000,  and  will  carry  boats  <yf  100  tons, 

(7Vi  6**  r*m  till  tied.) 


«^<^4 


A  NORMAL  COURSE  IX  GEOGRAPHY  I  63 


HE  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY  IN  THE  STATE 
NORMAL  SCHOOL  AT  SALEM,  MASS. 


T' 


BY   WILLIAM   CHARLES   MOORE 
Inatruetor  in  Oeooraphy,  State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Massachutetts 

HE  State  Normal  School  at  Salem,  Massachusetts,  is  most  favor- 
ably situated  in  a  locality  rich  in  geographical  illustrations. 
Looking  northward  from  the  windows  of  the  school  building  the 
pi"!  Jicipal  industrial  features  of  a  moderate  sized  city,  including  a  cotton 
miU^  shoe  factories,  and  a  tanner>^,  are  easily  identified.     Towards  the 
nox^lieast  is  the  harbor  from  wliich  in  times  past  the  vessels  of  Salem 
sa,i  led  to  all  parts  of  the  globe.     (See  Fig.  1.)     Towards  the  west  can 
b^     s^en  the  line  of  railroad  by  which  the  city  is  connected  with  the 
chi^f    center  of  trade  in  New  England,  and  in  this  direction  also  is  a 
Jft**g^    freight  yard  in  which  cars  of  all  the  principal  railways  of  the 
Ea^^^m  United  States  arc  to  be  found.     Looking  in  a  southerly  direc- 
^^^^3.     ^he  eye  is  pleased  and  rested  by  fresh  green  meadows  through 
whiic*"|-i  the  tidal  creeks  reach  out  their  glittering  arms.     Here  also  are 
fer-t:  il^  vegetable  gardens,  fields  of  waving  corn,  smoothly  graded  knolls, 
^^  *       in  the  distance,  numerous  ranges  of   irregular  rock  hills  spiked 
^'^  ^"^       dark  green  cedar  trees.     (See  Fig.  2.)     In  one  direction,  there- 
"^^^^»     ^re  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  conditions  typical  of  a  rural  com- 
^'^-■- ^*^^  i  ^y,  and  in  the   other  the   imj)ortant  industrial   and  commercial 
feii^tix^^sof  city  life. 

-■"""Vie  organization  of  the  normal  scliool  provides  a  two  years'  course 

^l^      '^  Ine  professional  training  of  teachers,  and  a  system  of  elementary 

^^^^^^Is  which  serve  as  the  basis  for  the  observation  and  practice-work 

*^  ^  normal  school  students.     The  work  of  the  elementary  department 

^      ^^a=^    to  prepare  the  children  for  admission  to  the  high  school  in  eight 

-*-^lie  course  of  geography  in  the  normal  school  proper  consists  largely 

^.     ,*^^  observation  and  discussion  of  the  methods  of  teaching  pursued 

J      "^      ^lementar>'  pupils.     The  outline  of  work  actually  performed  by  the 

rr«       *^^^s  of  children  is  made  the  basis  of  these  recitations  and  discussions. 

£  ^1^^  _^3istnictor  in  charge  of  this  department  finds  a  ver}^  profitable  part 

^1^^^^^*^  duty  in  supervising  and  teaching  tlie  lessons  in  geography  in  the 

jpT^^^^ntary  school.     One  marked  result  of  this  intimate  and  actual 

jqX^^     "^^ct  with  the  children  is  the  unity  which  exists  between  the  theo- 

^^,^^^^1  work  of  the  normal  school  class  room  and  what  is  actually 

^^*riplished  with  the  elementarA^  ])upils. 


I  64  Trf^SHoBE  OF  GEOGRAPHY  April 

Perhaps  another  n^«ult  is  tliat  some  of  the  things  which  find  an 
honored  pUiee  in  nuiiiy  of  llie  "geography  ont linos  have  been  discarded 
in  favor  of  a  simpler,  more  rational,  and  less  formal  treatment.  The 
study  of  geography  in  the  elementary''  school  is  suffering  from  the 
severely  logical  metlind  of  teaching  into  which  the  work  has  been  thrown 
by  educators  who  have  had  little  or  no  actual  experience  with  children. 

The  regidar  wiirk  in  geography  with  tlie  children  begins  in  our 
school  with  the  third  grade,  that  is,  with  the  [jupils  who  have  attended 
school  ftir  three  yeai^,  and  continues  tlirougli  the  eighth  or  last  grade. 
During  the  first  and  second  years  of  school  life  the  nature  study  and 
language  lessons  have  been  creating  a  certain  fiUKl  of  experience  which 
contributes  more  or  less  directly  to  the  work  in  geography.  During 
the  third  year  this  information  is  gathered  together  and  additional 
experience  created  in  the  study  of  the  surface  features,  oeeu  pat  ions, 
people,  map  readin;br.  simple  weather  ]4ienomena.  and  i>roduciiuns. 

This  introductory  treatment  is  of  enurse  very  simple.  It  is  intended 
as  a  preparation  for  th(Mnore  careful  study  of  these  topics  wliich  comes 
in  the  next  year.  In  that  year,  the  fourth,  the  work  with  local  surface 
features  is  followed  closely  by  a  study  of  distant  areas  whicli  are  similar 
in  type  to  the  local  forms  or  which  contril>ute  niorf*  or  less  directly 
toward  sitjjplying  the  materials  nec<le<l  hv  the  rhildren  for  food,  clothings 
and  shelter. 

The  study  of  tlie  local  surface  features  Ijcgun  in  the  third  year  and 
continued  throughout  the  fourth  year  is  based  upon  the  usefulness  of 
the  hills,  valleys,  and  plains  to  the  people  of  this  community  in  affording 
suitable  building  sites,  in  determining  the  location  of  street.s,  roads, 
and  railways,  in  furnishing  a  fotid  supply,  and  in  giving  beauty  and 
variety  in  the  hind  scape. 

The  physiogra|>hieal  aspect  of  the  fulls,  valleys,  and  plains,  although 
not  ignored,  is  not  made  the  staiiiiig  ])oint.  For  example,  witliin  easy 
reach  of  the  school  buikling  are  various  illustrations  of  rock  hills  and 
gravel  hills.  But  the  study  of  hills  as  individual  tilings,  separate  rn»ni 
any  obvious  relation  to  the  life  of  the  couHmmity,  is  not  of  geographical 
importance.  Instead,  therefore,  of  selecting  types  from  the  unsettle*! 
district  to  the  south  and  west  where,  although  numerous  hills  of  both 
kinds  are  to  be  fourid.  few  of  them  are  fonsjucuous  for  their  usefulness, 
we  turn  towards  the  settled  area,  for  it  is  here  that  the  surface  fea- 
tures are  in  a  more  intimate  relation  to  the  daily  life  of  the  people. 

The  gravel  hills  within  the  settled  portiou  of  the  town  have  streets 
laid  rmt  u[>ou  their  surfaces^  the  npirroaches  to  their  summits  are  in 


I 


most  cases  easy,  and  the  sides  and  tops  of  the  hills  are  well  built  upon. 
The  nearby  rock  hilb,  on  the  cnutrarj^  are  not  laid  out  in  buikling:  loisA 
there  are  few  houses  upon  theni^  and  the  area  is  useil  for  little  morel 
than  pasture  land.     Some  of  tlie  hills,  therefore,  afford  desirable  buikling 
sites,  and  some  do  not.     Ttiese  facts  are  easLl}-  witliin  the  everyda} 
experience  of  the  pupils  anfl  may  be  considered  also  as  coming  withiaj 
the  range  of  their  natural  interests. 

The  explanation  of  these  facts  leads  in  a  very  simple  way  to  a ' 
recognition  of  tlie  differenee  in  structure  between  rock  hills  and  gravel 
hills.  The  pupil  soon  discovers  that  in  every  case  the  hills  that  are  notj 
occupied  by  buildings  are  of  solid  rock.  The  reason  is  that  the  blasting 
and  excavating  necessary  for  the  constniction  of  cellars  adds*  consid-l 
erably  to  the  cost  of  Iniildin^.  l\ulher,  the  laying  out  of  streets  uponj 
the  rock  hills  is  almost  prohibited  by  the  steepness  and  irregularity j 
of  their  slopes.  The  hills  that  are  well  built  upon  are  found  by  the] 
pupils  to  be  composed  of  gravel  and  sand.  This  loose  n\aterial  offers  I 
little  resistance  to  the  pick  and  shovel.  As  a  result  streets  are  laid 
out  without  much  difficulty  and  the  erection  of  houses  is  encouraged. 

Tlie  eontnil  which  the  surface  features  have  exerted  in  determining  i 
ordinary  lines  of  travel  is  well  illustrated  in  the  location  of  Lafayette] 
Street,  the  main  thoroughfare.  Although  in  the  beginning  it  was! 
simply  a  rough  country  mad  from  Salem  to  Marblehead,  tlie  fact  never- j 
theless  remains  that  throughout  its  entire  length  it  avoids  both  the 
highest  and  lowest  parts  of  the  land.  Thus  the  steep  grades  of  the  ^ 
hills  as  well  as  the  marshy  lowlands,  wliieh  at  times  must  have  l^een  I 
quite  impassable,  are  both  avoideti.  The  influence  of  the  topography  j 
upon  the  location  of  other  streets  is  also  easily  seen. 

To  the  south  of  the  school  buil<ling  in  the  agricultural  area  before 
referred  to  there  is  good  opportunity  to  study  the  usefulness  of  theJ 
surface  features  in  providing  a  supply  of  food.     Here  upon  the  flati 
stretches  and  gentle  slopes  where  the  loam  is  fine  and  dark  are  the  vege- 
table gardens;   on  the  lowlands,  where  the  soil  is  too  wet  for  planting, 
the  rich  green  grass  gives  promise  of  an  abundant  hay  crop;  and  upon  I 
the  SDUtliern  slopes  of  the  gravel  hills  are  fields  of  waving  corn.     The 
rock  liills  with  their  steep  sides  and  their  gravelly  soil  offer  httle  encour-^ 
agement  to  cultivation  and  are  therefore  used  only  for  grazing. 

This  brief  description  indicates  the  kind  of  work  which  receives 
emphasis  in  the  study  of  local  surface  features.  Whenever  it  is  possible 
to  do  so  without  making  the  instniction  stiff  and  formal  the  attention 
of  the  pupils  b  directed  to  the  effect  of  the  diversity  of  the  surface 


i^ 


1 68 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


1 
I 


featurej^  in  giving  beauty  and  variety  to  the  lanciscinie.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  indicate,  within  tlie  limits  of  this  article,  the  numlDerless  details 
in  the  study  of  the  home  geography  which  the  very  favorable  situation 
of  the  school  building  makes;  not  only  po?isible  but  eai?y.  Let  me  empha- 
size the  fact  tliat  the  study  of  the  locality  does  not  stop  w^ith  simply 
observing  and  describing  the  characteristics  of  the  liills,  valleys,  ami 
plains^  although  this  in  itself  would  be  a  very  coniinendal>Ie  aim;  it 
includes  a  recognition  and  emphasis  of  those  relations  of  the  local 
geograpliical  features  to  the  life  of  the  people  of  this  community  which 
help  to  ex|>kin  the  control  which  distant  geographical  features  exert 
upon  the  distribution  of  the  world's  popuhition. 

The  knowledge  of  the  jiosition  and  characteristics  of  tlie  natural 
and  artificial  surface  features  of  the  neigldiorhood  gained  in  this  study 
of  tlie  local  geography  is  a  very  important   basis  for  the  first  work  in 
map  reading.     In  developing  this  line  of  thnnght  the  children  have  the 
advantage  of  a  very  carefully  constructed  model  of  the  locality  surroutKi-^ 
ing  the  school  building.     This  model  is  fashioned  in  putty.     Its  hori- " 
zontal  scale  is  thirty-four  inches  to  the  milej  and  its  vertical  scale  is 
one  inch  to  forty-five  feet.     Upon  it  the  hills,  valleys,  plains,  coast  line» 
harbor  and  mill  pond,  streets  and  railwa3^s  are  shown.     It  is  not  used, 
however  until  after  some   familiarity  with   the  various   natural    and 
artificial  surface  features  has  t)ecn  gained.     Then  the  pupU  is  led  toB 
make  a  close  association   between  the  actual  features  of  the  locahty  ■ 
and  their  re]>resentations  upon  the  model,  and    the  study  of  surface 
features  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  study  of    the  local  maps.     Thei 
tletails  of  this  work  can  not  be  included  in  this  description. 

We  have  founds  by  the  w^ay^  that  the  almost  imiversal  device  recom- 
mended to  teachers  of  having  the  pupils  tlevelop  logically  the  map  of 
the  neighborhood  step  by  step  from  the  plan  of  the  pupils'  desks  is; 
not  a  good  way  to  teach  young  children  what  drawing  to  a  scale  means. 
In  the  first  place  the  careful  work  requiretl  for  good  results  is  not  inter- 
esting to  children  of  that  age;  in  the  next  place,  the  results,  even 
after  considerahle  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  give  the  work  an 
acquired  interest  to  the  pupils,  are  slovenly  and  unsatisfactoiy.  Finally, 
it  can  be  saiil,  the  work  is  wholly  unnecessary,  for  the  pupils  from  the 
kindergarten  upward,  in  their  clay  modeling  and  outhne  drawing,  hav 
been  making  use  of  the  principles  involved  in  representation  to  scale 
All  tluU  is  really  necessary  at  this  time  is  to  show  the  children,  by 
[ueans  of  photographs  of  themseh^es,  of  the  teacher,  and  of  scenery  with 
which  they  are  familiar,  the  necessity  for  making  the  features  that 


!i 


A  NORMAL  COURSE  IN   GEOGRAPHY 


169 


^^n^aUer  than  the  others  in  nature  the  smaller  parts  in  the  representation, 
^^iid  that  each  part  in  the  picture  or  model  is  oiade  tlie  proper  size  to 
^-Ook  right. 

Following  the  work  with  the  motlel  of  the  neighborhood  and  closely 
^i-ssociated  with  it  and  with  the  features  out  of  doors  conies  a  slope-line 
^tn.ap  of  the  same  scale.  The  sloi)e  lines  are  hnes  which  in<licate  thi- 
T>aths  wtiich  running  water  would  take  in  flowing  down  tlie  hills.  The 
"V\rork  with  tliis  map,  therefore,  is  very  closely  associated  with  the 
^  tudy  of  local  drainage. 

A  contour  map  of  the  home  locality  with  a  vertical  interval  of 
^^^ven  feet  comes  next  in  the  study  of  map  reading,  and  prepares  the 
'^^^ay  for  a  very  intelhgent  appreciation  of  the  Salem  sheet  published 
V^y  the  United  States  (leological  Survey.  It  also  leads  directly  to  an 
i ^interpretation  of  wall  maps  like  llie  Sydow-Halx^nicht. 

The  w^ork  with  tlie  series  of  local  maps  is  found  to  be  an  exceedingly 
iTiiportant  and  valuable  part  *>f  the  course  in  geography.     Tliere  are 
tnany  interesting  details  cormected  with  the  devel(jpment  of  this  topic 
xvith  the  children  w^hich  must  be  omitted  from  this  article  for  want  of 
^pace.  **  Without  maps  true  geography  teaching  is  impossible/^  but  inth 
maps  like  those  used  in  this  scliool  the  work  takes  on  a  concrete  char- 
tic  ter  which  gives  an  interest  and  reality  to  the  lessons  that  is  most 
gratifying. 

The  study  of  distant  surface  features  implies  considerable  progress 
in  the  reading  of  maps.  The  successful  interpretation  of  the  map 
symbols,  however,  will  depend  upon  the  thoroughness  with  which  the 
study  of  the  home  locality  has  been  pursued  in  connection  with  the 
local  map.  The  use  of  pictures  and  the  abiUty  to  form  good  mental 
images  from  verl)al  descriptions  are  also  indispensable. 

The  plan  by  which  the  pupils  in  ttiis  school  are  led  to  an  under- 
standing of  maps  of  distant  pjaces  throvigh  a  study  of  local  maps  has 
already  been  outlined  in  part.  The  steps  have  been  so  natural  and 
easy  that  when  the  map  of  North  America  is  readied  the  pupil  recog- 
nizes at  once  the  meaning  of  most  of  the  conventional  symbols.  Just 
as  soon  as  these  luive  been  nameth  suitable  pictures  of  important 
featiu^43  are  shown.  These  pictures  help  the  process  of  visuahzation 
by  giving  life  and  reality  to  the  places  represented  upon  the  map.  A 
picture  of  the  Arctic  cr >ast  Hne.  one  of  the  tropical  shores  of  Central 
America,  others  of  the  coast  hnes  of  New  England »  New^  Jersey,  Florida, 
CaUffirnia,  and  Alaska;  views  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  great  plains, 
the  prairies,  the  tundras,  and  of    the  Mississippi  and  other  rivers— 


all  of  these  are  recoi^nijied,  describecL  tn\<\  ui^soeiated  with  the  part 
area  upon  the  map  or  with  the  appropriate  symboh 

The  study  of  the  map  (Sydow-Habenicht)  ilhistrated  by  pictures 
and  supplemented  by  verbal  desenptions  is  made  from  this  time  on  the 
basis  of  every  geography  lesson.  Those  distant  siuface  features  which 
are  intimately  connected  with  the  lives  of  the  people  in  this  locality 
are  t^tudied  first.  The  pupils  recall  the  varicms  needs  in  their  own 
climate,  and  some  of  the  more  important  cunmiudities  of  life  are  traced 
back  to  their  region  of  production.  Then  pictures  which  illustrate  the 
conditions  under  wliich  thest^  tilings  are  grown  or  raised  are  used. 
The  significant  things  in  the  picture — the  character  of  surface,  kind  of 
soil,  chmatic  conditions,  productions,  and  people — are  looked  for  and 
emphasized. 

The  wlieat  fields,  grazing  sections,  garden  farms,  fruit  districts, 
lumber  regions,  cotton  and  sugar  plantations,  and  tlie  mining  and 
manufacturing  centers  of  North  America  in  i>articular  and  the  world 
in  general  are  recognized  atul  studied  as  the  work  progresses.  The 
control  which  relief,  climate,  and  soils  exert  over  natural  ]>roductions 
is  continually  kept  before  the  pupils,  and  frequent  reference  is  made 
to  the  local  conditions  which  illustrate  these  relations. 

The  study  of  these  industrial  regions  leads  almost  immediately   I 
to  the  recognition  of  the  physiographic  types — prairies,  coastal  plains, 
flood  plains,  delta  plains,  tundras,   mountainous  regions  and  coaMal 
forms,  and  the  relation  of  the  rivers  to  these  surfaces  features.  ■ 

The  topics,  weather,  climate,  and  natural  prod  tic  tiona  receive  due 
attention  in  the  ivork  of  tlie  third  and  fourth  years.  The  aim  in  the 
study  of  the  weather  is  to  secure  definiteness  in  the  observ^ation  of 
characteristic  |)henoniena,  and  to  acquire  the  experience  necessary  for 
a  rational  understanding  of  climatic  conditions.  Instead  of  a  formal 
record  kept  day  after  day  the  teacher  is  expected  to  take  advantage 
of  the  opportunities  as  they  occur  for  studying  typical  conditions. 

The  study  of  natural  productions^plants,  animals,  and  minerals — 
is  closely  related  to  the  so-called  nature  work.  The  geographical  aspect 
of  the  study  of  the  organic  side  of  nature  consists  largely  in  picturing 
and  describing  the  plants  and  animals  in  their  relation  to  the  climatic 
conditions  and  physical  features.  This  work,  like  the  study  of  People, 
can  be  done  most  intelligently,  not  as  a  separate  topic,  but  in  connection 
with  the  work  on  relief,  drainage,  and  coastal  forms, 

A  summary  of  the  work  which  is  attempted  in  the  fourth  year,  of 
which  the  above  is  only  a  partial  and  very  brief  description,  is  as  follows: 


I 


1904  A  NORMAL  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY  I  7  ^ 

Relief,  Drainage,  and  Coastal  Forms. 
Local  surface  features  studied  in  detail. 

School  buildings,  dwellings,  factories,  streets,  in  relation  to  gen- 
eral surface  features. 
Hills,  valleys,  plains,  and  coastal  forms  of  the  neighborhood. 
Surface  drainage  in  relation  to  hills,  valleys,  and  plains. 
Distant  portions  of  landscape  seen  from  schoolroom  windows. 
Usefulness  and  beauty  of  forms  of  land  and  water. 
Distant  surface  features  studied  in  their  relation  to  life. 

Plains:  prairies,  coastal  plains,  western  plains,  tundras,  pampas, 

llanos,  selvas,  steppes,  etc. 
Mountains:  Appalachian  and  Rocky  Mountain  highlands;  Andes, 

Alps,  Himalayas. 
Rivers  and  valleys:    Mississippi,  St.  Lawrence,  Columbia,  Mac- 
kenzie, Yukon,  Colorado,  Hudson,  Cianges,  Indus,  Yang-tse, 
Nile,  etc. 
Coastal  forms:  irregular  coast  lines,  harbors;  regular  shore  lines. 
Rocky,  sandy,  and  marshy  coasts. 
Map  Reading. 

Position:   distance,  cardinal  directions. 

Local  maps:  model,  slope  line  and  contour  maps;  Salem  sheet. 
Maps  of  distant  places:  wall  maps,  globes. 
Natural  Phenomena. 

Forms  of  water:  Atmosphere.     Observations  of  sun,  moon,  stars. 
Climate. 

Weather  observations  at  characteristic  times;  distant  climatic  con- 
ditions. 
Productions. 
Minerals. 

Plants  and  animals. 
People. 

Races:  life  and  surroundings  of  people  recognized  in  study  of  distant 

surface  features. 
Occupations:  industrial  conditions  of  home  locality  and  distant  places. 
Commerce:  inland  and  maritime  trade  of  Salem. 

The  pupil  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  of  school  life  has  gained  a 
fairly  good  knowledge  of  his  own  locality  and  considerable  information 
concerning  distant  physical  features,  climate,  and  people. 

During  the  next  year,  in  the  study  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  the  aim 
is  to  give  the  world-wide  view^s  of  these  same  geographical  phenomena. 


The  largest  foalures  of  reli(*f.  drainage,  and  cua?sl  line,  already  described 
to  some  extent  as  individual  tliings  are  now  reeognized  as  a  part  of 
and  in  relation  to  the  whole  earth. 

The  various  things  eonsidered  are  form  and  size  of  the  earth,  earth 
in  space,  rotation.  \nm\  and  water  divisions,  latitude  and  longitude. 
The  relief,  drainage*  coast  lines,  ciimat^},  and  productions  of  the  world 
and  the  tiii>ic  People. 

Tfie  splierical  form  of  the  earth  is  not  a  new  idea  to  the  pupils, 
and  the  purpose  i\i  this  time  is  to  furnish  some  reasons  for  the  belief. 
The  usual  proofs  are  pre.^^ented  and  illustrated  by  means  of  objects, 
pictures,  and  tliagrams,  but  the  teaching  does  not  stop  with  the  appa- 
ratus. By  mean.s  of  the  imagination,  with  the  device  nut  of  sight,  the 
facts  are  applied  to  tlie  earth  itself. 

To  picture  the  earth  in  space  is  a  difhcult  thing,  even  for  adult8» 
and  it  ought  not  to  be  attempted  by  children  without  previous  oliserva- 
tion  of  the  moon.  Some  basis  for  imagining  the  earth  in  space  may  also 
be  obtained  l>y  looking  at  pictures  representing  the  earth  seen  along  dis- 
tance away,  and  if  the  mental  image  which  the  pupils  acquire  is  nothing 
more  than  the  memory  of  a  good  ]>ictnre  interpreted  in  terms  of  their 
observation  npi)n  the  aiiion^the  teaching  need  not  be  counted  a  failure. 

The  rotation  of  the  earth  is  also  something  which  requires  a  well- 
trained  imagiiuition  to  perceive.  Usually  the  teaching  of  this  topic 
anion nts  to  nothing  more  than  a  mere  jugghng  with  objects.  The 
geographical  phases  of  rotation,  however^  include  not  much  more  than 
a  study  of  day  and  night .  and  since  the  alternation  of  light  and  darkness 
is  sonu^thing  within  the  ex{>enence  of  every  ciuld  this  is  tlierefore  made 
the  starting  point  in  teaching  rotation. 

The  ptipils  descril>e  the  a])parent  movement  of  the  sun  from  morning 
until  evening.  They  think  also  of  the  possible  path  durhig  our  night. 
They  are  then  UAd  what  fieople  at  one  time  believed  and  what  the  facts 
really  are.  Then  conies  the  work  with  objects,  not  with  a  candle  or 
lampj  but  with  a  sphere  held  in  the  sunlight.  This  objective  demon- 
stration is  followed  by  the  application  of  these  facts  and  relations  to 
the  earth  itself.  Tlie  rletails  ctf  these  lessons  have  been  carefully  worked 
out,  but  space  forbids  more  than  this  brief  nu^ntion. 

Small  hand  globes  are  supphed  each  jiupil,  uml  are  constantly  u.sed 
in  the  naming  and  description  of  the  divisions  of  the  earthV  surface 
into  land  and  water,  continents  and  oceans,  and  hemispheres.  Pic- 
tures of  mountains,  plains,  deserts,  coast  line,  Arctic  seener>%  and 
tropical  vegetation  are  associatetl  with  particular  areas  and  appropriate 
symbols  upon  the  giobe, 


X904  A  NORMAL  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY  1  73 


The  primary  highlands  of  the  world,  the  lowlands  and  basins,  the 
relation  of  drainage  to  highlands,  lowlands,  and  basins  are  studied  in 
"fche  order  named.  New  facts  are  not  so  much  in  evidence  at  this  time, 
3,lthough  of  course  no  opportunity  is  lost  to  broaden  and  clarify  the 
pupils'  knowledge.  The  work  has  the  character  of  a  summary  in  which 
"the  aim  is  to  see  the'  w^orld  features  in  their  relation  to  each  other  and 
"to  the  whole. 

The  study  of  the  climate  of  the  world — heat  belts,  winds,  and  rain- 
fall— is  one  of  the  most  important  and  perhaps  most  difficult  parts  of 
the  work  of  the  fifth  grade.  The  successful  presentation  of  this  topic 
requires  very  careful  teaching.  The  writer  was,  moreover,  inclined  to 
believe  at  first  that  even  under  very  favorable  conditions  the  work 
might  prove  too  difficult  for  the  children,  but  actual  experience  has 
proved  this  not  to  be  the  case.  Indeed,  in  the  succeeding  grades  we  find 
t/hat  the  facts  and  their  simple  explanations  which  have  been  taught 
at  this  time  constitute  a  very  reliable  part  of  the  children's  geographical 
information. 

It  is  impossible  to  describe  within  the  limits  of  this  article  the 
numerous  concrete  illustrations  which  are  brought  in  to  teach  the 
fundamental  facts  about  climate,  nor  to  dwell  upon  the  use  which  is 
made  of  pictures  and  stories  in  giving  life  and  meaning  to  verbal  state- 
ments. It  must  be  remembered  that  the  work  here  outlined  depends 
very  much  for  its  success  upon  the  previous  preparation  of  the  pupils, 
and  upon  the  closeness  and  unity  with  which  the  work  has  been 
organized. 

The  line  of  thought  is  in  general  as  follows:  The  location  upon  the 
globe  of  the  warmest  parts  of  the  earth,  the  coldest  parts,  and  the 
places  of  intermediate  temperature.  This  is  review.  Then  comes  the 
explanation  of  these  conditions  by  recalling  the  observations  which  the 
pupils  have  made  upon  the  relation  between  the  inclination  of  the 
sun's  rays  and  the  morning,  evening,  and  noontime  temperatures,  and 
also  the  relation  between  the  sun's  meridian  altitude  and  the  seasonal 
variations  in  temperature.  The  importance  of  these  observations  in 
explaining  fundamental  differences  in  temperature  upon  the  earth's 
surface  is  shown  by  means  of  a  slated  globe  and  a  cardboard  ring  with 
parallel  lines  drawn  upon  it  to  represent  the  sun's  rays. 

The  distribution  of  temperature  upon  the  earth's  surface  as  deter- 
mined by  latitude  and  as  modified  by  the  relation  of  land  and  water,  is 
presented  to  the  eye  by  means  of  a  heat  belt  globe.  Upon  this  globe 
the  cold  polar  caps  are  shown  in  dark  blue,  the  cool  belts  in  light  blue, 
the  warm  belts  in  green,  and  the  hot  belt  in  orange.     This  heat  belt 


174 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


April 


globe  is  referred  to  constantly  in  the  subsequent  study  of  coutinents 
and  countries. 

The  study  of  winds  and  rainfall  of  the  world  is  closely  connected 
with  the  work  oji  heat  belts  and  is  based  upon  previous  observation  and 
experimental  work.  Oeean  currents  are  taught  as  an  application  of 
the  efl'ect  of  the  planetary  circvdation  of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  ocean 
waters. 

The  topi(\  World  Prod \ict inns,  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
summarizing  and  relating  a  large  part  of  the  geographical  information 
already  acquired  and  for  emphasizing  the  control  which  the  surface 
features,  temperature  and  moisture,  exert  upon  the  distribution  of 
plants  and  animals.  Further,  a  discussion  of  the  importance  of  the 
products  of  the  world  in  supplying  marfs  needs,  of  the  land  and  water 
rentes  by  which  the  surplus  productions  are  sent  to  different  parts  of 
the  world,  and  of  the  location  of  the  principal  trade  and  transportation 
centers,  is  valuable  in  showing  the  relation  of  the  earth  to  man. 

The  study  of  People  is  pursued  in  connection  with  every  topic  in 
geography.  As  a  result  the  pupils  ac(piire  in  the  most  natural  and 
informal  way  considerable  information  concerning  the  habits,  customs, 
and  the  degree  of  civilization  of  the  different  races.  The  aim  at  this 
time,  towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  year  of  school  life,  is  to  recognize 
in  a  somewhat  more  logical  way  than  before  the  rlistinctive  character- 
istics of  each  race,  and  to  note  their  original  and  ijresenl  distribution 
upon  the  eartirs  surface.  This  work  give^  a  gooil  opportunity  for 
reeognizing  the  different  states  of  society  and  for  diseussii^g,  in  a  simple 
way,  the  progress  of  the  human  race  from  savagery  through  a  condition 
of  barbarism  to  civilization. 


The  work  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  is  conceiiUil  with  a  study 
of  each  continent  as  a  unit.  The  particular  aims  are  to  recognize  the 
most  important  physiographic  regions  in  each  grand  division,  to  describe 
the  chmate,  and  to  trace  the  inJinence  of  relief,  <lrainage»  chmate,  and 
soils  in  determining  the  development  of  industrial  and  commercial 
conditions.  The  division  of  each  continent  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  and  the  characteristic  features  of  their  different  political  insti- 
tutinns  and  habits  of  life,  is  now  an  important  part  of  the  work.  The 
relation  of  distant  people  to  ourselves  in  particular  and  to  the  rest  of 
the  world  in  general  is.  of  course,  kept  constantly  in  mind. 


A  NORMAL  COURSE  IX  GEOGRAPHY 


/:> 


The  outline  of  the  work  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  is  given  below: 
The  Continents, 
North  America. 
Position. 

Hemispheres,  relation  to  oceans  and  other  continents,  latitude 
and  longitude. 
General  Description. 
Outline. 

Relief:  highlands,  lowlands. 
Drainage:  Atlantic,  Pacific,  Arctic,  interior. 
Coast  line:  regularities,  irregularities,  harbors. 
Climate:  heat  belts,  winds,  rainfall. 
Productions. 
People. 
Physiographic  Regions. 
Atlantic  Coastal  Plain. 
Position  in  North  America;  direction  and  distance  from  home; 

relation  to  us  in  supplying  needs. 
Surface  features;   slope,  soil,  drainage;   fall  line;   geographic 

history. 
Climatic  conditions;   effect  of  proximity  of  ocean. 
Productions  in  relation  to  surface  features  and  climate. 
Location  of  cities  as  centers  of  accumulation  and  distril)ution. 
Routes  of  transj)ortation — by  rail,  by  water. 
Gulf  Coastal  Plain. 
Location. 
Description;    surface  features,   history,   climate,   agricultural 

products. 
Leading  cities  and  trade  routes. 
Northern  Plain. 

Location  in  North  America;  direction  and  distance  from  home; 

means  of  getting  there. 
Description;    surface  features,  history,  climate;    comparison 

with  Gulf  plain. 
Productions  and  occupations. 
Prairies. 

Location,  extent,  direction,  and  distance  from  home;  relation 

to  us  in  supplying  needs. 
Description:    surface  features,    history,   climate,    agricultural 
products. 


I  76  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  April 

Commercial  routes:  Great  Lakes,  rivers,  railroads. 
Leading  cities. 
Great  Plains. 

Location,  extent,  relation  to  prairies. 
Description;   surface  features,  climate,  industries. 
Cities. 
Rocky  Mountain  Highland. 

Extent,  general  direction,  principal  ranges,  and  subdivisions. 
Description  and  comparison  of  physical  features,  climate,  drain- 
age, and  industries  of  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Pacific  ranges, 
Great    Basin,   Colorado  and  Columbia   plateaus,  Yukon 
region,  and  the  highland  of  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
Appalachian  Highland. 
:  Extent,  general  direction,  principal  divisions. 

Comparison  with  Rocky  Mountain  highland. 
Description  of  physical  features,  climate,  and  drainage  of  the 
mountainous  region  and  the  Piedmont  belt. 
St.  Lawrence  Basin. 
Countries. 

Location,  extent,  comparison  of  relief,  climate,  soils. 
United  States. 
Groups  of  States. 
Description  of  each  section. 
Cities. 
Canada  and  Newfoundland. 
Political  organization. 
Industrial  conditions. 
Mexico,  Central  America,  and  West  Indies. 
South  America. 

Position  (same  as  for  North  America). 

General  Description  (same  as  for  North  America). 

Physiographic  regions. 

Description  of  surface  features  and  climate  of  Andes,  Brazilian 
and  Guiana  highlands,  the  selvas,  pampas,  and  llanos,  the 
desert  of  Atacama,  and  tlie  plain  of  Chile. 
Plants,  animals,  and  people  in  relation  to  surface  features  and 
cHmate. 
Countries. 

Location,  extent,  political  organization. 
Brazil. 

Relation  to  physiographic  features  and  climate. 


A  NORMAL  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY  I  77 


Industrial  conditions. 
Cities  and  trade  routes. 
Similar  plan  for  the  other  countries. 
Observation  Work  (Carried  on  parallel  with  the  study  of  The  Continents) 
Meteorological. 

Prevailing  winds  of  summer  and  winter. 
Changes  in  weather  caused  by  passage  of  storms. 
Weather  map. 
Astronomical. 

Sun;    time  and  place  of  rising  and  setting,   meridian  altitude. 
Moon ;  position  and  shape  of  young  moon  and  changes  throughout 

the  month. 
Planets;  evening  and  morning  stars,  names  of  planets. 
Stars;  circumpolar  constellations,  other  groups. 
Local  Geographical  Features. 

Weathering,  formation  of  soils.     Gutter  streams. 
Industrial  conditions. 
Continents  (Continued). 
Eurasia. 

Position,  Relative  Size,  Outline. 

General  Description  (see  North  America). 

Physiographic  Regions. 

Eurasian    highland;     principal    mountain    ranges,    plateaus    of 

Mongolia,  Tibet,  Iran,  .Asia  Minor. 
Northern  lowland;   tundras,  forest  plains,  steppes. 
Plains  of  Manchuria;  China,  Indo-China,  India,  and  Mesopotamia. 
Plateaus  of  Arabia  and  the  Dekkan. 
Plateaus  and  plains  of  Europe. 
Countries  of  Eurasia. 

Location,  extent,  political  organization. 
Industrial  conditions. 
Cities  and  trade  routes. 
Africa. 

Position,  size,  shape,  coast  line. 
Relief,  climate,  drainage. 
Productions,  people,  countries. 
Australia  and  the  Island  Groups. 
Position,  size,  coast  line. 
Relief,  climate,  drainage. 
Productions,  people,  government. 


I  78  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  April 

The  work  of  the  eighth  year  consists  principally  in  a  study  of  the 
life  of  the  worid  in  its  geographical  relations.  The  discussions  depend 
to  a  great  degree  upon  current  events  and  cover  matters  of  local  interest 
and  happenings  of  national  and  foreign  importance.  The  work  includes 
the  recognition  of  the  geographical  significance  of  the  particular  event, 
a  discussion  of  the  conditions  leading  up  to  it  or  surrounding  it,  and  a 
study  of  the  })eople — their  characteristics,  government,  territory,  and 
international  relations. 

In  addition  to  the  study  of  the  life  of  the  world  the  work  of  the 
eighth  year  includes  something  of  astronomical  geography  and  physical 
geography. 

The  study  of  the  eartli  in  its  astronomical  relations  consists  in  a 
review  of  the  form,  size,  and  rotation  of  tlie  earth,  latitude  and  longitude, 
and  the  presentation  of  the  topic,  Light  Zones,  with  a  discussion  of  the 
causes  of  change  of  seasons  and  variation  in  the  length  of  day  and  night. 
The  topics  in  physical  geography  include  a  study  of  glacial  phenom- 
ena, wave  and  river  action,  and  soils.  The  character  of  the  teaching 
throughout  the  [previous  grades  has  been  such  that  the  pupils  have 
already  gained  considerable  information  about  these  phenomena  and 
the  aim  at  this  time  is  to  summarize  and  group  the  facts. 

The  outline  of  the  eighth  year's  work  is  as  follows: 
Life  of  the  World  in  its  (leographioal  Relations. 
Current  geogra])hical  events. 

Local,  New  lOngland,  national,  foreign. 
Geographical  conditions  affecting  the  event. 

People   concerned;    characteristics,   government,   territory,  inter- 
national relations;  nations. 
]\Ian;   races,  distribution,  advancement,  government,  religion. 
Industries  of  the  world;    importance,  development;    commercial 

relations,  trade  routes. 
Leading  nations;  relative  importance,  territorial  possessions,  char- 
acteristics of  ])eople,  political  institutions,  industrial  conditions, 
commercial  relations. 
Astronomical  (leography. 

Form,  size,  rotation  of  the  earth;  latitude  and  longitude. 
Revolution  of  the  earth,  light  zones,  change  of  seasons,  length  of  day 
and  night. 
Physical  Geography. 

Glacial  phenomena;  river  and  wave  action;  soils. 


K^ca^  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  179 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Plans  for  Home  Geography  Study. — The  imagination  must  ever 
l^lay  an  important  part  in  all  successful  work  in  geography  and  the 
^^^oncrete  material  furnished  by  our  home  surroundings  is  largely  that 
Xj^pon  which  we  must  rely  for  our  correct  images.     The  real  things,  the 
^^ctual  work  and  business  that  may  be  seen,  the  physical  conditions 
s^bout  us,  are  first  to  be  carefully  and  intelligently  seen  and  then  the 
i  magination  may  build  up  a  larger  world  of  real  things,  activities,  and 
'IDhysical  conditions,  all  somewhat  like  and  yet  unlike  those  with  which 
x^ve  are  aheady  familiar;  but  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  either  children 
^Dr  adults  have  really  observed  many  of  those  things  that  years  have 
KTiade  familiar.     Inaccurate,  vague  observation  is  neither  knowledge 
:«nor  a  safe  foundation  for  knowledge.     The  larger  understanding  of  the 
"%3^orld  must  begin  by  giving  the  children's  observation  very  definite 
^nd  conscious  aim.     Problems  must  be  clearly  conceived  by  the  teacher 
^nd  then  definitely  and    plainly  proposed    before   either  interest   or 
«idvantage  can  come  from  an  attempt  at  their  solution  by  the  children. 
Irrelevant  matter,  however  valuable  in  itself,  should  be  mercilessly 
-    ^excluded  from  consideration ;  first,  because  it  will  confuse  the  children's 
thought;  second,  the  one  who  is  tolerated  in  this  way  is  deceived  into 
thinking  he  is  contributing  something  valuable,  and  finally  it  tends  to 
:fix  a  vicious  habit  of  illogical  thinking,  so  ruinous  to  all  effective  work. 
The  knowledge  which  children  may  be  fairly  expected  to  gather 
t:hrough  well-directed  observations  will,   very  naturally,  group  itself 
»bout  the  common  foods  and  drinks,  the  fibers  used  for  clothing,  the 
tuilding  materials,  and  the  fuels,  with  something  about  transportation. 
The  children  can  easily  bring  to  the  schoolroom  samples  of  most  of 
'the  cereals,  of  coffee,  of  tea,  of  sugar,  and,  after  they  have  been  suffi- 
ciently studied,  these  samples  can  be  placed  in  boxes  or  bottles  of 
appropriate  size  and  form,  and  in  a  very  short  time  a  most  complete 
and  useful  cabinet  will  be  formed.     In  a  similar  way  can  the  children 
observe  fruits,  nuts,  :^  pices,  and  some  of  the  more  common  special  food 
preparations.     The  home,  or  the  nearest  grocery,  will  readily  furnish 
specimens  for  study,  and  much  more  satisfactory  work  can  be  done 
studying  specimens  in  the  schoolroom  than  in  the  home  or  the  grocery. 
A  discussion  of  the  common  meats  will  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  the  kind 
of  animal  that  furnishes  each  variety  and  some  of  the  more  marked 
characteristics  in  the  life  of  these  animals.     Nothing  should  be  sought 


I 


bceanso  it  is  iTtnarkablo  or  strange:  choose  rather  the  familiar  things 
ill  oriler  the  lielter  to  .see  their  great  vahjes,  and  let  the  novelty  of  the 
fiiscussion  ami  observation  come  frotii  the  more  accurate  and  broader 
knowledge  that  may  be  gainetl  by  properly  considering  those  things 
which  \hv  children  niay  have  ilioiight  iltey  kjiew  qnite  th<>r{nighly 
before.  No  more  valuable  lesson  ran  be  learned  by  the  (*hildren  than 
that  of  the  necessity  for  actuirate  knmvledge.  The  child  that  recognizes 
his  weakness  has  taken  the  first  stej)  towani  strength. 

Lot  it  never  he  forgotten  that  in  carrying  on  this  work  a  mass  olfl 
loose,    chaotic,    half-kntiwledge   which    the    chihlrenV   experience    has 
already  furnished  should  now  be  corrected  ami  made  tU-finitc.  and  thus 
become  a  most  valuable  fund  on  whirh  to  draw  in  all  future  work 

A  consideration  of  the  important  food  (>roducts  will  very  naturall 
leail  to  the  further  consideration  of  some  of  the  most  important  tnatte 
refjuire<l  for  their  production;    as  soils,  warmth,  rainfall,  methods 
planting,  cidtivatittn,  aiMi  harvesting.     The  further  fact  will  come  to 
the  kuowl**dge  of  the  chiklrcn  that  some  of  the  fr^oils  are  jrrodueed  in 
ovir  own  country  and  some  come  from  abroad,  antl  we  must  consider 
how  to  [nc^cut  as  clearly  as  pf^ssible  the  matter  of  location. 

Prolialily  no  Ijetter  way  of  traclting  children  the  nieaning  of  a  map, 
including  the  idea  of  relief,  has  been  devised  than  that  of  having  thenil 
take  a  binTs-eye  view  of  some  section  and  then  show  them  how  to 
make  a  sketch  map  representing  its  nuun  surface  features.  With  this 
will  necessarily  he  associated  some  definite  nieavSurement  that  shall 
const  it  tite  a  scale.  No  stich  excursi(»n  should  be  undcMiaken  until  the 
teacher  has  previously  taken  it  and  knows  just  what  can  anil  sliould 
be  seen^  and  has  also  instructeil  the  children  what  is  most  iniportant  to 
look  for.  Mere  gating  wilj  ntvt  be  seeing,  nor  will  it  necessarily  furnish 
any t lung  etUicative. 

8ome  observation  of  small  hills  and  valleys,  of  watersheds  and 
surface  rirainage  and  erosion,  in  convenient  nearness  to  the  school- 
house,  should  be  made  and  will  be  uinlerstood.  The  vahie  of  surface 
cultivation  in  retaiiung  nuasture  may  lie  <lemonsti*ated  by  taking  tw^oH 
boxes  of  the  same  size  and  fdhng  them  with  the  same  kiml  of  soih  then 
weighing  them,  and  letting  tlie  surface  of  one  be  left  nnlouched  and 
that  of  the  other  be  frequently  stin^efl  and  kept  well  pulverixed  and 
both  boxes  be  teste*!  by  weighing  from  time  to  time.  Thus  childreu 
can  determine  for  thetuselves  one  of  the  main  olgccts  in  the  surface] 
cultivation  of  various  crops. 

The  textile  fabrics  lend  tjiemselves  to  ^ch(K>lroom  observation  withi 


lUS 

nM 

n 
?r 

I 
I 


UEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


iSr 


g^M^^^^l  readiness.     If   rei[ue8te(l,    tho    ehildreii    will    brin^    samples    of 

dJiJfif  ^reii t  kimU  of  cotton,  of  woolen,  of  linen,  *^ind  of  silk  fabrics*     These 

^M^B^^M^^*  be  o}>sen-p(l  and  fompared  anil  fimilly  eul  Ui  a  unifMnn  size  and 

F* '^-•- -^^  ^f*d  ou  cardlmani  of  eonvenieiit  size  and  laid  away  for  future  iitie. 

^'^-i  *  *  J08t  always  an  inquiry  will  brin*;  In  tlie  schonlrooiii  I  he*  stalks  of 

^-^*-^^s^    with  the  seed  still  on,  stalks  of  vniUni  slmwinii:  tlie  fiber  in  the 

^*^-*^  1,  always  samples  uf  woul,  and  stunetiines  of  tlie  silk  cnetiorL      Flax 

^-■^^^J^  «cjtt«n  seed  may  be  planted  and  the  plards  nbservcMl  during  jLrrowth. 

^^^ ^^^M.tly  ever\'  nei^hbt^rhfKKl  eaii  furnisSi  a  s[)itiirmiy;-wiieel,  aiui  a  simple 

*^i   may  t>e  made  or  bouglit,  and  thus  may  be  jy;ained  a  very  intelligent 

^iV ledge  of  the  essentials  in  the  great  textile  industries. 

Tlie  building  matt^rials  are  always  at  hand  an<l  sam]>les   may  be 

vij^ht  into  the  scliuolrucun.     If  there  is  a  stime  quarry  neur»  visit  it, 

determining  what  it  is  desirable  tn  see:  the  sight  <rf  a  brickyard, 

**_   ^il^    faetoiT.  or  a  liniekihi  will  be  very  helpful  Vnjl  the  pruduels  of 

t.Vi.^se  may  always  l>e  ha«L     One  or  more  visits  to  a  htajse  in  process 

—  *"^ction  will  be  well.     Tliere  is  no  excuse  for  not  knowing  at  least  a 

^f  the  trees  that  are  s])e('ially  valued  for  their  hnnber.     Almost 

^^  neigld>orhood.  prairie  <jr  woodlaiuly  has  white  pine,  N<uway  fiine, 

^^       ^"^^  oak,  red  oak,  white  elm,  black  waliuit.  and  hi<*knrv  trees,  and 
1 1^1^ 


^  fundsh  a  very  large  part  <if  the  worhFs  luinl>er. 
i  Mn  studying  a  few  of  the  more  important  ijn>cesses  in  mainifut-turing, 
^o  see  but  one  simple  thing  at  a  time.     How  is  coal  matle  to  produce 
^^^^  ^rnr\*!     Hnw  is  steam  taken  from  a  boiler  to  a  steam  cylinder  au<l  made 


^^x^ve  a  jiistfUi?     lluw  can  a  belt  front  the  drive  wheel  ou  an  engine 
side  to  turn  a  line  shaft  in  a  factory?     Ifnw  can  water  I  urn  a  wheel? 


^^l^m  of  these*  (juestions  is  fundamental  in  tlie  nuinufacturing  world, 
^-  ^  ^*ach  by  itself  is  very  simple,  and  a  htth*  tibservatinii  by  the  children 
-^  ^^^T  singly  or  in  groups,  after  the  matter  luis  ))een  carefullv  talked 


tc^i 


w  will  !ea«l  to  a  correct  answer.  Visiting  a  large  nuinufacturing 
*^^  will  not  do  it.  In  fact,  such  visits  are  {)f  very  small  value  to 
^'"'^h  or  even  fiftli  grade  children. 

^^hildren  can  easily  be  led  to  see  that  each  farmer  spends  quite  an 
*     ^*^^ciable  amounl  of  time  hauling  his  snri>lus  prod ue is,  milk,  grain, 


'«^»^, 


stock,  to   the   most    convenient   shipping  ptnnt.     The   amount   of 


di^  -  ,.^^   and  energy  that  this  will  require  depends  largely  upon  the  eon- 
^^a  of  the  roads,  and  chiMreu  can  understand  that  a  well-rouudej 


^^^ 
^ 


^  Ihed  thai  has  good  surface  drainage  and  a  top  finish  of  gravel  or 
1^^         ^*^hed  stone  is  an  economical   investment   of  money.     It  is  easily 
^^^^^i-stood  that  to  liaul  a  ton  of  pro<luce  a  mile,  on  even  a  good  road. 


c(»sts  as  irnich  as  it  would  lu  sentl  the  ^anw  material  on  a  well^eqiiip] 
railn>a(l  twc^iity  niile^,  ur  by  ocean  steamer  two  hundred  nii!es,  and  th 
on  a  poor  road  the  expense  in  more  than  doubleiL  so  that  it  not  nnfre 
qnently  happens  that  it  costs  a  fanner  nnre  lo  haid  his  mirphis  pro<hi 
five  miles  from  his  home  to  the  nearest  railway  station  than  it  doe^  t 
ship  it  from  there  to  a  market  five  hundred  miles  away,  he,  in  th 
meantime,  placidly  etui  tinning  to  tlrivc  through  nuul   and  **  chuck  ^ 
holes  day  after  day,  putting  in  his  spare  time  comjilaining  of  'Miarc*' 
times"  and  the  exorbitant  freight  rates  charged  him  by  railroads  U^^ 
taking  his  products  to  market.     It  is  with  the  highways  tliat  we  shouW 
begin  to  stiuly  the  great  jirf^lilem  of  transportation. 

It  is  frequently  surprising  tliat  children  have  so  large  a  fund  ti 
loose  observation  on  the  transportation  problem.     It  simply  nee<ls  t 
be  made  more  definite  and  jiut  into  organized  form.     They  will  ha\''^' 
observed  wagons  very  differently  arranged  so  as  to  be  ada]>ted  to  haulin 
different  products,  as  gravel,  coal,  hay,  corn  in  the  ear,  flour,  unsaek 
wheat.     They  will  have  noticed  railrfwl  trains  having  cars  adapt eil  t- 
carn^ing  coal,  loose  grain,  furniture,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  poyltrA%  fnii^ 
butter,  mail,  passengers  asleep  and  passengers  awake,  passengers  th 
are  dining  and  passengers  that  are  smoking.     They  may  have  notice 
the  springs  under  the  passenger  cnaches,  and  may  know  something 
the  use  of  airbrakes  and  automatic  ciiuplings.     Help  the  children 
put  this  into  the  form  of  conscious  knowledge  by  learning  not  only  t 
use  of  each  of  the  tibservetl  forms,  but  alst>  to  understand  how  each 
ada[>ted  to  its  use. 

If  the  work  here  outlined  is  successfully  done,  the  chililren  will  ha 
a  very  fair  foundation  fi>r  that  larger  knowledge  which  we  hope  to  af^ 
them  in  gaining.  All  places  referred  to  should  be  locatetl  in  directir 
and  coniparative  distance  from  home,  and  the  glolx^s  and  maps  us 
at  every  step  to  help  in  this  matter  Have  all  wall  maps  hung  on  t 
north  wall,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  maps  in  books  placed  with  their  to 
actuallv  to  the  nr*rth.     Thr  (\ttholic  School  JtmrnttL 


The    Effective    Teaching    of   Geography.  —  There  is,   perhaps, 
subject  the  teaching  of  which  is  more  generally  <listasteful  than  g 
raphy,  and  few  subjects  which  are  so  ineffectively  taught.     I  say  **in< 
fectively"  advisedly,  thmigh  I  am,  of  course,  quite  aware  that  it 
possible  in  geography  to  obtain  nearly  always  fair  results  a.s  far 
examinations  are  eoncemed.     But  this  fact  is  anything  but  comforti 
when  one  reflects  that  it  is  simply  due  to  the  getting  up  of  the  text-boi^ 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


183 


on  the  part  of  the  pupils.     And  I  am  sure  I  shall  not  be  alone  in  main- 
taining that  mere  lists  of  names  and  isolated  facts  do  not  constitute 
geographical   knowledge.     True,   they   are  indispensable   adjuncts   of 
it,  but  that  is  all.     Pupils  need  vivid  and  accurate  knowledge  of  each 
country  they  study,  such  a  knowledge  as  will  enable  them  in  the  future  to 
talk  intelligently  of  other  lands.     The  error  in  the  teaching  of  geography 
lies  mainly,  I  think,  in  a  wrong  use  of  the  text-book.     The  text-book, 
which  should  be  simply  a  correct  outline  of  facts  and  a  comi^endium  of 
data  for  reference,  is  a  book  for  the  pupil,  not  the  teacher.      The 
teacher's  lesson  must  be  given  on  independent  lines,  and  should  be  the 
result  of  careful  reading.     Naturally,  a  power  of  graphic  description 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  of  the  greatest  value.     But  a  description 
which  is  merely  a  monotonous  reproduction  of  some  book  of  travel  will 
fail  to  a  certainty.     Description,  to  succeed  at  all,  and  to  make  a  real 
impression  on  the  pupils,  must  be  vivid  and  lifelike  as  if  the  teacher 
had  personally  visited  the  scenes  described.     Probably  some  will  object 
that  this  is  a  counsel  of  perfection  and  impossible  to  attain  generally. 
Perhaps  so,  but  I  am  certain  that  the  power  can  be  cultivated  even  by 
the  most  unimaginative  teacher.     And,  when  geography  is  taught  in 
the  graphic  manner  I  advocate,  the  educative  value  to  the  pupil  is 
^reat  indeed.     The  pupil  whose  interest  has  been  once  awakened  will 
read  up  descriptions  and  details  out  of  school.     To  take  a  few  examples 
a.t  random  :    there  are  few  pupils  who,  having  once  formed  a  picture 
of  the  Bad  Lands  in  the  Lower  Valley  of  the  Yellowstone  River,  or  of 
t,he  great  canyon  river,  the  Colorado,  or  of  the  wonderful  asphalt  lake 
in  Trinidad,  will  ever  wholly  lose  the  impression. 

Pictures,  to  be  pinned  on  the  notice-board,  of  the  places  mentioned 
^^re  of  the  greatest  help  to  the  teacher.  Generally  speaking,  the  pupils 
c^re  very  glad  to  bring  such  pictures  if  they  happen  to  possess  any. 
I  quite  foresee,  however,  that,  in  the  desire  to  be  graphic  and  interesting, 
^^x^curate  detail  may  be  overlooked.  Pupils  must  know  how  to  use 
'fclieir  maps,  be  trained  to  observe  always  its  scale,  and  to  give  when 
^*:^equired  the  distance  from  one  place  to  another  or  an  area,  approxi- 
^Kr"Kiately  only,  as  I  need  scarcely  add.  Positions  of  towns,  rivers,  etc., 
^r^aust  be  known  as  exactly  as  possible,  and  pupils  should  be  made  to 
^""^el  that  a  slight  misplacement,  which  means  in  reality  some  hundreds 
^^^^f  miles,  is  a  serious  error. 

As  to  actual  map  drawing,  this  has  to  do  with  facility  in  drawing 
^■^-ather  than  anything  else.  There  is  one  thing,  however,  which  is  most 
^faelpful  in  the  teaching  of  geography:  The  pupil  should  be  able  to 
^■*<5produce  from  memory  a  country  or  a  part  of  a  country  with  a  fair 


\ 


dfgret*  of  accuracy,  aiui,  above  all,  be  able  to  mark  town;^  and  rivers 
correctly.  Perfect  accuracy  of  outline  is  im attainable  except  for  the 
few,  and  should  most  certainly  not  be  insisted  on.  And,  indeed,  it  is 
not  really  of  great  imj)ortance.  Use  may  be  matle  occasiunally  of 
lantern-slides,  but  this  should  not  become  too  frequent,  or  the  geog^raphy 
lessiin  may  come  to  be  mgarded  as  amusentent  and  nothing  more. 

I  have  not  space  hi  this  letter  to  touch  on  the  teachin*:  of  physical 
geography  at  aD,  for  that  branch  is  important  enough  to  ekiim  a  sepa- 
rate consideration.  And,  indeed ,  there  i^  so  much  to  say  on  the  subject 
of  the  teachint!;  of  geography,  that  1  Viave  not  attempted  to  write  com- 
prehensively. I  have  u^erely  trietl  to  indicate  briefly  the  practical 
lines  on  wliich  my  own  teachinjc  f*f  the  suVjjeet  is  based. — The  School 
Worhl  Dcfomber.  VMl. 

The  Eastern  Shore  of  Virginia.  — Perhaps  few  of  the  tourists  on 
the  "Cape  Charles  route''  have  an  idea  what  an  important  strip  of 
our  eoimtry  they  are  rushing  through,  down  the  **  Eastern  Shore  "  sliced 
t>fT  by  Chesapeake  Bay  from  the  states  of  Maryland  and  Virginia, 

The  monotomms  succession  of  flat,  sandy  fields,  marshy  inlets,  and 
unpretending  railway  stations  hardly  tempts  the  eye  from  novel  and 
nevvs[japer,  or  arouses  more  exciting  emotions  than  the  through  pas- 
senger^s  nervousness  as  to  con riect ions  after  the  train's  unaccountable 
delay  at  some  little  nowhere-in-particular,  or  his  mild  amusement  at 
such  apparent  misnomers  in  his  time-talde  as  '' Fruitland,*'  *'Eden.'* 
and  **Bloomtown  ";  or  ''Only/'  whose  sole  visible  claim  to  uniqueness 
is  its  "Hotel  de  Fox,^'  suggesting  that  a  rival  Hotel  de  Rabbit  may  be 
just  out  of  sight  in  the  brier-patch. 

The  through  passenger  is  peril aps  unaware  that  to  this  sand  strip 
and  its  invading  tides  liis  city  table,  whether  set  for  him  in  Philadelphia 
or  New  York,  Boston,  San  Francisco,  or  say  London,  ha.s  long  been 
indehled  for  many  of  its  costly  luxuries;  fur  soft-shelled  cral)  and  caviare, 
quail  and  ptarmigan  and  reed-bird,  canvas-back  duck  ami  diamond- 
hack  terrai)in,  for  early  dainties  of  sea  and  shore,  orciiard  and  garden, 
too  numerous  to  catalogue. 

If  our  tourist  have  economic  as  well  as  gastronomic  tastes,  it  may 
interest  him  to  know  that  this  l>ackbone  railroad  and  its  branches 
netting  with  nerve  force  the  peninsula,  have  carried  northward  in  one 
year  over  ten  thousand  carloads  of  peaches  and  small  fruits,  as  many 
more  being  shipi>ed  by  boat  or  preserved  in  the  canneries  and  evaporating 
I  (hints;  that  ten  million  bushels  of  oysters  are  taken  yearly,  giving 
enq^loyment  to  over  thirty  thousand  hantls:  and  that  widle  the  northern 


J 


half  of  the  two-hiindreU-mile  strip  is  a  fine  wheat  and  grass  growing 
region,  figs  and  pomegranates  cunie  to  perfection  at  its  southern  extrem- 
ity. To  enjoy  these  kifuUy  fruits  t»f  the  earth  and  sea,  six  million  fuu- 
suniers  %vait  within  twenty  hours*  distance  from  the  lowest  point  of 
the  jieninsula.  and  wheel  and  keel  bring  its  farmers,  fniit  raisers,  and 
fisheruieu  into  quick  cuntact  with  the  markets  of  the  world.  VV^-U  may 
this  narrow  sand  strip  be  called  the  Land  of  the  Epicure. — 77^*  Southern 
Workman  f  Ja^uar>^  1904. 


I 


An  Interesting  Atmospheric  Phenomenon,  —Recent  newspaper 
announcements  of  an  active  volcano  in  Kentucky  *M>ee<uninf!:  quite 
ulurniing/'  etc.,  recall  a  familiar  |iheni>meuon  which  is  srunelimes  most 
impressive  and  deceptive  in  its  appearance,  (  hi  January  IM.  a  party 
of  geologists  visited  the  ruice  famous  Pilot  Knnl>  in  Missouri.  On 
nearing  the  surmnit,  %vhich  is  covered  with  great  angular  rock  fragHietits. 
many  of  the  cracks  seemed  to  be  emitting  steam  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. The  amount  of  vafHir  was  comparable  to  that  which  might 
}iave  risen  from  a  half-doxen  f>ans  ol'  water  boiling  vigorously  in  as 
many  different  cracks.  The  whf>le  appearance  was  so  vividly  vol- 
canic as  to  miggest  at  onee  the  origins  of  most  of  the  sensational  stories 
about  v^olcanic  eruptions  in  the  non- volcanic  States,  Careful  observa- 
tion disclosed  the  following  circumstances:  The  atmosphere  was  cold 
and  dry;  the  temperature  of  the  previous  niglit  was  close  to  zeiv^  F. 
The  observation  wa.s  matle  at  1  o'clock  p.  m.,  while  the  temperature 
was  still  t>elow  the  freezing  point,  but  the  sun  was  shining  brightly,  as 
it  hatl  been  doing  for  some  hours.  To  some  of  the  vertical  faces  uf  the 
rocks,  snow  from  a  recent  .storm  was  still  adhering.  On  these  faces, 
exposed  to  the  bright  sun,  both  melting  and  evaporation  were  active. 
Convectional  currents  were  indticed  b}-  the  same  conditions,  but  the 
vapor  upon  rising  was  soon  partially  condensed  in  the  cold  surrounding 
air.  Current*  other  than  vertical,  among  the  angular  blocks,  caused 
the  %^aj>or  to  be  ilrawn  into  and  to  issue  from  crevices  not  illuminated 
by  the  sun,  and  which  contained  no  apfiareut  source  of  the  vapor, 
thus  adding  to  the  deception.  Ess.^ntially  similar  conditions  and 
phenomena  are  conunon  at  f»rdtnarv  le%Tls  where  they  excite  no  com- 
ment. They  are  i|oul>tlcss  mure  comtiion,  however,  on  high,  rocky 
peaks,  where  the  bright  sunshine  is  qulXe  as  intense  as  on  the  plains 
below,  and  the  air  in  cahii  weather  may  be  mtich  colder.  Here  are  the 
best  Ciinditions  for  great  evajioration  into  ati  atmosphere  wiiose  dew 
point  is  far  too  low  to  allow  it  to  retain  all  the  moisture  thus  supjdied. 
Furthermore  the  conditiotis  of  convection   on   the   fiillside  cause  an 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


187 


The  English  Mile  Compared  with  Other  European  Measures. — 

:Ejiglish  Stat.  Milel.OOO  0.867    1.609  0.217    1.503  0.212  0.289  0.142  0.151  0.213  0.335 
:^5nglishGeog.Milel.l50  1.000    1.855  0.250    1.738  0.245  0.333  0.164  0.169  0.246  0.386 

JKUometer 0.621  0.540    1.000  0.135    0.937  0.132  0.180  0.088  0.094  0.133  0.208 

<3erman  Geog.  Ml.4.610  4.000  7.420  1.000  6.953  0.978  1.333  0.657  0.694  0.9851.543 
Xlussian  Veret  . .  .0.663  0.575  1.067  0.144  1.000  0.141  0.192  0.094  0.100  0.142  0.222 
>\ustrian  Mile   ...4.714  4.089    7.586  1.022    7.112  1.000  1.363  0.672  0.7101.006  1.578 

Dutch  Ure 3.458  3.000    5.565  0.750    5.215  0.734  1.000  0.493  0.520  0.738  1.157 

IV'orwegian  Mile.  .7.021  6.091  11. '299  1.523  10.589  1.489  2.035  1.000  1.057  1.499  2.350 
Swedish  MUe  .  . .  .6.644  5.764  10.692  1.441  10.019  1.409  1.921  0.948  1.000  1.419  2.224 

X>anish  Mile 4.682  4.062    7.536  1.016    7.078  0.994  1.354  0.667  0.705  1.000  1.567 

Swiss  Stunde.  .  .  .  2.987  2.592    4.808  0.648    4.505  0.634  0.864  0.425  0.449  0.638  1.000 

Decisions  of  the  U.  S.   Board  on  Geographic  Names;  Approved 
January  6,  1904. — 

Allegrippis;   ridge  in  Huntingdon  County,  Pa.     (Not  Allegrippes  nor 

Allegripus.) 
IBeckley;    pond  in  town  of  Norfolk,  Litchfield  County,  Conn.     (Not 

Blakley  nor  Blakeley.) 
Brannock;   bay,  Dorchester  County,  Md.     (Not  Bronnack,  Brannack, 

nor  Brannocks.) 
Bundcin;  island,  Hingham  Bay,  town  of  Hull,  Plymouth  County,  Mass. 

(Not  Bumpkin.) 
Celoron;    P.  O.  and  R.  R.  station,  Chautauqua  County,  N.  Y.     (Not 

Celeron.) 
Cienega   del   Gabilan;    land   grant,   San   Benito   County,   Cal.     (Not 

Sienega  del  Gabilan.) 
Dorseys;  creek  on  north  side  of  Annapolis,  Anne  Arundel  County,  Md. 

(Not  Graveyard,  Dorsey,  nor  College.) 
Highland;  lake  in  town  of  Winchester,  Litchfield  County,  Conn.     (Not 

Long.) 
Inchwagh;    lake  in  Livingston  County,   Mich.     (Not  Nitchwage  nor 

Michuaga.) 
Lemon  Fair;  river,  Addison  County,  \i.     (Not  Lemonfair  nor  Lemon- 
fare.) 
Morgan  River;    stream  in  Barkhampst<?d,  Litchfield  County,  Conn. 

(Not  Mohawk  Brook.) 
Rocky  Mount;   P.  ().,  town,  and  township  in  Edgecombe  County,  and 

town  and  township  in  Nash  County,  N.  C.     (Not  Rockymount.) 
Rosbys  Rock;  P.  O.  and  R.  R.  station,  Marshall  County,  W.  Ya.    (Not 

Rosbysrock  nor  Rosbbys  Rock.) 


1 88 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


April 


SoUers;  R.  K.  station,  and  point  in  Patapsco  River,  Baltimore  County, 

Mil.     (Not  Sollars  nor  Soller.) 
Spa;    creek  on  south  side  of  Annapolis,  Anne  Annidel  County,  Md. 

(Not  Spaw  nor  Spat.) 
Starvout;  P.  O.,  settlement,  and  creek,  Douglas  County,  Oregon.    (Not 

Starveout  nor  Starve  Out.) 

From  Paris  to  Peking  by  Rail. — According  to  the  Boersen  Courier, 
a  nuvting  was  nn-ently  held  in  \'ienna  to  arrange  for  direct  ser^'ice 
Ix^tweiMi  Western  Eurojx^  and  Peking.  China.  The  meeting  was 
attemled  by  repn\sentatives  of  Russian.  English.  French,  Bulgarian, 
Dutch,  and  Oerman  railnnuls.  It  was  decided  to  run  a  train  de  luxe 
(nm\  Lomlon  and  Paris  via  Berlin  and  Warsaw  to  the  Chinese  capital, 
beginning  May.  IIHU.  The  Russian  Oovernment  will  arrange  to  sini- 
pHfy  passport  and  customs  n\siulations  t\>r  through  passengers  to  min- 
imize delays  anil  formalities.  It  is  the  pur^x^se  of  those  participating 
in  this  movement  to  make  it  possible  for  pass^Migers  to  book  in  London 
or  Paris  to  China  without  change.  Another  interesting  item  connected 
with  the  arnuigoments  is  the  issuing  of  a  nnmd-trip  ticket,  first  class, 
for  $204.  which  permits  the  tniveler  to  make  the  trip  both  ways  by 
rail  or  one  way  by  niil  and  the  other  by  water.  The  trip  by  rail  is  to 
Ix^  maile  in  seventtvu  ilays.  The  tickets  an^  to  Ix^  juhhI  on  the  ships  of 
all  companies  voyairini:  arv»i;i\d  A>ia.  anvl  ivrmissiou  is  to  be  granteil 
to  stop  otY  at  any  iHMt  at  whicb.  rho  --iup  calls,  with  the  privilege  of 
taking  another  ship.     (  .>»i,v...\!'*  fx- :^-:<.  Jai.v.ary.  \\H^A. 


Snow  Crystals.  Sr.vnv  iTy>:a;s  an^  viiv:  it\i  into  two  great  classes 
tluv^^  coiiimiunr  ir.  for:u  ar.d  tl.oM^  v^:  a  tai^r.Iar  form.  The  forms  varv 
avvoTXii!!::  to  :!:o  wi'.ui.  ::.o  hei; 
amou!\:  v>:  water  i::  tl.o  air.  o: 


^:"  tl.e  cl-n;  i<,  the  degnx*  of  cold,  the 
Cry<:aN  :"  "riiuxi  in  cold  weather  or 
ar  or  -  *.:  i  ta'^v.lar.     Those  fonned 


in  r.uvionr.t^  woa:':.ev  ar.vi  1:^1. :  \v.::.-<  or  i:.  !.>w  c:o-.;ds  are  apt  to  have 
>o  V  :  :i  tVa*-' er\   :yv<       M:\t>«:  forms  grow  partly 


frail  br^it^oV.o^  :r. 


0^^^ 


EDITORIAL  189 


^^^     low  and  partly  in  high  clouds.      High  winds  are  given  broken  and 
^^"■"e^gular  forms,  and  much  moisture  the  very  granular  crystals. 

The  most  common  forms  outlined  within  the  nuclear  or  central 

T>ositions  of  the  crystals  are  a  simple  star  of  six  rays,  a  solid  hexagon, 

^^'^d  a  circle. 


EDITORIAL 

^S  GEOGRAPHY  RECEIVING  SUFFICIENT  ATTENTION  IN  ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS  ? 

THE  progress  of  the  last  decade  in  elementary  school  geography 
work,  evidenced  as  it  is  by  better  methods  of  presentation, 
improved  texts,  more  logical  courses  of  study,  more  inquiring 
'^^achers,  and  an  enlivened  public  opinion,  is  encouraging  and  most 
X^leasing.  Is  it  not  possible,  however,  that  in  our  satisfaction  at  progress, 
^Xe  have  neglected  one  important  element,  namely,  the  time  schedule  in 
^  he  curriculum? 

How  can  thought  work  be  developed  and  discipline  given,  even  under 
ti.he  most  favorable  conditions  of  equipment,  unless  there  is  adequate 
^-ime  for  such  work  ?  Memoriter  work  may  be  secured  through  cramming, 
V:)ut  the  emphasis  of  the  '^causal  notion"  rightfully  decreases,  though 
i  t  does  not  and  should  not  eliminate,  memoriter  work.  Here  is  the 
tiheoretical  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new. 

In  fact,  however,  the  new  in  many  cases  is,  and  under  the  circum- 
s^tances  must  be,  memoriter  work,  because  the  time  allowance  for 
**  covering ''  a  certain  ground  permits  of  no  other  result.  What  training, 
for  instance,  can  come  from  120  minutes  devoted  to  the  following  series 
of  topics  proposed  for  sixth  grade  work? 

Northern  Africa.  Under  control  of  various  nations.  Political  divi- 
sions. Sahara — French;  small  section  Spanish;  area;  surface;  means 
of  travel. 

Egypt  (and  neighboring  British  territory).  The  Nile;  its  impor- 
tance; agriculture.  People;  progress  due  to  British  direction.  Suez 
Canal;   agreement  among  nations  concerning  it.     Cities. 

The  Barbary  States.  Location — climate;  products;  capitals.  Trip- 
oli (Turkish),  Tunis  and  Algeria  (French),  Morocco  (independent). 
Conditions  in  Morocco  with  regard  to  progress. 

Southern  Africa.  Comparison  with  Northern  Africa.  Dutch  settle- 
ment at  Cape  Colony.     Emigration  to  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State ; 


I  go 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


April 


I 


discovery  of  gold;  Hovr  war;  result.  Industries,  pnxluct^j,  climate. 
Mineral  wealth  (diamonds).  Commerce  and  cities.  I'nrtiignese  and 
German  possessions,  Comimre  Southern  Africa  with  Southern  South 
America  in  products  and  inipnrtauce. 

Not  unly  is  there  a  tt-ndency  to  cruwd  individual  grades,  but  the 
total  amount  of  time  devoted  to  i:;en^rai»hy  in  the  elementar}^  schools 
as  a  whole  is  often  gn^sslv,  mie  nnglit  suy  grotes(|uely,  inadetiuate. 

In  the  cfnii-se  of  study  adopter!  for  Greater  New  York  last  year, 
English,  History,  Matiiematics,  and  Gen^rat>hy  together  are  given  less 
than  one-half  (»f  the  total  school  time  in  the  eight  gra<les.  Geograjihy 
receives  less  tlian  4  ]>er  cent  of  the  total  weekly  time  scale  and  has  five 
mitmtes  nn^re  time  a  week  than  has  histi^ry.  The  work  of  geography 
is  concentiiited  in  the  fuurth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  graiies,  though 
it  shoulrl  he  noteil  that  there  is  a  ver\^  small  amount  of  geographical 
nature  sttnly  in  the  second  and  third  gnuies, 

Sueh  a  condition  of  affairs  in  refeiTUce  Xo  a  sidiject  which  has  long 
been  and  still  is  one  of  the  four  fimdamental  subjects  in  the  cnrriculiuu 
is  undouhtedly  an  extrenu^  eiise.  It  is  not,  however,  so  extreme  as  to 
be  particularly  individual,  ami  herein  lies  the  danger.  We  are  so  accus- 
tomed to  seeing  the  newer  subjects  almost  replacing  the  old  that  we  are 
not  surprised  at  ativ  allot nuMit  of  time.  We  ([uietly  ac([iiiesce  and 
accept  what  we  do  not  approve,  jierhaps  unc<msciously  taking  comfort 
in  the  thought  that  the  pendulum  must  turn  back  in  its  course  before 
long,  and  that  there  are  better  times  conung. 

Surely  ph\^sical  training,  miture  study,  including  elementarv  science, 
hand-work,  and  music,  have  a  right  in  a  place  in  the  curriculum,  and 
have  ]>roved  their  extreme  value  as  factors  in  elenifutaty  education. 
It  is  obvious  that  tf>  introduce  the  new  nuist  mean  a  reduction  of  the 
time  to  be  giveti  to  the  old.  Have  we  gone  too  far  in  this  reduction? 
Has  any  one  of  these  subjects  as  yet  proved  its  right  to  have  more  time 
thjin  either  history  or  gecjgraphy?  Are  our  cnrrirula  synnnetrieal  or 
lopsided?  Are  we  sacrificing  the  essential  h>r  the  relatively  less  valu- 
able? Does  geography  deserve  more  or  less  time  tlian  it  now  receives? 
W^e  think  it  deserves  m<n*e,antl  believe  Ihat  if  the  geography  specialists 
are  as  insistent  in  their  demands  as  are  the  st>ecialists  in  the  newer  sul>- 
jects,  geography  will  hold  its  own  from  now  <m  and  jjerhaps  regain  some 
of  its  lost  prestige.  J.et  us  work  toward  this  end,  not  in  the  interests  of 
the  subject,  but  pritnaiily  l^ecause  we  believe  that  geography  has  proved 
its  vahie  and  that  the  best  interests  of  the  children  in  our  schools  require 
more  and  belter  geography. 


tC^cmmercial   Geography.     By  Jacques  \\\  Uedway.    Size,  6x3f  inches. 
^'Mii    ^^jui  406.    Clias,  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York,  1903. 

^^eclway*9  Comtnercial  Geogrnphy  is  the  latest  addition  to  the  rapidly  growing 
»*^*    of  r^ommercial  gt^ographies  written  hy  well-known  Arneriean  authors. 

T^Ji^    -iohuiie    before   lis   contains  thirty -four  c'h:i]>ters.     It  is,  like  most  of  the 

»ll3-   published  texts  on  coiinnerrial  geography,  mpable  of  divij^ion  into  four 

There  is,  first,  a  general  diiicuasion  of  eonmierce  of  87  pages,  next  a  desorip- 

<^f  the   commodities   of  trade   covering    122   pagcjs,  iheti   an  at'ronnt  of  the 


REVIEWS 


ixmd 


-les  of  the  rnited  States  of  51  pages,  und  finally  a  review  of  tin?  produt^tive 


*"^^^^  mries  of  the  remainder  of  the  world  covering  i:i7  priges. 
j^j  ^r*X:i.^.  first-  seven  chapters  embra-fe  iislroduclory  elements  on  t:onnnerce,  a  brief 

^  ^-^  *■">?"  of  eonmieree,  a  diBcusftion  of  the  topographic  and  climatic  control  of  com- 

£^^^  ^^^  ^  a  description  of  the  means  of  transportation »  and  an  enumeration  of  the 
^1^^  '^^^M^^  goveniing  the  location  of  citiei*.  All  of  these  chapters  are  well  done  except 
^^  *^^**^t,  entitled  "Genend  Principles/^  which,  to  the  rtnicwer^s  mind,  is  too  simple 

j^.  '^^^i:*©  indefinite.     The  chi^HsiHcation  of  industries  adopted  here  does  not  include 

-•^».^^  cQUiiijon  indnstrie8  later  mentioned  and  distinctions  are  not  jdwavs  clearly 
**-     The  climatic  and  topographic  control  of    connnerco  is  well  discussed,  as 
Ijso  ocean  and  inland  navigation  and  tranj^jKirtalion  by  rail.     The  chapter  on 
■^^^^^^   in    the   location    of   eiiies  and  towns  is  interesting,   but  not  sufficiently 
^^^ive.     All  our  American  commercial  geographies  have  thus  far  failed  to  give  the 
^.^^        X>^T  emphasis  to  the  principle's  of  economics  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  coni- 
**^^i»l  geography.     For  instance,  Btune  idea  of  the  function  of  a  market  and  of  the 
c>nwof  urban  conditions  through  tiic  application  of  the  principle  of  production 
,^^^     **►  large  scale  might  have  prefaced  the  dJ.'^cussion  of  the  general  relation  of  cities 
*  ^^dustrial  society  to  elucidate  the  8nbje<'t;  and,  in  the  further  development  of 

»     ^He  complex  way  in  which  conimerciaJ  forces  enforce  physical  conditions*  and 
^Ulate   the   frc^fttienfe    and   distribution   of  cities  might   have   been   attempted, 
■-*t>lying,  for  example,  the  principles  of  railway  transportation  so  coin|>{ictly  stated 
^^*^  Pages  m,  70,  and  7L 

Tlie  description  of  the  tnimmodities  of  trade  occypie*  nine  chapters,  and  is,  as 

**tjle,  well  done.    This  is  a  kind  of  material  which  it  is  hard  to  present  except  in  a 

^^logue  fonn,  and  which  yet  mu><t  be  &o  iirninged  and    treated   that    the   vital 

^lations  in  trade  may  be  constantly  brought  out.     To  give  too  much  is  to  make  the 

^^t   mouotonons  ;    to  give  too  little  is  to  make  it    iji valuable.      Between  these 

^  -^tremes  is  the  happy  mean  :is  to   (juantity  which  the  author   has  very    closely 

**^r>pr^jached. 

The  remainder  of  the  l>ook  i.^  devoted  to  the  regional  commercial  geography  oi 

*^€  vrorld.     The  reviewer  do^-a  not  believe  that  progress  in  an  understanding  of  the 

r*»iueip!es  of  commercial  geography,  nor  effective  coordination  in  the  science  can 

^  brought  about  by   such  a  representation  of  the  facts  of  the  subject.     As  yet, 

iowever.few  authors  in  this  field  have  succeetleil  in  departing  fur  from  this  regional 

'"^eatnient,  inherited  from  the  elementary  school   texts  of  to-tlay,  and  pa^sscd  down 

^^*  tiicni  from  the  "grammars"  of  nearly  two  centuries  ago. 


The  aiubor  hus  presented  his  fat'ts  with  a  gcKid  distribution  of  spafc.so  timl  th« 
relative   iiiiporlaiire  of  fomgri  counlries  is  imiirated  l»y  the  attention  thev  reitive 

The  Ixjok  is  typographirally  pipjisiiig,  and  is  well  printeiL  It  has  in  any  features 
whirh  make  it  s^wni  les5  forhiiiding  than  f^oinc  l)ooks  on  the  same  .^snhjert.  It  is  H 
rival  and  not  a  hU|XTior  to  its  colleajeuea  in  the  held  of  romniercial  geography,  nnd 
hen  re  does  not  represent  the  f>iogrfBi?  that  every  new  t)0€k  in  any  field  shoulcl 
mark.  E.  D,  J. 


NEWS  NOTES 

All  interested  arc'  reminded  again  that  suggjesticms  for  the  Etliiea-j 
tional  Proo:ram  n(  tiie  Eighth  Internationa!  (Seograpliic  Congress  should 
be  sent  to  the  senior  editor  of  the  Joiknal  at  the  earhest  possible  date 

Prof,  D.  C.  Ridgleyj  fornterly  jinneipal  of  a  grammar  sehool  in 
Chicago,  has  )>eon  irjade  head  of  the  Department  of  Cieography  at  the 
Illinois  State  Normal  University.  Normal.  111.  Professor  Ridgley  goes 
to  his  new  jiosition  tuialified  lx)th  by  training  and  experienee  to  placi 
tfie  work  of  geography  on  a  high  plotie. 


Educational    Papers  of  the     International    Congress     of     Geog;' 
raphy. — The   <  )etober   and    Novend)er   ntimljers   of  the    Jouhnal   o] 
(iKototAPlty   will  eontain   the  most   important   papers  on   Kdiieational 
Gec>graphy  to  be  read  before  the  International  Congress  of  Geography 
to  he  held  in  Washington,  1>.  i\,  HK)4.  f] 

Mr.  Robert  M.  Brown,  formerly  instruetcjr  in  physiography  at  the? 
High  SehooL  New  Hedford.  Mass.,  has  l^een  appointed  as  instruetor  i 
geography  at  the  Normal  Schord,  Wnreester^  Mass,     Mr.   Browm  wi 
be  known  to  the  readers  of  the  Journai.  as  an  author  of  several  vahiabli 
papers.     Other  |mpers  of  a  similar  nattire  may  be  expeete<l  from  bt 
in  the  near  future. 

The  Sea  of  Azov, — The  daily  papers  reporteil  in  the  middle  o| 
December  that  the  Sea  of  Azov  hail  snchlenly  receded,  exposing  th6 
bed  for  several  miles  oil  shore.  \'essels  were  left  high  and  dr)'  anc 
the  sand  was  thrown  ashore,  eattsing  great  (ianiage.  The  shore  of  the 
sea  has  very  gentle  slof>es,  and  thus  a  slight  depression  of  the  sea  floon 
or  a  strong  wind  whieh  r*nuld  hr^ld  the  water  back  woidd  cause  a  large 
area  to  be  exposed,  Tfie  greatest  reeessiou  wns  reported  from  Tagan- 
rog, one  of  the  important  ports  of  the  Russian  Empire,  because  i 
proximity  to  the  wheat  fiehls. 


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it.     It  i-i  liberally  patronired  by  both' county  and  city  supcrin- 

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'  ---ive  educational  journals  published. 

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take  effect.  Subscribers  who  fail  to  give  notice  of  change  are  responsible  for  pay- 
ment for  all  copies  sent  until  notice  is  received.  The  postoflfices  do  not  forward  sec- 
ond-class mail  matter.  Subscribers  who  do  not  observe  this  rule  will  not  be  sent 
duplicate  copies. 

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Do  not  ask  the  publisher  to  discontinue  your  subscription  without  paying  all 
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How  to  Remit  — Remittances  should  be  sent  by  Check,  Draft  on  Chicago,  Express 
Order,  or  Money  Order,  i)ayable  to  order  of  The  Journal  of  Geography.  Cash 
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Letters  should  be  addres.sed  : 

THE    JOURNAL    OF    GEOGRAPHY 

Room  560,  x6o  Adams  St.,  Chicago,  Illinois 


1900  CENSUS  COMPLETC 

List  of  C<rantie»  cf  ererr  S:*?*-  iftvir.ic  IVp«'4*::%>n  «n*l  l«*Scv  lo  t  ^w^tuMt  ow  M4^i^ 
t-!si  of  Fo«i  Offices  is  :i:e  iTs-.^ei  Suiies.  «n*S  IVV"'**'*^'^  *Nt  r\v»\  v''.tv»  lV>*w»  Vt'i'iAj^v, 

Onrivaled  Atlas 


OF  THE  WORLD 


43  paires  of 
Descriptive 

Matter 

relating  to 

Physical 

Features, 

Climate, 

History,  Area, 

Population, 

Manufactures, 

Education, 

Railways, 

Legal 

Holidays, 

etc. 


The  Census  List 
gives  Names 

and  Population 

of  over  70,000 

places 


The  Cost  of 
Securing  and 

Compiling  this 
Information 
amoanted  to 

several  Millions 
of  Dollars 


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NhiiwlMi  all 

Kiiii»l||i( 

CmiiiHiIi'*, 

Out  Niiw 

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41 

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\\    ILl  t  -  IH  1,  n'>N    fKiiSl    '    JJi'MK    iJLOLa<Ai'HV 


Home  Geography  an 
World  Relations 


By  RICHARD  ELWOOD  DODGE 


Pro/esser  of  G^jp^apJht,  Tea. 


-J  Vnhtrnty^t  Am*  York  Ci/y, 
fkor  0/  '*A  Reader  tm 


Beiog  Bf»ok  I.  of  DODGES  GEOGRAPHY  BY  GRADES. 

Published  March  i*  19114, 

Illustrated  with  roo  half- tone  illustrations,  6  text  m^tps,  8  diagrams,  and  7 

maps  in  colors.     Cloth,  square  8  vo.  (S  x  u>  inches),  pp.  71  +  V.     S5  cents* 

TO  FOLLOW 

BooXf    If*   Elements  of  Continental  Ceographp (nearly  frndy)    •  55c, 

%ook  III,    Principles  of  Geography 06c, 

fiooJt/F.    Comparatit^e  Geographic  of  the  Continents      .     ,  (fQc, 

RAND,   McNALLY  &  COMPANY.  Chicago  mnd  New  York 


FiG,  26,    A  view  of  mountains  and  highland  xtaiUys  with  a  mount  am  rangt  and 

peak  in  the  distance. 


AN    iLLLSrk\UoN    \  kMii     '  iit'MH  <   Lut ,RAl  H V    *   To   ILLL'STRATE  THE   SLRFACE  OF  THE   LAXQ 


PUBLISHED    MARCH    1,    1904 


Dodge's 
B^lementary  Geography 

By  RICHARD  ELWOOD  DODGE 

Pr&fe4S&r  ef  Gi^j^riipky^  Teaiihtr^  ColU^^,  Volumbia  f/ttfersi/y^  Aeu>   i'ork  City  ; 

i^e-editijr  &/  ih^  J^Hrnai  &/  G^tij^rtiphy :  saifior  ^f'-'-A  Reader  in 

Pftyficai  Ct&^rmp/ty  f^r  Btg-mHers^"  eic. 

Consisting  of 

Vart  I 
Home  Geography 

Showing  tbe  relation  of  the  individual  pupil  to  )i\^  own  countrj'',  empha- 
sising thereby  the  interdependence  of  people  com- 
mercially and  industrially  ;   and 

Vart  II 
World  Relations  and  the  Continents 

Treating  of  those  factors  ueLussary  to  an   undei'Standing  of  the  pupil's 
relation  to  the  world  as  a  whole. 

Wi'ik  jiS  iliu  si  rations  in  hnif-iotte^s  ditigrams,  lo  Uxi  maps^ 

trfni  4ji  maps  in  to/tfrs. 

Ci&tA^  square  St'ck  iS.t  lo  inchis),  ^j/  p^t^i^s.     75  centj, 

RE.ADY    SOON 

DODGE'S  ADVANCED  GEOGRATHY 

Before  adopting  old   bfxiks  SICIC  THESE  which  are  up  to -date. 

RAND,  McNALLY  &  COMPANY 

Chicago       Neu*  York 


Fiii,  113,     A  i:apt\  peninsula^  and  isthmus.      This  is  a  characierisiic  M  i*/ 

AVi£/  Eft  gland  shur^. 


AN  ILLUSTRATION  FROM  "ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY." 


Geography  is  the  exact 
and  organized  knowl- 
edge of  the  distribiition 
of  phenomena  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  cul- 
minating in  the  inter- 
action of  7nan  with  his 
teri'esti'ial  environment 

HUCni   ROBERT  MILL 


1 


The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  MAY,  1904  No.  5 

SUMMER  COURSES  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

THE  announcements  of  summer  courses  for  1904  sent  out  by  our 
leading  universities  and  normal  schools  contain  the  welcome 
evidence  that  geography  will  again  receive,  as  it  did  last  year, 
^  very  generous  allowance  of  time  and  attention.     This  is  especially 
"true  at  the  University  of  Chicago  and  at  Columbia  University,  where 
xmusually  attractive  opportunities  for  geographical  studies  and  investi- 
gations will  be  offered,  and  at  Cornell  University,  where  last  year's 
successful  summer  school  of  geography  will  be  repeated  under  still 
more  favorable  conditions  by  the  same  strong  corps  of  well-known 
instructors  and  geographers.     So  many  and  such  valuable  courses  are 
announced   by   the«e   and   other  educational   institutions   that  every 
«tudent  and  teacher  of  geography  will  be  able  to  find  interesting  and 
profitable  work  in  his  chosen  field.     It  is  believed  that  many  readers 
of  the  Journal  are  planning  to  do  such  work  this  summer,  and  it  is 
for  their  convenience  that  the  Editors  have  prepared  the  following 
brief  summary  of  the  principal  courses  in  geography  and  allied  subjects. 

COURSES   IN    GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.  The  Principles  of  Geog- 
raphy.    Mr.  L.  H.  Wood. 

A  study  of  the  general  principles  underlying  the  distribution  of 
man  and  the  development  of  human  culture,  and  a  special  study  of 
type  regions  on  the  basis  of  the  principles  developed.     June  IS-July  27. 

Columbia  University,  New  York  City.  General  Geography,  Miss 
Clara  B.  ICirchwey. 

This  course  is  especially  planned  for  teachers  of  nature  study  and 
geography  in  elementary  schools,  and  covers  the  most  difficult  topics 
ordinarily  presented  in  the  introduction  to  a  school  geography.  Lec- 
tures, laboratory  work,  and  collateral  reading.  Sixty  hours.  July  6- 
August  17. 

Copyright y  tgo4^  by  E.  M.  Lehnerts 


194  '^"^  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 

Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.  General  Geography.  Mr. 
Henry  T.  Burr,  assisted  by  Mr.  Frederick  M.  Wilder. 

A  course  designed  primarily  for  teachers  of  geography  in  grammar 
and  high  schools.  The  subjects  treated  in  the  lectures  and  illustrated 
in  the  laborator>'  and  field  work  will  include:  Physical  features  of  the 
lands;  classification  of  land  fomis;  the  earth  as  a  globe;  meteorology; 
oceanography;  geographical  controls  of  the  distribution  of  plants 
and  animals;  and  geographical  factors  in  the  histor>'  of  man.  July  5- 
August  12. 

Drake  University,  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  General  Geography,  Pro- 
fessor E.  M.  Lehnerts. 

A  course  planned  for  stutlents  and  teachers  desiring  to  review  the 
general  principles  and  facts  of  geography:  (1)  The  fundamental  facts 
and  principles  of  mathematical  and  physical  geography  and  their  relation 
to  the  distribution  of  life  and  the  industries  of  man;  (2)  a  detailed 
study  of  the  western  hemisphere,  with  special  emphasis  on  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  United  States;  (3)  the  continents  and  countries  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere  and  their  conmiercial  relations  with  the  Unit^ 
States.  Lectures,  recitations,  and  laboratory  work.  June  20- 
July  29. 

The  School  of  Education,  The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 
111.  Fundamental  Corieepts  in  Geography.  Associate  Professor  Zonia 
Bab?:r. 

Topography;  development  of  topogra])hic  forms.  Climate;  elements 
which  make  climate.  Life;  relation  to  climate  and  topography. 
People;   relation  to  geographic  controls.      June  IH-July  27. 

State  Normal  Collkcjk,  V])sihinti,  Mich.  General  Geography. 
Mr.  Isaiah  Bowman. 

A  course  of  lectures  on  the  continents,  with  references  for  reading. 
The  lectures  will  give  an  account  of  the  physical  and  climatic  features 
now  regarded  as  most  evi(l(»ntly  governing  human  occupation  of  the 
different  ])ortions  of  the  eartli,  the  more  im])ortant  political  divisions 
and  tlieir  re  hit  ion  to  the  physical  geograpliy,  and  the  commercial  and 
historic  or  social  points  of  contact  with  our  own  national  hfe.  Four 
hours  a  week.     June  27  August  5. 

Xohthiohn  Illinois  Stati:  Normal  School.  DeKalb,  III.  General 
Geogra])hy.     .Miss  Marion  Wellek. 

A  course  in  general  geogra])hy  from  the  teacher's  point  of  view. 
Home  g<'ography;  the  earth  as  a  whole;  air  and  water;  selected  tyi>e 
.studies.     Junr  20  .//////  21). 


SUMMER  COURSES  IN  GEOGRAPHY  I  95 


MATHEMATICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.  Elementary  Mathe- 
matical Geography.    Assistant  Professor  Kurt  Laves. 

The  form  of  the  earth  and  its  size;  how  to  constnict  a  map  of  a 
given  area  of  the  earth's  surface;  the  rotation  of  the  earth;  the 
earth  a  member  of  the  solar  system;  the  seasons;  climatic  coniUtions; 
the  tides.     July  2S-Septemher  2. 

geography  of  the  land 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Physical  Geography  of  the 
ZAinds.     Professor  Ralph  S.  Tarr. 

A  course  in  modern  physical  geography  or  physiography  of  the 
lands,  with  special  stress  placed  upon  the  questions  relating  to  the 
origin  and  life  histor}'  of  land  forms  and  their  influences  on  man.  Four 
hours  a  week.     July  7- August  19. 

University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis.  Physiography.  Mr. 
S.  H.  Ball. 

The  course  is  designed  for  teachers  and  students  desiring  to  take 
work  in  physical  geography  and  dynamical  geology.  Lectures  and 
excursions.     June  27-August  5. 

Columbia  University.  General  Geology.  Professor  CIraijau  and 
Miss  Maury. 

A  course  in  the  elementary  principles  of  geology  from  the  physical 
point  of  view.  The  development  of  topographic  forms;  their  relation 
to  life;  the  making  of  geologic  sections;  reading  and  interpreting 
topographic  maps  and  models;  half-day  excursions  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York.     July  6- August  17. 

The  University  of  Chica(jo,  Chicago,  III.     Two  courses: 

Physiography.     Professor  R.  D.  Salisbury. 

The  earth's  features,  treated  with  special  reference  to  th(»ir  origin 
and  significance.  Genetic  geography.  Tlic  course  will  hav(»  special 
reference  to  North  America.     Jiine  IH-July  27. 

Research  Course  in  Physical  Geography.     Professor  R.  1).  Sallshuhv. 

Topics  will  be  arranged  with  students  individually,  on  conference 
with  the  instructor. 

Indiana  State  Normal  School,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.  The  Develop- 
ment  of  Land  Forms y  with  daily  field  and  laboratory  work.  Professor 
Charles  R.  Dryer.     June  27-August  5. 

Drake  University,  l)es  Moines,  Iowa.  Physical  Geography.  Pro- 
fessor E.  M.  Lehnerts. 


196  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  May 

Land  forms,  and  the  agents  and  processes  which  have  produced 
them;  the  atmosphere  and  the  ocean;  scientific  weather  forecasting; 
principles  underlying  the  distribution  of  plant  and  animal  life;  the 
influence  of  the  physical  environment  of  man.  Library  reading?, 
recitations,  and  laboratory  work  are  supplemented  by  a  study  of  the 
geology  and  physiography  of  Des  Moines  and  its  vicinity.  Five  hours 
a  week.     June  20- July  29. 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE 

Indiana  State  Normal  School,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.  Meteorology. 
Professor  Charles  R.  Dryer. 

A  study  of  the  atmosphere,  weather,  and  climate,  with  daily  labora- 
tory work  and  instrumental  observations.     June  21-August  5. 

Northern  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  DeKalb,  111.  Meteor- 
ology.    Professor  F.  L.  Charles. 

A  course  in  elementar}'^  science,  with  special  reference  to  weather 
phenomena.  Recording  of  local  data ;  forecasting ;  laboratory  work 
and  recitations.     June  20-JuIy  29. 

The  ITniversity  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.  Elementary  Meteor- 
ology and  Oeeonography.     Mr.  H.  H.  Barrow^s. 

An  outline  course  for  teachers  of  physical  geography  and  physiog- 
raphy.    July  2H-Sepiember  2. 

Cornell  rNivEusiTY,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Elementary  Meteorology. 
i\Ir.  Frank  Carney. 

The  o})ject  of  this  course  is  to  offer  enough  information  to  render 
the  subject  of  inetoorologj'  and  climatology  more  practical  to  teachers. 
Lectures  (with  slides),  recitations,  and  assigned  readings.  July  7- 
August  19. 

For  a  laboratory  course  in  meteorology  consult  the  courses  men- 
tioned in  this  paper  under  the  heading  Field  and  Laboratory  Courses. 

(IKOfJHAPHY    OF    plants    AND    ANIMALS 

The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.     Four  courses: 

Elementary  Eeology.     Dr.  Cowles  and  Mr.  Howe. 

Plants  in  relation  to  their  environment.  Field  work,  laboratory 
work,  assigned  readings,  and  lectures.     First  term,  June  IS-July  27 

Physiographie  Eeology.     Dr.  Henry  C.  Cowles. 

Origin,  develoj)nieiit,  and  death  of  the  various  plant  associations, 
especially  such  as  are  found  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Second 
term,  Jxdy  2S-Scptemher  2. 

Researeh  in  Eeology.     Dr.  Cowles. 


1904  SUMMER  COURSES  IN  GEOGRAPHY  1 97 

This  course  requires  special  training  in  ecology,  and  in  related 
lines  of  study,  especially  geology  and  plant  physiology. 

Field  Zoology,     Dr.  C.  M.  Child. 

A  study  of  the  fauna  of  the  region  about  Chicago,  with  special 
reference  to  the  relations  between  animals  and  their  environment. 

COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.     Three  courses: 

Commercial  Geography.     Mr.  Philip  Emerson. 

A  study  of  important  topics  in  commercial  geography,  with  special 
relation  to  the  position  held  by  the  United  States  in  the  commercial 
struggle  of  the  present  time.  The  history  of  commerce  and  industry; 
the  physical  controls  of  commerce;  the  great  commercial  staples  and 
the  development  of  allied  interests;  the  commerce  and  industries  of 
the  United  States  and  the  leading  commercial  nations  and  regions. 
July  7-August  19. 

Geographic  Influences  and  Relations.     Mr.  R.  H.  Whitbeck. 

lectures  and  discussions  designed  to  show  the  influence  of  physio- 
graphic and  climatic  conditions  upon  human  activities:  The  influence 
of  soil,  coast  line,  mountains  and  valleys,  plains  and  plateaus,  gaps 
and  passes,  winds,  rainfall,  ocean  currents,  altitude  and  latitude, 
navigable  inland  waters;  geographical  causes  leading  to  the  location 
and  growth  of  cities,  the  location  and  migration*  of  industries,  the 
establishment  of  transportation  routes,  and  the  prosperity  of  states 
and  regions;  man's  reaction  upon  his  environment,  and  his  conquest 
of  natural  obstacles.     Jidy  7-August  19. 

University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  111.  Economic  and  Commercial 
Geography.     Assistant  Professor  N.  A.  Weston. 

A  study  of  the  effects  of  geographical  conditions  on  economic  and 
commercial  life.  The  physical  features,  resources,  domestic  and 
foreign  trade,  trade  routes,  transportation  facilities,  and  industrial 
characteristics  of  the  population  of  the  United  States  and  the  leading 
foreign  countries.     June  13-Aiigust  12. 

Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.  Commercial  Geography. 
Dr.  C.  A.  Herrick. 

A  course  of  lectures,  supplemented  by  class  recitations,  practical 
demonstration  of  methods,  and  excursions.  A  general  outline  of  the 
subject  with  enough  discussion  and  demonstration  of  methods  to 
prepare  teachers  for  work  in  secondary  schools.     July  5-Augu^t  12. 

The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.  Commercial  Geography 
for  Teachers.    Assistant  Professor  H.  R.  Hatfield. 


19^  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 

The  scope  and  methfxl  of  commercial  geography,  its  bibliography, 
text-books,  and  original  sources.  Special  topics  will  ])e  invest igateil. 
June  l^September  2. 

For  laboratorj'  work  in  commercial  geography  consult  courses 
outlined  below. 

FIELD    AND    LABORATORY    COURSES 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  X.  Y.     Nine  courses: 

Laboratory  Course  in  Physical  Geography,  Mr.  Carney  and 
Mr.  Hubbard. 

A  practical  course  to  illustrate  the  methods  and  materials  available 
for  laboraton-  and  field  work  in  high  schools.  Attention  is  given  to 
the  possibilities  open  to  the  teacher  in  schools  having  limited  laboratory- 
equipment.  Where  desired  by  a  teacher,  personal  suggestions  will  be 
made  regarding  the  local  field  work  he  may  cany'  on  with  his  classes. 
July  1-August  19. 

Field  Course  in  Physical  Geography.  Professor  Tarr,  Assistant 
Principal  Carn?:y,  Mr.  Whitb?:ck,  and  Mr.  Hubbard. 

One  afternoon  each  week  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  physiographic 
phenomena  in  the  field,  and  two  days  at  the  end  of  the  week  are  given 
to  all-day  excursioiLs.  An  excursion  to  Niagara  is  also  offered  in  con- 
nection with  this  course,  but  attendance  upon  it  is  voluntar}'.  An 
excursion  to  the  anthracite  coal  fields  is  also  open  to  students  in  this 
class.     July  7-August  19. 

Laboratory  Course  in  Meteorology.     Assistant  Principal  Carney. 

A  course  planned  for  both  grammar  and  high-school  teachers. 
Some  of  the  topics  considered,  discussed,  and  illustrated  are:  Non- 
instnimental  observations — when  to  begin  and  over  how  long  a  period 
to  continue  the  most  simple  observations;  record-tables  and  methods 
of  using  them;  instrumental  o])servati()ns — tabulation  of  records., 
averages;  use  of  weather  maps;  filing  of  these  maps  and  of  newspaper 
clippings  of  notable  meteorological  phenomena;  the  equipment  of  a 
meteorological  la])orator}'.     July  1-August  19. 

Laboratory  Course  in  Geology.     Mr.  F.  V.  Emerson. 

A  course  intended  to  furnish  an  opportunity  for  the  study  of  such 
geological  phenomena  as  are  capable  of  illustration  by  specimens, 
maps,  and  models.     July  1-August  19. 

Field  Course  in  Geology.  Professor  A.  P.  Brigham,  Mr.  F.  Carney, 
Mr.  F.  V.  Emerson,  and  Mr.  G.  D.  Hubbard. 

One  afternoon  each  week  and  two  Saturdays  are  devoted  to  excur- 
sions in  the  neighborhood  of  Ithaca.     A  voluntary  excursion  to  the 


SUMMER  COURSES  IX  GEOGRAPHY  1 99 


anthracite  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania  is  offered.  Students  of  this 
course  are  also  permitted  to  go  on  the  Niagara  excursion.  July  7- 
Aiigust  19. 

Laboratory  and  Field  Work  in  Commercial  Geography,  Mr.  Philip 
Emerson. 

Methods  of  teaching  commercial  geography  and  of  studying  com- 
merce and  industr}*:  (a)  In  the  factories  and  mills  of  Ithaca  and 
vicinity;  (6)  in  the  laborator>^  by  means  of  selected  specimens,  photo- 
graphs, statistics,  Government  reports,  and  other  material  in  print, 
and  by  the  making  of  illustrative  maps,  charts,  and  diagrams;  (c)  in 
the  conservator}'  and  garden  and  on  the  farm.    July  7-August  19. 

Advanced  Course  in  Dynamic  Geology  and  Physic<il  Geography. 
Professors  Tarr  and  Brigham,  with  assistants. 

Advanced  field  and  laboratory'  work  under  the  supervision  of  the 
instructors.  The  work  will  vary  with  the  needs  of  the  individual 
students.     July  1- August  19. 

Five-day  Field  Excursion.     Professor  R.  S.  Tarr. 

An  excursion  by  rail,  steamboat,  and  wagon,  with  frequent  stops 
at  points  of  interest.  Its  object  is  to  study  a  large  area,  interpreting 
the  phenomena  observed,  and  noting  the  influence  of  physiography 
on  the  industries.  The  estimated  expense  is  $40.00.  All  who  desire 
to  go  are  expected  to  notify  Professor  Tarr  before  June  1st. 

The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.     Four  courses: 

Field  Geology.  Dr.  W.  W.  Atwood  (first  term)  and  Mr.  R.  T. 
Chamberlin  (second  term). 

Training  in  stratigraphic,  glacial,  and  other  field  determinations, 
together  with  mapping,  sketching,  and  technical  description.  The 
field  is  the  vicinity  of  the  Dells  of  the  St.  Croix,  Minnesota-Wisconsin. 

Field  Geology.     Professor  Salisbury  and  Dr.  Atwood. 

Advanced  field  work,  involving  the  systematic  investigation  of  a 
formation  or  an  area.  The  fields  for  1904  will  be  in  the  West,  or  in 
Wisconsin.  Dr.  At  wood's  party  will  spend  the  month  of  September 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado.  Other  parties, 
doing  more  special  work,  will  study  the  former  glaciation  of  selected 
mountain  regions  in  the  W^est,  or  in  Eastern  Wisconsin.  Second  term, 
July  2S-September  2. 

FiM  Geology.  Professors  T.  C.  Chamberlin,  Salisbury,  Iddings, 
and  Assistant  Professor  Weller. 

Thorough  and  systematic  work  in  close  conformity  to  official  stand- 
ards, and,  as  nearly  as  possible,  individual  and  independent.  The 
course  may  form  the  basis  for  a  doctor's  thesis. 

Field  and  Laboratory  Course  in  Geology.     Mr.  L.  H.  Wood. 


2CXD  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 

The  geography  and  geologj'^  of  Chicago  and  its  vicinity,  studied 
in  the  field  and  from  relief,  topographic,  and  geologic  maps.  The 
course  will  include  two  field  trips  and  three  laboratory'  exercises  weekly. 
For  teachers  and  for  those  who  wish  to  leani  methods  of  field  work. 
First  term,  June  IH-July  27. 

Map  Study.     Mr.  H.  H.  Barrows. 

An  advanced  course  in  the  interpretation  of  topographic  and 
geologic  maps.  P^specially  for  teachers  who  wish  to  introduce  labora- 
tory methods  into  physiographic  and  geologic  work.  July  2S~Septem- 
her  2. 

Physiographic  Drawing,  Chalk  Modelimj.  Mr.  Georg  Thorne- 
Thomsen. 

The  primary  purpose  of  this  course  is  to  give  students  of  physiog- 
raphy ability  to  sketch  topographic  forms  on  the  blackboard.  June 
IS-July  27.* 

The  School  of  Education,  The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 
111.     Field  Geography.     Associate  Professor  Zonia  Barer. 

The  class  will  visit  Northern  Illinois  and  Southern  Wisconsin;  thence 
by  the  way  of  St.  Paul  and  the  Mississippi  River  to  St.  Louis,  where 
a  week  will  be  devoted  to  a  study  of  the  geographic  exhibits  of  the 
World's  Fair.  Stops  will  be  made  at  points  of  special  topographic, 
geologic,  or  industrial  interest.     July  2S-Septemher  2. 

University  of  Missouri,  Columbia.  Mo.  Physiography.  Pro- 
fessor C.  F.  Marhut. 

A  course  of  study  in  the  principles  of  physiography,  taken  up  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  noe<ls  of  the  high-school  teacher.  Laboratory 
work,  field  work,  and  occasional  lectures  and  conferences. 

University  of  Wisconsin.  Madison,  Wis.  Field  Geology.  Mr. 
S.  H.  Ball. 

Students  work  in  parties  of  two.  an<l  an  area  near  Madison  is  assigned 
to  each  party.  Each  student  makes  his  own  topographic  map  and, 
with  this  as  a  base,  prepares  a  geological  map  and  a  written  report  of 
his  area.     June  27-August  5. 

(iEO(;RAPIIY    OF    continents    AND    COUNTRIES 

CoLUMiUA  University,  New  York  City.  Geography  of  Xorth 
America.     Professor  R.  K.  D(>i)(;e. 

This  course  will  ])e  devoted  to  a  topical  outline  of  the  geography  of 
Xorth  America,  which  will  ])e  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out 
the  causal  relation  existing  between  the  physical  and  hfe  conditions. 


»^o4  SUMMER  COURSES  IN  GEOGRAPHV  20I 

The  needs  of  teachers  in  the  intermediate  and  upper  grammar  grades 
"will  be  constantly  kept  in  mind,  and  the  endeavor  will  be  to  show  through 
^lie  study  of  North  America  how  each  of  the  continents  may  be  treated 
in  school  work.  The  lectures  will  be  illustrated  by  maps,  models,  and 
jDhotographs.  Training  will  also  be  given  in  the  use  of  reference  books, 
^nd  in  the  organization  of  subject-matter  by  ijieans  of  special  papers 
on  selected  topics  to  be  prepared  outside  of  the  classroom  and  submitted 
f"or  criticism.     July  %- August  17. 

The  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.     Economic  Geography 
o/  North  America.     Assistant  Professor  Goodk  or  Mr.  Wood. 

A  study  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  continent  as  factors  in  its 

economic   development.     The   geologic   structure,    the   physiography, 

»nd  the  climate,  treated  as  factors  determining  or  affecting  the  location 

«ind  utilization  of  mineral  resources,  arable  and  grazing  lands,  forests, 

^tc.     The  influence  of  these  various  resources  on  the  settlement  and 

development  of  the  continent.     July  2S-Septemher  2. 

The  School  of  Education,  The  Univkksity  of  Chicago,  Chicago, 
311.  Continental  Study:  North  America  as  a  Type  Continent.  Associate 
Professor  Baber. 

Effect  of  the  geography  of  North  America  upon  the  development 
of  its  civilization.  Means  of  study.  Methods  of  teaching.  Map 
drawing  and  sand  modeling.     June  IS-July  27. 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Three  courses: 
The  Geography  of  the  United  States.  Professor  A.  P.  Brigham. 
A  summary  study  is  given  of  the  evolution  of  the  North  American 
continent.  The  lectures  are  then  mainly  devoted  to  the  several  physio- 
graphic regions  of  the  United  States.  The  origin  of  the  land  forms  is 
explained,  and  especial  attention  is  given  to  the  control  exercised  by 
geographic  conditions  upon  the  colonization,  social  life,  commerce,  and 
military  history  of  the  United  States.  Under  the  last  head,  military 
.movements  in  the  Revolution  and  selected  campaigns  of  the  Civil  War 
will  be  studied.  Forestry  and  forest  reserves,  the  arid  lands  and  irriga- 
tion, and  the  development  of  lines  of  travel  and  communication  are 
among  the  topics  treated.     July  7 -August  19. 

The  Geography  of  Europe.  Professor  R.  S.  Tarr. 
A  consideration  of  the  physiographic  features  of  Europe  and  their 
influence  upon  the  history  and  industrial  development  of  the  several 
nations.  The  principal  sub-topics  are:  (1)  Physiography  of  the  conti- 
nent and  its  development;  (2)  climatic  conditions;  (3)  natural 
resources;   (4)  influence  of  these  various  physiographic  features  upon 


202  THIS  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 


race  characteristics,  early  movements  of  people,  development  of  navi- 
gation, modern  national  development,  and  location  of  leading  cities, 
both  in  the  past  and  present.  Fully  illustrated  with  lantern  slides  and 
maps.     July  1 -August  19. 

The  Geography  of  Tropical  Countries.     Mr.  G.  D.  Hubbard. 

This  course  is  designed  to  meet  the  demand  for  a  better  knowledge 
of  tropical  lands,  a  demand  made  by  their  growing  importance,  as 
markets  and  sources  of  raw  materials,  in  the  industrial  development  of 
temperate  lands.     July  7-August  19. 

Indiana  State  Normal  School,  Terre  Haute,  Ind.  Geography 
of  the  United  States,  Physical  and  Political y  with  map  drawing  on  mathe- 
matical projections.     Professor  Charles  R.  Dryer.     June  21-August  5. 

SPECIAL    METHODS   IX    GEOGRAPHY 

Columbia  University,  X(»w  York  City.  The  Teaching  of  Geography. 
Professor  Dodcje  and  Miss  Kirchw^ey. 

This  course  will  be  devoted  to  a  consideration  of  the  course  of 
study  in  geography  for  elementary  schools,  and  to  the  general  principles 
underlying  good  geography  teaching.     The  lectures  will  consider  the 
following  topics:    The  scope  of  geography  in  elementarj'  schools;   the 
present  status  of  geography  in  elementary  schools;    the  pomt  of  view 
to  1)0  hold  by  the  teacher  of  geography:   the  division  of  the  course  of 
study;    the  knowledge  of  location  and  how  it  should  be  secured;    the 
relation   existing    between    geography    and   other   subjects,  especially 
nature  study,  hand  work,  and  history:   excursions  and  reference  work 
in  geography:    the  use  of  maps  and  illustrative  material;   commercial 
geography  in  the  upper  grades;    the  use  of  a  text-book;  references  for 
teachers  and  pupils:   thought  questions  in  geography;   the  teaching  of 
industries,  etc.     A  course  of  study  will  l)e  outlined  and  suggestions 
given  as  to  the  material  available  for  presentation  in  each  of  the  grades, 
as  to  the  general  manner  of  treatment  adaptable  to  pupils  of  different 
ages:   certain  to}>ics  like  home  geography  and   the  topical   treatment 
of  continents  will  l)c  treated  fully.     Certain  difficult  problems  like  the 
teaching  of  latitucle  and  lontritude,  the  understanding  of  a  map,  etc., 
will  b(^  treated  in  sucli  detail  as  time  will  permit.     Each  pupil  will  be 
called  upon  to  outline  some  special  toj)ics  in  order  to  give  training  in 
tlie  use  of  references  and  in  the  organization  of  subject-matter.     These 
topics  will  also  l>e  later  outlined  as  lesson  plans  to  be  given  in  certain 
grades,  and  a  certain  number  of  class  hours  will  be  devoted  to  the  criti- 
cism of  good  and  bad  outlines  and  plans.     Especial  attention  will  be 


«^o4  SUMMER  COURSES  IN  GEOGRAPHY  2O3 

^ven  to  .ways  of  teaching  the  present  course  of  study  in  the  New  York 
Oity  schools.     July  6-August  17. 

University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo.  The  Teaching  of  Geog- 
raphy.   Professor  C.  F.  Marbut. 

A  course  of  lectures  and  occasional  field  and  library  work  on  the 
"teaching  of  geography  in  the  grades,  with  special  emphasis  of  the 
I>ublic-school  geography,  the  methods  of  teaching,  the  aim  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  the  sources  of  material  for  properly  illustrating  it.  The 
geography  of  the  whole  public-school  course  will  be  considered,  though 
most  emphasis  will  be  laid  on  the  work  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
oighth  grades. 

Drake  University,  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  Methods  in  Geography, 
I^rofessor  E.  M.  Lehnerts. 

The  work  in  this  course  includes  both  a  review  of  the  subject-matter 
<z>f  school  geography  and  the  special  consideration  of  methods  of  teach- 
ing  it.  A  course  for  the  grades  is  outlined,  and  the  matter  and  the 
xnethods  of  presentation  at  the  several  stages  are  discussed.  Lectures, 
x^ecitations,  and  laboratory  work.     June  20- July  29. 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.     Three  courses: 
Type  Studies  in  Geography  for  Grammar  Grades.     Professor  Charles 
-A.  McMurry. 

The  selection  of  important  topics  as  types  in  geography;  illustra- 
tions of  type  studies  in  North  America,  Europe,  and  other  lands;  the 
l^rinciples  of  method  illustrated  by  such  type  studies;  relation  of  such 
^atudies  to  text-books  in  geography;  the  course  of  study  in  geography, 
^^nd  the  value  of  earlier  lessons  in  the  interpretation  of  later  lessons  in 
^he  course;  the  method  of  oral  treatment  of  some  topics;  reviews  and 
^:*omparisoiis.     July  7- August  19. 

Home  Geography.     Professor  Charles  A.  McMurry. 
An  analysis  of  those  geographical  facts  and  materials  which  lie 
"%¥ithin  the  range  of  the  children's  senses.     The  necessity  for  this  study 
3BS  a  basis  for  later  book  and  map  studies  of  the  large  world  beyond  is 
illustrated.     The  topics  of  home  geography;   study  of  excursions  with 
classes  of  children;  the  oral  treatment  of  topics  in  classroom  work; 
the  relation  of  home  geography  to  the  later  geography  studies  and  to 
text-books;  a  course  of  study  showing  the  leading  topics  in  this  transi- 
tion from  the  home  neighborhood  to  the  state  and  the  United  States; 
leading  topics  of  the  home  state  and  their  treatment;  the  study  of  the 
earth-whole  in  the  early  years,  and  its  relation  to  the  child ;  means  of 
illiistrating  the  earth- whole  and  its  parts.    July  7- August  19. 


204  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 

Aims  and  Problevis  in  Geography,     Supervisor  R.  H.  Whitbeck. 

Designed  more  particularly  for  grammar  school  teachers.  The 
course  consists  of  lectures,  discussions,  and  laboratory  exercises,  dealing 
with  the  actual  problems  of  the  classroom.  Some  of  the  topics  treated 
are:  The  chief  aims  in  teaching  geography;  the  relative  value  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  geographical  knowledge;  methods  of  conducting  the  recita- 
tion; the  proper  use  of  the  text-book  by  pupils  and  by  teachers;  the 
use  and  misuse  of  supplementary^  books;  the  value  of  studying  things 
instead  of  about  things;  map  modeling,  map  drawing,  and  the  use  of 
outline  maps;  written  and  oral  exercises,  reviews,  tests,  and  examina- 
tions; the  proper  scope  and  limitations  of  geography.   July  7-Aiigust  19. 

Michigan  State  Normal  College,  Ypsilanti,  Mich.  Teachers* 
Geography,     Mr.  I.  Bowman. 

The  course  is  planned  for  teachers  and  advanced  students,  and 
deals  with  topics  in  mathematical  geography,  map  projections,  and  the 
geography  of  the  atmosphere.  Lectures,  recitations,  and  laboratory 
work.     June  27 -August  5. 


THE  DELTA  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI "^ 

BY    FRANCIS    E.    LLOYD 
Professor  of  Botany,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Universitif 

DURING  the  summer  of  19(X)  I  undertook  a  trip  to  the  Delta  of 
the  Mississippi  River  and  the  islands  which  lie  to  the  east- 
ward, for  the  purpose,  primarily,  of  studying  the  vegetation  of 
that  bit  of  countr}'.  Thoupih  but  a  ver}'  amateur  in  matters  of  geog— 
raphy,  I  have  to  confess  that  my  interest  in  the  Delta  well-nigh  eclipsed 
my  more  immediate  interest  in  its  plants,  until,  at  least,  my  mind 
regained  its  equilibrium.  I  shall  in  the  present  paper  attempt  to  gives- 
an  ao(M)unt  of  my  observations  of  this  interesting  region,  ha\'ing  refer- 
once  chiefly  to  that  portion  commonly  known  as  the  Delta,  and  not' 
to  that  larger  area  bordering  the  lower  Mississippi,  which  in  recent 
geological  times  has  been  built  up  by  the  same  processes  which  may 
now  be  seen  in  operation  in  the  Delta  itself.     (See  Map  1.) 

The  only  practical  way  of  exploring  such  a  region  is  by  means  of 
a  boat  of  liglit  draft.  The  waterways,  though  tortuous,  are  continuous 
and  the  water,  for  a  very  considerable  distance  from  the  land,  shallow. 

♦For  folding  map  of  the  Delta  of  the  Mississippi  see  inside  front  cover. 


i 


Z904  THE  DELTA  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI 


205 


For  this  reason  the  party  of  which  I  was  a  member  hired  a  "scow 
schooner,"  ordinarily  used  for  oystering.  This  is  the  finest  kind  of 
craft  for  knocking  about  such  waters.  Roomy,  unpainted,  stiff,  draw- 
ing little  water,  one  can  creep  into  the  veriest  bits  of  mudholes,  and 
get  out  again;  being  roughly  built  and  no  better  finished,  a  naturalist 
has  to  take  no  precautions  for  the  preservation  of  appearances;  and 
being  roomy  there  is  plenty  of  space  to  sleep  on  the  deck,  under  mosquito 
netting,  and  thus  be  cool  at  night.  A  few  weeks'  cruise  on  such  a  boat 
is  an  ideal  experience. 

On  approaching  the  Delta  from  the  east,  with  still  a  wide  expanse 
of  water  ahead,  and  in  the  distance  the  low  stretch  of  green  marsh 
and  a  curious,  jagged  sky-line  of  willows,  reaching  far  to  the  north, 
one  will,  perhaps,  receive  a  suddenly  applied  demonstration  that  the 
land  is  not  so  far  off  as  it  seems.  In  a  word,  the  boat  is  aground. 
Instinctively,  she  is  headed  up  to  the  wind,  if  possible,  and  all 
hands  jump  overboard,  a  most  comical  procedure  that  never  fails  to 
evoke  laughter  and  remarks  from  one's  companions.  In  this  concrete 
way  we  learn  that  beneath  the  mud-laden  water  the  bottom  extends 
out  to  sea  for  many  miles  at  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet,  and  less  in 
places.  Such  an  experience  demonstrates  to  us  what  the  great  river 
is  doing.  Its  water,  opaque  with  sediment,  carries  most  of  this  over 
the  shallow,  submerged  extension  of  the  Delta.  Some  of  it,  however, 
gradually  settles  to  the  bottom,  and  thus  slowly  raises  the  level  of  the 
sea  floor,  while  the  rest  of  the  detritus  is  precipitated  farther  seaward. 
Deeper  channels  in  this  platform  are  eroded  by  the  currents,  which 
extend  out  from  the  various  mouths  of  the  river.  Low,  submerged 
mounds  are  formed  by  eddies,  and  the  whole  vertical  contour  is  modified 
from  time  to  time  by  storms.  The  constant  change  makes  navigation 
especially  dangerous.  You  are  compelled  Uterally  to  feel  your  way 
along,  even  in  a  small  '*scow/'  by  means  of  an  oar,  a  man  on  each 
bow  calling  off  the  depth  in  feet  and  inches.  It  is  only  by  the  sub- 
merged channel  formed  by  the  South  Pass  current  that  approach  may 
be  had  by  ocean-going  vessels,  and  this  calls  for  skilled  pilotage. 

From  a  considerable  distance  the  Delta  appears  as  a  very  low 
extent  of  land,  with  even,  horizontal  contour.  The  color  is  a  uniform 
dark  green,  the  whole  landscape  being  somber  and  monotonous,  espe- 
cially in  the  failing  light  of  evening.  The  impression  of  the  contour, 
however,  is  deceptive,  for  a  closer  approach  shows  that  the  land  is 
broken  up  into  a  maze  of  bays,  **  cut-offs,"  and  lagoons,  forming  necks 
of  land  and  islands  of  all  sizes  and  shapes.     An  adequate  notion  of 


\ 


206 


THE  JOURKAIv  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


May 


Fig.  j.     .4  vU^  ktokinii  tJ,!^  of  south  hom  the  top  of  thr  Soulh  Pass  Liiththtmst.  ;  ..  -  ^^hlu^ui 

Hnf  if  a  board  footpath  to  u  boat  moortne.     The  dark  tine  paralM  io  th- 
is a  sand  sfHi  ii^xtendinfi  wfsh-rty  frofH  iiir  nuyuth  oj  !h*r  river. 

thp  cniiiplexity  of  the  luml  forms  may  best  be  had  by  getting  a  view 
from  a  |KT!iit  of  vantage  at  the  top  iif  tlie  South  Pass  Lighthouse.  Sucli 
a  view  is  seen  in  the  set-tnid  figure  aiitl  n<>  furtiier  w^ml  of  iiescription 
is  necessary.  How  this  honzontal  contour  is  brought  about  is  lo  be 
explairieil,  at  least  in  part,  by  the  sefon<biry  action  of  the  waters  outside 
of  the  Ueha.  Were  it  not  for  tlu*  tidal  aetion  and  tlio  ptTeets  of  wind 
and  currents,  the  Delta  would  be  Ijuilt  up  regularly r  as  is  suggested  by 
the  more  even  eontuur  hue  of  its  submerged  portitni.  But,  given  these 
ffietors  and  a  soft,  homogeueuus,  flat,  low-lying  alluvial  deposit  to  work 
upon,  together  with  oeeasional  tuu^venuess,  due  to  buried  or  partly 
liuried  detritus  of  small  ami  large  pieces  of  tree  trunks,  branches,  ami 
the  like,  which  flr>at  down  the  river  and  are  deposited,  we  can  easily 
imderstand  how  the  irregularities  of  (^{intonr  arise.  These  help  to 
direct  the  erosive  forces,  and  thus  are  a  factor  in  prodneing  the  result 
above  described. 

Our  entrance  to  the  Delta  was  made  through  Cubit's  Gap  on  its  east- 
ern side.  This  is  the  main  channel  of  a  seeondary  delta,  caused,  at  some 
period  of  extraordinary  flood,  by  the  main  current  breaking  through  its 
low-ljnng  bank  at  a  w^eak  pcjint.  The  lateral  stream  thtia  originated  wdll 
in  time  build  up  a  form  similar  to,  Init  smaller  than,  the  chief  delta. 
At  occasional  points  along  the  shore  are  encountered  fishermen *s 
houses,  btiilt  on  the  low-lying  marshes.  Their  situation  is  precarious, 
because  the  muddy  surface  is  frequently  submerged,  and  the  run  of 
rough  water  during  storms  is  sometimes  disastrous.     The  danger  is 


X904 


THE   DELTA  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI 


207 


reduced  by  building  upon  long  spiles,  which  lift  the  house  above  the 
surface.  The  experience  of  entering  such  a  dwelling  is  certainly  novel. 
The  fisherfolk  are  chiefly  Italians,  who  are  very  hospitable.  Their 
boats  are  single-masted  luggers  of  light  draft,  well  built  and  graceful. 
Upon  entering  the  main  stream  of  the  Mississippi,  we  follow  the  stream 
in  its  southeasterly  course.  At  once  the  appearance  of  our  surround- 
ings changes.  A  few  minutes  previously  a  whole  sea  was  behind  us, 
and  the  feeling  we  experienced  was  that  of  approaching  the  land.  Now 
it  seems  as  if  we  are  floating  on  a  river  inland,  its  banks  clothed  with  a 
tall  grass  {Phragmites) ,  or  '*  canes,'*  as  they  are  locally  called,  which  shut 
out  the  distant  view.  (Fig.  3.)  Trees  of  black  willow,  which  form  a 
continuous  growth  farther  up  stream,  are  to  be  seen  occasionally  along 
the  bank,  and  the  *^ canes"  are  often  overgrown  by  a  species  of  ampe- 
lopsis  (Ampelopsis  arborea),  but  more  frequently  and  densely  by  a 
leguminous  vine  {Vigna  glabra),  bearing  numerous  yellow,  pea-Uke 
flowers.  Of  these  plants,  the  *^cane"  is  the  most  interesting,  for  its 
growth  contributes  very  materially  to  the  stability  of  the  muddy  bank. 
It  spreads  by  runners,  some  of  which  project  out  into  the  stream, 
extending  downward  with  the  current  as  much  as  thirty  meters  or  more. 
Those  which  take  root  contribute  to  the  formation  of  hunuiiocks, 
which,  by  their  close  juxtaposition,  make  a  firm  framework  to  support 
the  soft  materials  of  the  bank. 


F  O.  3.     A  view  of  the  river  bank  of  the  South  Pass  showing  the  dense  growth  of  canes  (Phragmites.) 


208 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


May 


From  the  western  bank  of  this  part  of  the  Delta  stretch  considerable 
reaches  of  low,  swampy  meadow  land,  clothed  with  grasses  and  weedy 
plants,  among  which  a  sensitive  plant  {Mimosa  strigillosa)  is  ver>' 
common,  and  responds  rapidly  to  the  touch  by  closing  tightly  its  leaf- 
lets and  bending  down  its  leaves. 

Continuing  the  course  down  stream,  we  come  suddenly  to  a  parting 
of  the  way  in  three  directions — quite  the  reverse  of  the  ordinary  experi- 
ence in  floating  down  stream.  Instead  of  the  tributaries  feeding  the 
stream,  the  stream  divides  its  water  among  its  distributaries  (here  the 
three  main  Passes)  of  which  the  middle,  in  line  with  the  chief  stream, 
is  the  South  Pass,  and  the  way  we  chose.  Once  well  into  this  arm  of 
the  river,  the  most  illuminating  evi<lence  of  the  work  of  the  great  river 
is  l)efore  us. 

If  we  climb  the  bank  in  this  region,  we  can  look  l>eyond  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  out  upon  an  (^xpanse  of  salt  water.  (Fig.  4.)  The  highest  part 
of  this  land  is  beneath  us.  only  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  swiftly- 
running  stream,  and  an  equal  distance  from  it.  This  low  ridge  is  a 
lateral  barrier,  built  up  from  the  sediment  of  the  river  laid  down  at 
times  of  flooding,  and  allowed  to  maintain  a  level  above  that  of  the 
sea  level.  In  this  manner  a  natural  aqueduct  of  the  stream's  own 
making  guides  it  to  its  mouth.     From  the  ridge,  the  bank  slopes  more 


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r^::- . :    /.Vn:    'r,->ni    floods. 


1904  THE  DELTA  OP  THE  MISSISSIPPI  209 


Fig.  5.     South  Pass,  from  the  lighthouse,  looking  north.     Note  the  river  flowing  between  the  narrow 
irregular  strips  of  land.     The  picture  shows  an  outgoing  steamship. 

gradually  away  toward  the  salt  water.  The  canes  of  the  higher  level 
give  way  to  a  lower,  stiff-leaved  grass  (Spartina).  As  one  walks  through 
this  bristling  foliage,  thousands  of  small  amphibious  crabs  scurry  in 
all  directions.  It  is  in  such  low-lying,  densely  grassy  places  that  the 
alligator  builds  its  nest,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  dead  grass  packed  about 
the  eggs,  which  are  laid  in  considerable  numbers. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  South  Pass  is  the  small  village  and  Govern- 
ment station  of  Port  Eads,  the  seat  of  the  jetty  operations.  The  effort 
of  the  engineers  who  are  managing  these  operations  are  so  to  control 
and  direct  the  stream  as  to  keep  a  ship  channel  open  up  to  and  above 
the  mouth.  This  involves  a  vigilance  as  eternal  as  the  stream  itself. 
From  the  top  of  the  South  Pass  Lighthouse  may  be  had  a  most  instruc- 
tive panoramic  view.  In  Figure  2,  which  is  a  view  looking  seaward, 
besides  the  details  referred  to  above,  we  see  in  the  distance  a  long, 
slender  spit,  which  is  formed  by  the  deposit  brought  about  by  the 
influence  of  the  still  ^'back-bay"  waters  upon  the  moving  waters  on 
the  outside.  This  narrow  stretch  of  land  outlines  most  perfectly  the 
ideal  form  of  the  Delta.  In  the  map  (Map  1,  Fig.  1)  this  is  seen 
on  the  western  side  of  the  mouth. 

Looking  north  we  see  the  South  Pass  with  a  vessel  on  its  surface, 
and  the  irregular  and,  at  times,  very  narrow  strip  of  land  which  walls  in 
the  current. 

Once  outside,  and  we  bear  northeasterly  to  pass  around  the  N.  E. 
Pass  on  our  return  to  our  *^port  of  departure. *'  After  passing  out  of 
the  ship  channel,  we  are  again  in  shallow  water  until  we  cross  the 
channels  extending  from  the  other  mouths,  in  the  vicinity  of  which 
there  are  large  numbers  of  very  curious  islands,  all  nameless,  well  termed 
collectively  the  *'  mud  lumps/'  They  consist  of  a  very  compact  black  or 
yellowish  clay,  overlaid  with  a  thin  top  soil.  In  size  they  vary  from 
a  few  square  rods  to  perhaps  fifty  acres,  and  their  surface  is  three  to 


2IO  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  M»y 


nine  feet  above  sea  level.  They  appear  to  have  an  origin  quite  different 
from  the  other  islands — for  their  topography  suggests  very  strongly  that 
they  have  been  erupted  from  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  I  can  not 
say,  however,  that  this  is  true.  The  vegetation  of  these  dreary  spots 
is  sparse,  and  weedy  in  character.  The  lack  of  natural  charm  is  emphar 
sized  by  the  frequent  abundance  of  flies,  which  buzz  about  one  in  a 
most  threatening  manner  and  bite  viciously.  One  very  interesting 
little  plant  we  found,  which  evidently  had  been  brought  down  the 
stream — a  little  floating  fern,  Azolln  Caroliniana,  This  was  growing 
in  a  little  cove  of  a  mud  lump  near  Pass  A  Loutre.  On  islands  near  by 
we  found  immense  flocks  of  pelicans. 

After  leaving  the  North  Pass  we  sail  northwesterly  for  Bird  Island, 
a  long,  slender  strip  of  alluvium  overlaid  on  the  seaward  side  by  sand 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  be  heaped  up  by  the  wind  into  small  beach 
dunes.  Here  we  find  the  beautiful  sea  oats,  IJniola  paniculcUaf  which 
add  a  strikingly  graceful  element  to  the  otherwise  monotonous  grassy, 
beach  dune  vegetation. 

The  most  important  grass  is  Panicum  aniarum,  since  it  is  a  sand 
binder,  and  is  largely  responsible  for  the  topography  of  the  beach  dunes, 
which  are  found  at  the  limit  of  ordinar}'^  wave  action.  (Fig.  6.)  Growing 
chiefly  at  this  point  we  find  the  common  tropical  beach  convolvulus, 
Ipoinoca  pes-capracj  so  called  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  the 
leaf  to  the  hoof  of  a  goat.  The  runners  of  this  plant  attain  a  length 
of  120  meters  on  the  Florida  strand,  although  the  longest  I  found  in 
the  Delta  region  were  only  a  fourth  as  long.  The  plant  has  fine  reddish- 
purple  flowers,  seen  in  their  beauty  only  in  early  morning.  There  is 
another  similar  })laiit,  found  in  Breton  Island,  with  lobed  leaves  and 
white  flowers. 

Bird  Island  serves  as  a  type  of  many  other  islands,  such  as  Breton 
Island  and  Cat  Island,  in  that  the  foundation  is  alluvium.  Overlying 
this,  on  the  seaward  side,  which  is  also  the  windward  side  with  respect 
to  the  prevailing  wind,  is  a  layer  of  sand,  more  or  less  deep,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  island.  On  the  largest,  enough  is  present  for  the  making 
of  large  dunes,  in  the  lee  of  which  stretches  of  sandy  plains  are  found. 
On  these  islands  the  vegetation  is  composed  of  pine  trees  and  pahnettos, 
and  is  v(*r\'  similar  to  the  vegetation  of  the  coastal  plain  of  the  main- 
land. 

( )no  other  type  of  island  remains  to  be  mentioned,  of  which  there  are 
many  examples  on  our  course  from  Bird  Island  to  Cat  Island,  west  of 
Chandeleur  Sound.  They  are  similar  in  origin  to  the  sandy  islands,  but 
are  peculiar  in  the  circumstance  that  the  sand  is  absent  and  small  shell 


21. 


TBM  JOURNAL  OP  GBOGRAPHY 


:<t7j 


Fig 


A    "  sJt£lI-dum\" 


with  iis  very  s^panc,  weedy  ix'£t:iaiion.     On 
nnifonn  chthing  af  a  snccuUnt  {Batis  A/^ 


fragments  take  its  pi  are,     (Fig.  7.)     They  are  iheretore  ai 
called  ^^shell  islands.'*     The  shells  are  always  fouud  forrninc 
narruw  dime  on  the  seaward  edge  of  the  island,  c|iiite  pant 
cent  to  the  very  narrow,  muddy  beach.     (Fig.  8,)    The  : 
muddy,  and  marshy  surface  supports  a  growth  of  low  i=H 
{Saiicornia  and  Baii^),  and,  less  frequently,  of  the  v 
(Aricennia  nitkh),  wliich  is  here  at  its  northern  limit 
very  interesting  on  account  of  its  air  roots,  which  proj 
of  the  mud  J  and  enable  the  plant  to  respire.     For  ft 
the  otlier  succulent  plants  have  corky  outgrowths  « 

The  shell  dunes,  on  the  other  hand,  produce 
and  ver>'  scant  weedy  vegetation  of  anmranllis, 
trailing  vines,  euphorbias,  and  the  hke.     (Fig.  7.) 

The  shallow  waters  of  all  the  islands  are  veiy  pr' 
.shrimp,  and  small  fish.     The  latter  are  caught  \\y 

.^fi^^^Pvv^^?;^ — —^ ^ — --^^ — V      I — 


Fia.  8.     An  idt'ni  stfcfim  oj  *t  small  islind  with  a  shclt-Jutu- 

Th0  form  of  the  dum  as  sfien  in  tmns\>*rse  Sfct^:' 

dircciimt  in  which  it  is  moved  by  ihi>  j 


THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH  2  1' 


net,"  a  circular  net,  which,  when  thrown  with  skill,  brings  death  to 
dozens  of  mullet  or  thousands  of  shrimp.  This  form  of  net  is  especially 
adapted  to  shallow  waters,  although  it  is  used  also  throughout  the 
West  Indies.  I  am  told  that  it  is  found  in  the  Nile  delta  also,  and  I 
have  seen  it  on  the  Rhine. 

One  of  the  most  unique  experiences  I  ever  had  was  on  a  dark  night 
at  Breton  Island.    Taking  the  skiff,  with  the  purpose  of  throwing  the 


Fig    g.     Another  form  of  a  shell-dune. 

cast  net,  we  saw,  as  we  rowed,  thousands  of  phosphorescent  streaks  of 
light  shooting  hither  and  thither  through  the  water,  like  comets  in  a 
black  sky.  It  was  almost  beyond  belief,  but  all  caused  by  the  sudden 
scurry  of  mullet  as  the  boat  frightened  them  by  its  approach. 

The  limit  of  space  has  prevented  a  more  detailed  account  of  what 
we  saw  upon  this  delightful  and  instructive  trip.  I  have  tried,  however, 
to  bring  out  the  salient  features  of  our  experiences  of  three  weeks,  which 
will  never  be  forgotten.  We  were  fortunate  in  landing  at  Biloxi,  Miss., 
just  in  time  to  escape  the  terrors  of  the  storm  which  laid  waste  the  city 
of  Galveston. 

THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH* 

PART  II 

BY   FOREST   R.    MOULTON 

Of  the  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Illinois 

THE    REVOLUTION    OF   THE    EARTH 

THE  question  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun  is 
quite  distinct  from  that  of  its  rotation  on  its  axis,  some  of  the 
ancient  philosophers  having  held  to  one  theory  and  not  to  the 
other.  Aristarchus  (310-250  B.  C.)  was  the  first  to  systematically 
develop  the  heliocentric  theory,  that  is,  to  explain  celestial  phenomena 
by  supposing  that  the  earth  and  planets  revolve  around  the  sun.  He 
could  give  no  proofs  of  its  correctness  and  it  was  quite  generally  aban- 
doned. The  most  celebrated  astronomical  work  of  the  ancients  was 
the  Almagest  of  Ptolemy  (100-170  A.  D.)  which  dominated  this  field 
"f  science  for  fourteen  centuries.     Ptolemy  showed  in  it  that  all  the 

*  Continued  from  The  Journal  of  Geography,  April,  Volume  III,  No.  4, 
p.  150. 


214 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


May 


\ 


celestial  phenomena  known  at  liis  ,time  could  be  explained  on  the 
theor>^  that  the  earth  is  the  fixed  center  of  the  universe,  the  stars  and 
sun  revolving  around  it  in  circles,  and  the  planets  revolving  in  little 
circles  whose  centers  move  uniformly  around  the  earth  in  large  circles- 

Copernicus  (1473-1543)   developed  again  the  heliocentric   theory  , 
A^ith  references   to    Aristarchus,   but  to  explain  certain  irregularities 
of  motion  he  supposed  the  sun  not  to  be  in  the  exact  centers  of  th^ 
various  circles.     His  successor,  Tycho  Brahe  (1546-1601),   returnee*^ 
to  the  geocentric  theory  because  h£  could  observe  no  changes  in  t 
directions  of  the  stars  at  different  times  of  the  year,  which  should  va: 
somewhat  during  the  year  if  the  earth  revolved  around  the  sun. 
successor,  Kepler  (1571-1630),  returned  to  the  heliocentric  theory  an< 
discovered  the  three  celebrated  laws  of  planetary  motion  which  bea: 
his  name.     From  his  time  on  the  heliocentric  theory  has  been  universal! 
accepted. 

These  different  theories  did  not  arise  from  any  errors  in  the  thinkinj 
of  the  authors  of  the  contradictory  systems.  The  fact  is  that  they  ha( 
no  data  by  means  of  which  they  could  prove  one  was  right  and  anothei 
wrong.  Their  observations,  the  same  as  nearly  all  of  ours  at  the  presen 
day,  were  concerned  only  with  relative  motions,  and  one  systei 
explained  them  as  well  as  another.  The  only  proof  that  the  grea 
Newton  (1642-1727)  could  give  was  that,  by  admitting  the  heliocentric 
theory,  a  very  simple  explanation  could  be  given  to  all  phenomena  b; 
means  of  Kepler \s  laws  and  the  law  of  gravitation. 

The  first  fairly  direct  demonstration  of  the  motion  of  the  earth  was 
through  the  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light  by  the  great  English 
astronomer,  Jamos  Bradley,  in  1726.  If  rain  were  falling  directly 
downward  and  one  were  standing  still  in  it,  he  would  be  struck  squarely 
on  the  top  of  his  liead  by  it.  However,  if  he  should  walk  rapidly  through 
it,  he  would  bo  struck  on  the  forward  side,  or  it  would  seem  to  descend 
slantingly,  the  deviation  from  the  vertical  depending  both  upon  its 
velocity  of  descent  and  his  rate  of  walking.  So,  also,  light  coming 
perpendicularly  from  a  star  to  the  plane  of  the  earth \s  orbit  seems  to 
come  in  slantingly  l)eeause  of  the  earth's  motion.  The  result  is  that 
the  star  is  always  apparently  displaced  a  little  in  the  direction  of  the 
earth's  motion,  the  amount  depending  both  upon  the  velocity  of  light 
and  the  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  The  actual  amount  of  dis- 
placement is  found  by  measuring  the  little  circle  which  the  star  appar- 
ently describes  in  the  sky  in  the  course  of  a  year.  When  the  direction 
of  the  star  is  not  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit  of  the  earth 


! 


THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH 


215 


the  results  are,  of  course,  somewhat  different,  but  the  differences  are 
easily  accounted  for. 

The  velocity  of  light  had  been  previously  found  by  the  Danish 
astronomer  Roemer,  in  1675,  from  observ^ations  of  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter^s 
satellites,  to  be  finite  and  about  186,000  miles  per  second.  The  one 
unknown  quantity  remaining  in  the  problem  was  the  velocity  of  the  earth, 
which  came  out  as  it  should  under  the  heliocentric  theory.  Modern 
astronomical  observations  have  given  the  aberrational  constant  (20^.47), 
and  physical  experiments  the  velocity  of  light  (186,330  miles  per  second) 
with  a  high  degree  of  precision.  The  resulting  velocity  found  for  the 
earth  not  only  verifies  its  motion  but  also  gives  the  size  of  its  orbit, 
and  therefore  the  distance  to  the  sun.  This  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the 
accurate  methods  of  finding  the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun. 

If  one  were  to  deny  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  he 
would  have  to  admit  that  all  the  stars  in  the  sky  describe  actual  small 
orbits,  with  the  same  apparent  diameter  whatever  their  distances, 
in  exactly  a  year,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  constantly 
ninety  degrees  behind  the  sun  in  its  motion  around  the  earth. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  Tycho  Brahe  abandoned  the  heliocentric 
theory  because  he  could  not  detect  any  apparent  change  in  the  direction 
(technically,  no  parallax)  of  the  fixed  stars  during  the  year.  His 
reasoning  was  conclusive  qualitatively,  and  failed  only  because  the 
fixed  stars  are  immeasurably  more  remote  than  the  wildest  imagination 
could  have  suspected,  and  they  have  such  small  parallaxes  that  he  was 
far  from  being  able  to  detect  them.  Every  attempt  at  finding  a  star 
apparently  displaced  by  the  motion  of  the  earth  failed  until  1838  when 
the  German  astronomer  Bessel  found  that  the  little  star  61  Cygni, 
barely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  was  projected  on  slightly  different 
parts  of  the  sky  at  different  seasons. 

The  parallax  of  a  star  is  the  angle  subtended  by  the  semidiamet^r 
of  the  earth's  orbit  at  the  distance  of  the  star,  and  equals  the  apparent 
displacement  of  the  star  due  to  the  motion  of  the  earth  through  a 
distance  equal  to  the  radius  of  its  orbit.  The  parallax  of  61  Cygni  is 
0*'.40,  an  angle  which  would  be  subtended  by  an  object  an  inch  in 
diameter  at  a  distance  of  about  eight  miles,  and  one  exceedingly  difficult 
to  measure,  involved  as  it  is  in  the  question  of  parallax  with  many 
other  greater  inequalities,  such  as  the  aberration,  and  subject  to  a  vast 
number  of  possible  errors.  The  distance  of  61  Cygni  from  the  earth  is 
more  than  500,000  times  the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun,  which 
18  93,000,000  miles.    The  nearest  star  in   the  whole  sky  so  far  as 


2l6  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  May 

is  known,  is  Alpha  Centauri,  a  bright  star  in  the  southern  heavens 
which  is  275,000  times  as  far  from  us  as  we  are  from  the  sun.  When 
a  star  is  more  than  2,000,000  times  as  far  from  us  as  we  are  from  the 
sun  its  parallax  can  not  be  certainly  measured  by  present  processes.  In 
spite  of  the  arduous  labors  of  astronomers  of  many  countries  less  than 
forty  stars  among  the  thousands  which  stud  the  sky  have  so  far  been 
found  to  have  measurable  parallaxes.  The  stars  are  so  inconceivably 
remote  that  it  is  meaningless  to  us  to  express  their  distances  in  miles, 
and  astronomers  have  come  to  use,  instead,  the  time  it  takes  light  to 
come  from  them  to  us.  The  velocity  of  light  is  so  great  that  it  travels 
nearly  eight  times  the  distance  around  the  earth  in  a  second,  yet  it 
takes  nearly  four  and  one-half  years  for  it  to  come  from  Alpha  Centauri. 
When  you  look  out  in  the  south  in  the  early  evening  at  Sirius,  the 
brightest  star  in  all  the  sky,  you  see  light  which  left  it  more  than  eight 
years  ago,  and  you  see  light  from  the  north  star  more  than  forty  years 
after  it  started  on  its  long  journey. 

If  one  were  to  deny  that  the  apparent  displacement  of  the  stars  is  due 
to  the  parallactic  effects  of  the  motion  of  the  earth,  he  would  have  to 
admit  that  nearly  forty  stars  describe  small  orbits  of  different  sizes  in 
exactly  a  year,  and  that  they  are  constantly  on  the  same  side  of  their 
orbits  that  the  sun  is  of  its  orbit  around  the  earth. 

In  discussing  the  rotation  of  the  earth  it  was  stated  that  relative 
motion  in  the  line  of  sight  may  be  measured  by  the  spectroscope. 
Evidently  this  affords  an  independent  means  of  testing  the  revolution 
of  the  earth.  Suppose  a  star  in  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit  is  con 
sidcred,  and  for  simplicity  that  it  is  at  a  constant  distance  from  the 
sun.  At  one  time  of  the  year  the  earth  will  be  approaching  it  with 
the  rate  of  its  orbital  velocity,  about  eighteen  and  one-half  miles  per 
second;  six  months  later  it  will  be  receding  at  the  same  rate.  These 
are  velocities  which  can  be  measured  very  easily  with  the  powerful 
modern  instrunients,  and  in  this  way  the  motion  of  the  earth  around 
the  sun  has  been  often  verified.  If  the  star  is  in  motion  with  respect 
to  the  sun  the  problem  is  equally  simple.  For,  suppose  it  is  receding 
at  any  rate,  say,  ten  miles  per  second.  At  one  time  of  the  year  the 
spectroscope  will  show  a  relative  velocity  of  18.5 — 10=8.5  miles  per 
second,  and  six  months  later  a  relative  velocity  of  18.5  +  10=28.5  miles 
per  j-econd.  If  the  observed  star  is  not  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the 
matter  is  a  little  different  but  presents  no  difficulties. 

The  spectroscope  has  been  in  effective  use  in  astronomy  less  than 
fifty  years,  and  the  observations  of  the  kind  under  discussion  have 
nearly  all  been  made  in  the  last  fifteen  years.     They  show  the  exact 


,ga»  THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH  2  I  J 

motion  demanded  by  the  heliocentric  theory.  If  om  were  to  deny 
that  the  changes  in  the  relative  motion  in  the  line  of  sight  of  the  various 
stars  is  due  to  the  motion  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  he  would  have  to 
admit  that  all  the  stars  move  toward  and  from  the  earth  with  a  period 
of  one  year  and  with  velocities  precisely  equal  to  the  components  of 
motion  in  their  direction  which  the  earth  would  have  if  it  did  move 
around  the  sun. 

Each  of  these  three  independent  methods  of  testing  whether  the 

earth  moves  (by  the  aberration,  by  the  parallax,  and  by  the  motion  in  the 

line  of  sight)  leads  directly  to  the  heliocentric  theory,  or  to  alternatives 

which  one  can  not  bring  himself  to  believe  possible.     The  question  of 

the  earth's  revolution  seems  to  be  definitely  settled  and  it  is  altogether 

improbable  that  anything  will  ever  be  discovered  which  will  throw  it 

in  the  slightest  doubt.     It  is  worthy  of  note,  though,  that  the  actual 

proofs  of  it  are  quite  recent,  in  1726,  in  1838,  and  in  the  last  few  years 

respectively. 

THE  SHAPE  OF  THE  EARTH's  ORBIT 

The  ancients  seem  to  have  regarded  it  as  axiomatic  that  all  the 
ci^lestial  motions  are  uniform  and  in  circles.  The  first  dissenting  voice 
'^^TBS  that  of  Kepler,  who  from  a  most  laborious  discussion  of  Tycho 
^^rahe's  observations  of  Mars,  announced,  in  1609,  that  this  planet 
x^inoves  in  an  ellipse  with  the  sun  in  one  of  its  foci.  The  same  thing 
'^i'v-as  in  a  few  years  verified  for  several  other  planets,  and  it  was  also 
^liown  that  the  radius  from  the  sun  to  the  planet  always  sweeps  over 
^<][ual  areas  in  equal  times.  These  conclusions,  drawn  without  hypoth- 
esis from  observations,  formed  the  direct  foundation  for  Newton's 
O.emonstration  of  the  law  of  gravitation  which  was  published  in  the 
-f^^rincipia  in  1686. 

An  ellipse  is  a  closed  oval  which  has  the  property  that  the  sum  of 
"t:  lie  distances  from  any  point  on  it  to  two  fixed  points  within  is  constant 
^nd  equal  to  its  length.  Or,  it  is  the  apparent  shape  of  a  circle  when  its 
X>lane  is  not  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight.  In  Figure  2,  S  and  S'  are 
^lie  foci,  and  PS'  +PS  =AB  wherever  the  point  P  may  be.  The  eccen- 
t:iicity  is  OS-i-OA,  As  the  ellipse  becomes  more  and  more  nearly 
<5ircular  the  foci  S  and  S'  approach  the  center  0.  The  orbit  of  the 
^arth  is  so  nearly  circular  that  its  eccentricity,  which  is  .0168,  can  not 
V:>e  shown  in  a  diagram. 

To  draw  an  ellipse  easily  set  two  pins  in  the  paper,  place  a  loop  of 
ti-liread  over  them  of  such  length  that  there  shall  be  a  little  slack,  take 
^  pencil  with  a  small  groove  cut  in  the  graphite  near  the  point  for  the 


2  I  8  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 


thread  to  run  in,  and  trace  out  the  curve  by  moving  the  pencil  so  as 
to  keep  the  thread  always  taut.  In  the  diagram  the  pencil  would  be 
at  P,  the  pins  at  S  and  S\  the  thread  reaching  from  P  to  S',  from  S'  to 
S,  and  from  S  back  to  P.  It  follows  that  if  the  curve  is  drawn  in  this 
way  PS'  -\-PS  is  a  constant  and  when  P  is  at  A  or  B  it  is  seen  that  the 
sum  equals  AB. 

It  is  sometimes  supposed  that  the  orbits  of  the  planets  are  ellipses 
because  of  their  mutual  attractions,  without  which  they  would  be 
strictly  circular.  Nothing  is  more  erroneous,  although  the  proofs  of 
this  statement  and  some  of  those  which  will  follow  can  not  be  given 
without  conisderable  mathematics,  and  will  therefore  l)e  omitted  here. 

Suppose  the  sun  is  at  the  focus  *S  and  that  the  planet  is  started 
from  A  at  right  angles  to  the  line  SA.  There  is  one  certain  velocity 
depending  upon  the  sum  of  the  masses  of  the  sun  and  planet  and  their 


Fl(J.  2.      B 


distance  apart  which  will  give  a  circular  orbit  if  there  are  no  other 
forces  involved.  A  greater  velocity  will  give  an  ellipse  such  as  is 
drawn  in  the  figure,  the  elongation  being  greater  the  greater  the  initial 
velocity.  A  lesser  velocity  will  also  give  an  ellipse,  but  in  this  case  the 
point  ^4  will  be  the  one  farthest  from  the  sun.  Since  there  is  only  one 
velocity  which  will  give  a  circle  while  an  infinity  give  ellipses  it  is  not 
in  the  least  strange  that  all  th(^  orbits  are  ellipses  instead  of  circles, 
and  according  to  modern  views  the  lack  of  circular  motion  indicates 
no  imperfection  in  the  system. 

Another  view  which  is  somewhat  prevalent  and  entirely  erroneous 
is  that  the  planets  are  so  distributed  that  a  perfect  balance  of  forces 
is  kept  up.  and  that  any  disturbance  to  the  system  would  result  in  its 
speedy  collapse.  The  fact  is  that  tlie  planets  interact  upon  each  other 
to  some  slight  extent,  but,  i '  every  ])lanet  except  the  earth  were  removed, 
only  a  somewhat  attentive  observer  of  the  sky  would  ever  notice 
any  difference. 

As  has  just  been  stated  the  mutual  attractions  of  the  planets  modify 


C9(H  THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH  219 


^heir  motions  to  some  slight  extent  and  the  result  is  that  no  planet 
:Mnoves  in  an  exact  ellipse.  These  deviations  from  elliptic  motion  are 
called  perturbations.  Although  the  planets  do  not  move  in  fixed 
-ellipses  it  has  been  found  convenient,  both  in  analysis  and  popular 
<iescription.  to  consider  that  they  always  move  in  ellipses,  but  in  ones 
njvhich  continually  change  in  eccentricity,  position,  etc.  The  idea  has 
T)een  aptly  illustrated  by  comparing  the  motions  of  the  planets  with 
that  of  a  bead  nmning  on  a  wire  hoop  bent  into  the  form  of  an  ellipse 
and  whose  eccentricity,  position,  etc.,  continually  change.  The  bead 
is  always  running  on  an  ellipse,  but  the  ellipse  is  constantly  varying. 

A  question  of  the  very  highest  interest  and  importance  relates  to 
the  effects  of  the  mutual  attractions  of  the  planets  upon  their  orbits, 
particularly  whether  the  present  general  configuration  of  the  solar 
system  ever  will  be  greatly  altered  or  not.     This  is  a  question  of  great 
mathematical  difficulty,  and  has  not  been  answered  with  certainty  for 
an  indefinite  time,  but  the  conclusions  are  undoubtedly  very  nearly 
correct  for  perhaps  several  hundred  thousand  years.     The  appropriate 
mathematical  discussion,  due  to  Lagrange  and  Laplace  at  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  centur\%  shows  that  the  mean  distances  from  the  sun 
and  the  periods  do  not  change  in  the  long  run,  although  they  are  subject 
to  short  period  variations;   that  the  eccentricities  and  inclinations  to 
the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit  increase  or  decrease  for  many  thousands 
of  years  and  then  change  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  have  also  short 
period  variations;  and  that  their  lines  of  nodes  (i.  e.,  the  lines  of  inter- 
section of  their  planes  with  the    plane  of  the  earth's  orbit)  and  the 
lines  of  their  major  axes  continually  revolve  in  one  direction,  besides 
having  short  period  oscillations.     The  amounts  of  change  and  these 
long  periods  of  oscillation  are  different  for  the  different  planets.     Thus, 
^xi  the  case  of  the  earth  the  eccentricity  which  is  now  .0168  is  slowly 
<iiminishing  and  will  continue  to  decrease  for  about  24,000  years  when 
it*  will  be  about  .003,  after  which  it  will  increase  for  about  40,000  years 
"W-hen,  according  to  Leverrier,  it  will  be  about  .078;   the  plane  of  the 
^a,rth's  orbit  changes  through  an  angle  of  2°  40'  in  the  course  of  many 
"tliousands  of  years;  and  the  line  of  the  earth's  major  axis  completes  a 
dotation  in  the  direction  in  which  the  earth  moves  in  about  108,000 

CROLL's   theory    of   the   ICE    AGES 

One  might  suppose  that  the  questions  which  have  just  been  discussed 
^re  of  importance  to  the  mathematical  astronomer  rather  than  to 
One  whose  interests   are  primarily  in  geography  or  geology,   but  the 

8 


2  20  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 


conclusions  arrived  at  are  very  far-reaching  in  their  points  of  contact, 
as  will  be  illustrated  by  an  example  in  this  section. 

The  point  A  (see  Fig.  2)  is  the  perihelion  point  and  while  in  that 
part  of  its  orbit  the  earth  receives  more  light  and  heat  from  the  sim 
than  at  any  other  time,  the  amount  being  about  1-15  more  than  when 
at  B,  If  the  earth's  orbit  had  its  maximum  eccentricity  of  .078,  the 
difference  would  be  nearly  1-5,  and  if  it  had  its  minimum  value  of  .003 
the  difference  would  be  about  1-85.  The  earth  is  at  A  on  December 
31st  and  at  B  on  July  2d  (a  variation  of  a  day  or  two  in  these  dates  is 
possible  owing  to  the  leap  year  and  perturbations).  If  the  angle  DSA 
equals  100  degrees,  and  the  angle  ASC  80  degrees,  then  the  sun  is  at 
the  autumnal  equinox  when  the  earth  is  at  Z),  and  at  the  vernal  equinox 
when  the  earth  is  at  C.  If  the  whole  year  is  to  be  divided  into  two 
seasons,  winter  and  summer,  the  northern  hemisphere  will  have  winter 
while  the  earth  is  moving  through  the  arc  DAC,  and  summer  while 
it  is  moving  through  the  arc  CBD.  Since  the  area  DAC  is  less  than  the 
area  CBD,  and  since  the  radius  from  the  sun  passes  over  equal  areas 
in  equal  times,  it  follows  that  our  winters  are  shorter  than  our  summers. 
The  actual  count  from  September  22d  to  March  21st,  and  from  March 
21st  to  September  22d  shows  them  to  be  180  and  185  days  respectively. 
In  the  southern  hemisphere  things  are  precisely  reversed.  That  is, 
our  winters  are  shorter  than  those  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  but, 
latitudes  and  other  things  being  equal,  we  receive  more  heat  daily 
than  is  received  there  because  the  earth  is  nearest  the  sun  in  our  winter. 
Our  summers  are  longer  than  those  south  of  the  equator,  but,  other 
things  being  equal,  we  receive  less  heat  daily.  The  appropriate  mathe- 
matical discussion  shows,  however,  that  corresponding  latitudes  in 
the  two  hemispheres  receive  precisely  equal  amounts  of  heat  in  any 
two  corresponding  seasons  or  proportional  parts  of  seasons,  but,  owing 
to  their  different  lengths  in  the  two  hemispheres,  the  heat  is  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  year  (juite  differently  in  the  two  cases. 

About  twenty  years  ago  James  Croll  attempted  to  show"  that  the 
six  or  seven  ice  ages  which  have  followed  one  another  in  the  continents 
of  the  northern  hemisphere  were  due  to  the  very  unequal  distribution 
of  heat  throughout  the  year,  which  would  occur  at  the  epochs  when 
the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  is  great,  and  the  earth  at  perihelion 
in  our  summer.  According  to  this  theory  the  glacial  epochs  have  been 
separated  from  each  other  by  immense  periods  of  time,  in  fact,  much 
longer  than  any  other  considerations  seem  to  indicate.  For  this  and 
other  reasons  which  can  not  be  entered  into  here,  the  theory'  is  now 
generally  regarded  as  incompetent,  although  it  can  not  be  doubted  that 


X904  THE  MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH  221 

the  causes  which  Croll  pointed  out  have  had  considerable  effects  on 
tihe  climate  of  the  earth  in  the  ages  that  are  past,  and  that  they  will 
^xert  sensible  influences  in  time  to  come. 

MOTION   OF  THE   SOLAR   SYSTEM   WITH   RESPECT  TO   THE   FIXED   STARS 

As  everything  on  the  earth,  even  the  "eternal  hills,"  is  subject  to 
change,  so  also  in  the  heavens  everything  changes.  The  fixed  stars  are 
only  relatively  fixed,  the  configurations  of  the  constellations  being 
greatly  altered  in  the  course  of  thousands  of  years.  With  modern  instru- 
ments the  relative  drifting  of  most  of  the  bright  stars  and  many  faint 
ones  can  be  detected  in  a  year  or  two.  These  observations  imply 
relative  motions  among  the  stars,  and  as  the  sun  is  a  star  it  is  only 
reasonable  to  expect  that  it  moves  with  respect  to  the  other  stars. 

Over  one  hundred  years  ago  Sir  WilUam  Herschel  found  that  the 
stars  in  one  part  of  the  sky  were  apparently  getting  a  little  farther  from 
each  other,  while  in  the  opposite  part  they  were  apparently  closing 
together.     Although  these  motions  were  very  slight  and  found  only  by 
taking  averages,  he  boldly  interpreted  it  as  meaning  that  the  whole 
Solar  system  is  moving  toward  that  part  of  the  sky  where  the  spreading 
out  occurs,  and  he  fixed  the  point  toward  which  we  move  as  in  the  con- 
stellation Hercules.     This  constellation  is  almost  at  the  zenith  in  our 
latitude  the   1st  of   April  at  five  o^clock  in  the  morning,  being  in  the 
^^stem  sky  immediately  before  daylight.     The  work  of  one  hundred 
3^^ars  along  the  line  of  HerscheFs  investigation  has  verified  his  conclu- 
sions even  to  almost  the  precise  point  in  the  sky  designated  by  him. 

In  the  last  few  years  the  spectroscope  has  been  applied  to  test  the 

^*^^otion  of  the  system.     It  would  be  a  simple  matter  if  the  stars  were 

^*>^t  moving  with  respect  to  each  other.     As  it  is,  the  spectroscope  gives 

"^Vie  combined  components  of  motion  of  the  star  and  earth  in  the  line 

J  twining  them.     From  a  large  number  of  observations  it  is  found  that, 

^^-»i  t?ie  average,  the  sun  and  the^  stars  in  the  direction  of  Hercules  are 

^-pproaching  each  other,  while  the  sun  and  the  stars  in  the  opposite 

direction  are  receding  from  each  other.     Therefore  this  method  leads 

'^o  the  conclusion  that  the  sun  is  moving  toward  the  constellation 

liercules  with  respect  to  the  fixed  stars.     The  spectroscope  also  gives, 

V>y  averages,  the  velocity  of  the  sun^s  motion,  which  turns  out  to  be 

^bout  eleven  or  twelve  miles  per  second.     The  earth  is  thus  describing 

^  spiral  around  the  fine  of  the  sun's  way  as  an  axis. 

Some  of  the  stars  and  the  sun  are  approaching  each  other  or  receding 
from  each  other  at  astonishing  velocities.  Thus,  Sirius  and  the  sun 
Hre  receding  from  each  other  at  the  rate  of  more  than  twenty  miles 


22  2  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  May 

per  second,  or  more  than  300,000,000  miles  annually.  Although  this 
has  been  going  on  indefinitely  no  observable  change  in  the  appearance  of 
the  star  has  taken  place  since  scientific  observations  of  it  have  been 
made.  The  reason  is  that  this  distance,  great  as  it  may  be,  is  but  an 
extremely  small  part  of  the  vast  distance  between  the  star  and  us. 
Although  Sirius  is  comparatively  near  us,  as  the  distances  to  the  stars 
go,  it  will  be  more  than  800  years  before  a  velocity  of  twenty  miles 
per  second  will  increase  its  distance  by  one  per  cent.  Vega,  the  brightest 
star  in  Lyra  and  (piite  near  the  apex  of  the  sun's  way,  and  the  sun, 
an^  approaching  each  other  at  the  rate  of  about  fifty  miles  per  second. 

Probably  the  sun  is  nu)ving  in  a  sensibly  straight  line,  for  the  stars 
are  so  extremely  remote  that  their  attractive  influences  are  quite 
inappreciable.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume,  as  is  sometimes  done, 
that  its  motion  is  due  to  the  attraction  oi  other  bodies,  for  this  implies 
that  it  was  originally  at  rest,  an  as.sumption  which  is  by  no  means 
necessary,  and  not  even  probable. 

(.>ne  possible  consequence  of  the  sun's  motion  remains  to  be  men- 
tioned, and  that  is  that  it  may  some  time  encounter  meteoric  matter 
or  even  coHide  with  a  star.  In  fact,  this  outcome  seems  to  be  almost 
inevitable,  ultimately.  If  a  collisii>n  sht)uld  occur,  it  would  result  in 
the  destruction  of  the  pn^si^it  system  by  the  enormous  amount  of  heat 
generatinl  in  the  impact.  The  combineil  mas?  would  become  nebulous. 
after  which  it  would  undoriri>  an  evv»lution  o\  looling  and  shrinking. 
lndiH\l.  it  may  be  that  our  present  system  has  evolveil  from  a  nebulous 
mass  srenerated  by  collisions  oi  earlier  and  smaller  bodies  than  the 
sun.  It  i>  fairly  pnU^ai^le  that  temporary  stars  owe  their  sudden 
intense  lun.inosity  to  tlie  heat  irenerati^l  i\v  the  impact  of  eoDisions 
of  <ome  sort. 

THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY  IN  THE 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL:  A  STUDY  IN 

EDUCATIONAL  VALUES 

•:>   w :: : :  w.  iii  vxr:  vu  ?  vr-ivv 

1^  riH  I  11^   :v^  -.:<  l.wos:   :or:r.s.  i\iv.o:i::.':.   O'T.sists  in  giAing  to 
"^      t'v  ::\  ;;\i  '^i::^  e\:vr*e::.r<  \\h:o:;  shal*  ::\  •  "ify  his  future  adjust- 
r..o:'.:<  \v.:::  ri^:\r\:.oo  :.^  oer:.*iir.  -'■.;":*  ^^r  ly.oral  ends.     Such 
exivr.er.vvs  r  ,s\   Iv  r.  ..\tr:t\:  i;:-;vr   ::rtv:ly    :hr  v.irh  the  indixidual's 
ivrs\>:\A!  vvv,;.iv*.    \x.::*.  ::.o  er.v:r^.  :.:v.ov.:      i^r   ir.iirwtly  (through  Ian- 
jCV.Aj^"  .^r  >o:vv  .*::vr  <v:v/:\^V.o  :...^;:\::v.  f^r  :he  transnui^on  of  experi- 


X9«>4  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY  2  23 

^nce).  Such  experiences  may  function  either  automatically  (as  habit) 
or  consciously  (as  judgment  or  reason).  The  problem  of  the  science  of 
educational  values  is  to  determine  the  part  which  the  various  items 
of  the  curriculum  play  in  this  process.  Given  any  subject  of  instruc- 
"tion,  for  example,  the  question  must  be  answered:  In  what  different 
'Ways  will  this  knowledge  be  likely  to  function  in  future  adjustments? 
This  question  answered,  the  detailed  problems  of  method  can  then 
be  attacked:  How  shall  we  teach  this  subject  in  order  that  it  may 
efficiently  fulfill  its  function?  How  much  time  and  energy  shall  be 
allotted  to  this  subject  in  comparison  with  other  departments  of  instruc- 
tion? 

The  increasing  importance  of  geography  in  all  stages  of  education 
^renders  the  question  of  values  especially  important.  Why  has  this 
subject  so  suddenly  assumed  a  position  of  great  importance,  not  only 
in  the  elementary  schools,  Vjut  also  in  the  high  schools,  the  colleges, 
^nd  the  universities?  What  has  caused  so  marvelous  a  change  in  the 
status  of  a  discipline  which,  only  a  few  years  since,  was  derisively 
termed  'Hhe  sick  man  of  the  curriculum ''?  An  answer  to  these  ques- 
tions immediately  suggests  itself:  A  knowledge  of  geography  has  been 
^ound  to  be  of  service  to  its  possessor.  What  this  service  is,  and  how 
the  **new"  geography  has  come  to  render  it  efficiently,  when  the  **old'' 
geography  was  inadequate  for  this  purpose,  are  questions  that  certainly 
^ifierit  careful  consideration. 

It  is  obvious  that  one's  estimation  of  the  vahic  of  geographical  facts 
depends  entirely  upon  one's  connotation  of  the  term  ^^geographical." 
If  we  include  under  this  term  only  those  facts  that  were  commonly 
^Tiade  the  subjects  of  geographical  instruction  twenty  years  ago,  we 
^i^ust  say  in  all  candor  that  such  facts  have  but  a  minimum  of  utility 
^Or  their  possessor — unless,  indeed,  he  chance  to  be  a  sailor.  If,  how- 
^v-er,  we  mean  by  geographical  facts  all  the  knowledge  which  man 
*>.as  accumulated  conceniing  his  environment  and  its  relation  to  his 
life,  then  the  question  obviously  assumes  a  different  aspect.  Thus 
defined,  geography  becomes  the  nucleus  of  all  the  sciences  that  deal 
'^'v^th  natural  phenomena.  But  geography  is  something  more  and 
Something  less  than  a  mere  blending  of  these  various  departments  of 
•knowledge.  It  is  both  more  and  less  than  astronomy  plus  geology 
t>lus  botany  plus  zoology  plus  anthropology.  Twenty  years  ago  this 
statement  would  not  have  been  true,  at  least  in  so  far  as  the  geography 
of  the  schools  was  concerned.  Geography  at  that  time  was  but  a  mosaic 
of  materials  borrowed  from  the  various  sciences  of  nature.  This 
itiosaic  was  not  in  itself  a  science,  because  it  lacked  a  unifying  principle. 


2  24  ^"^  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  May 

The  ver}'  looseness  of  the  old  definition  betrays  this  weakness: 
"Geography  is  a  description  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  of  its 
countries  and  their  inhabitants." 

The  unifying  principle  which  has  made  geography  a  science  is  Man. 
Not  all  the  facts  of  botany  are  important  in  geography,  but  only  those 
that  are  directly  connected  with  man's  welfare.  This  does  not  imply 
that  a  complete  treatment  of  geography  would  not  p)erhaps  involve 
all  the  facts  of  botany,  but  these  would  be  arranged  and  classified  with 
reference  to  this  unifying  principle.  The  pure  science  of  botany,  on 
the  other  hand,  takes  no  account  whatsoever  of  this  principle.  To 
all  intents  and  purposes,  a  pure  science  is  a  closed  system. 

This  distinctively  human  view  of  geography  was  first  clearly  enun- 
ciated by  the  great  German  geographer,  Karl  Ritter,  who  died  in  1859. 
It  has  only  been  within  recent  years,  however,  that  the  principle  has 
come  to  be  generally  adopted,  and  even  to-day  there  are  some  author- 
ities who  refuse  to  recognize  the  hmitations  which  it  imposes;  but  even 
the  latter  would  probably  agree  that,  for  educational  purposes,  this 
view  of  geography  is  the  most  satisfactor\\  Mr.  Red  way  has  summed 
up  the  matter  in  the  following  words:  "The  question  of  the  nature  of 
geography  is  gradually  settling  itself  into  one  that  inqxiires  into  the 
pro|)er  basis  and  scope  of  the  subject.  During  the  past  twenty  years 
we  have  seen  public  opinion  throw  aside  the  notion  ...  of  geography 
as  a  'description  of  tlie  earth's  surface/  and  substitute  therefore  a  verj- 
broad  idea,  'the  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man.'  ...  If  I 
felt  called  upon  still  further  to  add  to  the  literature  of  definition,  I 
should  put  it  as  Mho  study  of  man  and  his  environment/  or.  perhaps, 
Mife  and  its  environment/''* 

If.  then,  we  look  u})on  geograi)liy  as  a  study  of  the  environment  in 
its  relation  to  the  life  of  man.  the  utilitarian  value  that  attaches  to 
this  subject  is  ()l)vious  from  the  outset.  Broadly  speaking,  all  life  is 
adjustment  to  an  environment.  Anything  that  tends  to  render  this 
adjustment  more  efficient  is  of  value  from  the  standpoint  of  utility. 
Whatever  reduces  waste,  whatever  saves  time,  energj',  labor,  whatever 
increases  wealth  and  material  pros[)erity  may  be  looked  upon  as  utili- 
tarian in  its  value.  That  the  facts  of  geography,  as  we  now  understand 
that  term,  possess  such  utilitarian  value  in  a  degree  sufficient  to  war- 
rant their  \i'ide  dissemination  is  easily  demonstrated.  A  few  concrete 
instances  will  suffice  to  illustrate  this  point. 

The  prooen  ^  ^Utnha&m  that  is  continually  going  on,  tending  to 
relieve  ^  of  the  earth's  surface  and  to  populate  the 

^  p.  155. 


i 


«^04  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


225 


landeveloped  areas,  can  take  place  either  blindly  or  intelligently.     In 

the  former  case,  lack  of  accurate  information  concerning  the  condi- 

tiions  of  different  regions — their  relative  productivity,  healthfulness, 

^tc. — leads  to  a  chance  or  fortuitous  selection  of  favorable  environ- 

i:xients;  that  is,  under  conditions  of  geographical  ignorance,  migratory 

niovements  frequently  entail  a  tremendous  material  waste,  to  say 

^:xothing  of  human  suffering.     Inadequate  knowledge  of  climatic  con- 

<iition8,  for  example,  led  to  the  misfortunes  that  followed  the  wild  rush 

xnto  the  semi-arid  regions  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  in  the  early  80's. 

"Xo-day  the  work  of  the  various  scientific  bureaus  of  the  national  Govem- 

^K^ent  is  devoted  to  the  gathering  of  accurate  information  regarding  the 

temperature,  rainfall,  fertility,  and  salubrity  of  various  parts  of  the 

<2ountry.     Annually  a  vast  mass  of  information  is  collected,  digested, 

-^nd  published — information  which  is,  in  its  very  essence,  geographical 

Iscxiowledge.     The  pupil  in  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school 

^^oiild  and  certainly  should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  sources  of  this 

information  and  trained  in  its  interpretation.     The  expense  which  is 

irnvolved  in  the  collecting  of  this  data  would  be  repaid  in  a  generation,  if 

"^he  schools  would  see  to  it  that  their  pupils  know  where  to  get  at  it 

"^nd  how  to  use  it.     In  fact,  a  more  intimate  connection  between  the 

I^epartment  of  Agriculture  and  the  public  schools  is  earnestly  to  be 

'^^ired.     In  some  instances  a  start  in  this  direction  has  been  made 

^Ixrough  the  medium  of  the  State  agricultural  colleges^  but,  as  yet,  it 

^^   only  a  start.     The  only  possible  objection  that  could  be  urged  against 

^Vi^ch  a  correlation  would  come  from  wild-cat  land  companies  that 

^^tempt  to  colonize  unproductive  regions.     An  examination  of  the 

"^civertising  pages  of  recent  magazines  will  demonstrate  that  such  com- 

^>^nies  exist  even  to-day. 

The  merchant  engaged  in  the  export  trade  has  no  longer  to  send 
■^Vis  vessels  to  distant  shores  on  the  chance  that  a  market  may  there  be 
^^ir^und  for  his  goods.     The  Consular  Reports  published  by  the  Govern- 
^^^^^>ent  give  accurate  information  concerning  the  conunercial  geography 
^^:C  foreign  countries — what  goods  are  in  demand,  at  what  profit  they 
^^«in  be  sold,  what  duty  must  be  paid  for  their  importation,  what  com- 
'^Xiodities  will  not  find  a  sale,  and  a  host  of  other  valuable  facts  which 
^^perate  to  reduce  losses  and  increase  profits.     All  this  geographical 
knowledge  is  important,  from  a  utilitarian  point  of  view,  to  many  differ- 
ent classes  of  people.   It  is  knowledge  which  the  merchant,  the  farmer, 
tilie  manufacturer,  and  the  legislator  may  frequently  use  to  their  advan- 
t;age.     And  the  laborer  seeking  a  market  for  his  labor  may  be  just  as 
ixiaterially  benefited  by  such  knowledge  as  the  manufacturer  seeking 


2  26  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  May 


a  market  for  his  products.  Here,  again,  is  a  suggestion  toward  the 
making  of  geography  practical  in  the  elementary  school.     The  writer  — Dt 

once  proposed  this  question  to  an  eighth  grade  class  that  had  been  ^— iv 

exceptionally   well    prepared   in   commercial   geography:    The    Great  c*^,^ 

Northern  Railroad  recently  sent  a  representative  to  Asiatic  Russia  to  <z^  .-^ 

study  the  Trans-Siberian  Railroad;  what  motives  led  the  management  n^^^^rm 

to  take  this  step?  A  variety  of  answers  were  obtained,  nearly  all 
showing  commendable  acumen  of  thought.  These  were  criticised  by 
the  class  with  the  aid  of  suggestive  questions,  and  finally  the  conclusion 
was  reached  that  the  Great  Northern  directors  were  anxious  to  know 
whether  they  could  compete  with  Russia  in  supplying  wheat  for  the 
oriental  market.  It  is  obvious  that  such  a  question  of  commercial 
geography  is  of  vital  interest  not  only  to  the  stockholders  of  the  Great 
Northern  Railroad  but  also  to  the  entire  population  of  the  northwestern 
States. 

/      We  have  spoken  so  far  only  of  the  utilitarian  value  of  detailed  facts 
of  geography.     But  the  new  geography,  like  all  tnie  sciences,  renders        .?=:S-:k"^3b 
deductive  processes  possible.     From  the  facts  are  induced  great  prin-        — m:^:mi 

ciples  which  can,  in  turn,  be  applied  to  particular  instances  with  rea-       .^x^a 

sonable  certainty  that  the  conclusions  will  be  justified  by  actual  facts.  —  ^^^^t^ 
''All  knowledge,"  says  Professor  Ostwald,  "is  prescience";  that  is,  ^  ^siis 
the  ultimate  value  of  knowledge,  as  such,  lies  in  the  fact  that  with  it  one       ^^  ^rxm 

can  forecast  the  future  on  the  basis  of  the  past.     The  value  of  the  prin-      -^'^■^  -'i- 

ciplos  of  geography,  from  a  utilitarian  standpoint,  is  as  unmistakable      ^^X^e 
as  the  value  of  detailed  geographical  facts.     To-day  we  not  only  know,       «  ---^^^^ 
as  a  matter  of  direct  observation,  that  certain  regions  are  unsuitable     .-«^^-t«e 
for  agricultural  pursuits,  but,  given  the  contour  of  a  certain  region,      .^   -^^^  ''^^ 
given  other  facts  of  its  topography,  given  a  few  hints  as  to  its  geological      ^  -^^^  '^' 
history,  given  the  prevailing  winds,  and  its  distance  from  the  sea,  we     '^^  ^.^'e 
can  determine  a  lyriori  its  suitability   for  agriculture.     There  is,  of     "^  ^^^^o\ 
course,  a  possibility  of  error.     Actual  test  may  overthrow  the  results  of     "^  ^::i^of 
our  theoretical  considerations;  but  the  chances  are  greatly  in  favor  of 
their  validity.     An  interesting  example  of  a  gigantic  enterprise,  based 
upon  a  priori  reasoning  from  geographical  generalizations,  is  furnished 
by  the  recent  exploitation  of  the  water  power  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie.     All 
precedents   seemed   to   justify  the   assumption   that   a   great    manu- 
facturing and  commercial  center  should  grow  up  at  this  point.     Its 
situation  near  the  wheat  fields  of  the  Northwest,  near  the  immense 
virgin  forests  of  Ontario,  near  the  unrivaled  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  the 
Lake  Superior  region;   its  facilities  for  water  communication  with  the 
most  populous  centers  of  the  continent ;  its  proximity  to  the  labor  market^ — 


X904  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY  22  7 

—all  these  conditions  supplemented  the  extensive  water  power  devel- 
oped by  the  rapids  of  St.  Marys  River  in  warranting  the  rosiest  pictures 
of  the  future.     A  large  corporation  was  organized  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  these  resources.     A  canal  was  dug  on  the  Canadian  side — 
cut  through  the  solid  rock — to  bring  the  water  to  the  turbines  at  a 
convenient   point.     Factories   were   constructed   on   a   scale   hitherto 
unheard  of  in  the  business  world.     Steamer  lines  were  operated  on 
the  lakes,  and  a  railroad  was  pushed  north  into  the  forest  to  bring 
down  pulp  wood  and  iron  ore.     For  a  time  everything  went  as  antici- 
pated, but  a  few  months  ago  the  entire  organization  collapsed.      Some 
important  factor,  no  one  seems  to  know  just  what,  had  been  overlooked. 
Possibly  the  results  were  expected  too  quickly;   time  was  not  allowed 
Tor  natural  development.     But  that  the  fundamental  conclusion  was 
valid — that  a  great  city  will  sometime  grow  up  at  this  point — no  one 
seems  to  doubt,  even  after  this  disastrous  failure. 

Does  the  utilitarian   value   of  geography  justify  the  importance 
xvhich  this  subject  has  assumed  in  education?     Is  it  of  value  to  special 
olasses  rather  than  to  the  average  citizen?     Should  the  study  of  geog- 
X"aphy  be  left,  in  the  main,  to  the  higher  institutions?     Every  one  must 
l<now  how  to  read  and  write,  how  to  compute,  how  to  express  himself 
effectively;  could  not  the  time  of  the  elementary  school  be  spent  more 
j)rofitably  upon  such  subjects  as  these?     Upon  the  basis  of  the  above 
considerations,  and  bearing  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  chil- 
dren never  get  beyond  the  elementary  school,  these  questions  must 
1)6  answered  in  favor  of  geography.     The  utilitarian  value  of  geography, 
lowever,  would  not  justify   its  preeminence  in  the  elementary  school 
'to  the  neglect  of  these  other  branches.     Nor  is  the  utilitarian  value  the 
only  value  that  accrues  to  its  study.     It  adds   an   increment,  and  a 
large  increment,  to  the  total  value  of  the  subject,  but  very  few  disciplines 
rest  upon  utility  alone.     It  is  only  necessary  here  to  point  out  that  the 
utilitarian  value  of  geography  is  extremely  important,  and  that  our 
methods  of  teaching  must  be  modified  in  some  degree  by  this  fact. 
To  what  extent  they  should  be  modified  can  be  determined  only  by 
a  comparison  of  the  utilitarian  value  with  the  other  values  which  geog- 
raphy may  possess. 

We  know  that  the  prominence  of  certain  items  of  the  curriculum  is 
justified,  not  by  the  utility  of  their  facts  and  principles  in  actual  appli- 
cation to  the  problems  of  life,  but  rather  by  the  condition  that  ignorance 
of  these  facts  and  principles  brands  a  person  as  uneducated,  and  hence 
serves  to  militate  against  his  maximal  eflftciency  in  society.  The  study  of 
grammar  is,  perhaps,  the  best  instance  of  a  subject  of  formal  instruction, 


2  28  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Maj 


the 'main  value  of  which  is  conventioncd.  A  sentence  that  is  gram- 
matically incorrect  may  express  one's  thought  just  as  clearly  as  a 
sentence  that  is  grammatically  correct,  yet  habitual  use  of  incorrect 
forms — disregard  of  conventional  requirements — will  distract  the  atten- 
tion of  one's  auditors  from  the  thought  to  the  form,  and  hence  will 
militate  against  the  maximal  efficiency  of  one's  expression.  The 
question  now  arises:  In  what  degree  will  conventional  requirements 
justify  the  teaching  of  geography  in  the  elementary  schools? 

Geographical  knowledge  is  certainly  "assumed"  as  part  of  the 
intellectual  equipment  of  every  one  who  would  claim  for  his  thoughts 
and  opinions  the  consideration  of  the  average  man.  The  man  who 
does  not  know  that  the  earth  is  round  will  surely  be  handicapped  in  his 
dealings  \\'ith  others ;  for,  in  social  intercourse,  men  and  women  generalize 
upon  slight  baseS;  and  the  man  who  has  proved  himself  to  be  ignorant 
upon  so  common  a  branch  of  knowledge  as  geography  will  receive  scant 
attention  upon  other  matters.  The  elementary  school  owes  it  to  the 
y  individual  to  furnish  him  with  those  geographical  facts  and  concepts 
that "  ever>'  one  must  know."  In  this  day,  when  " learning  by  heart "  has 
been  practically  banished  from  orthodox  pedagogy,  it  is  especiaUy 
necessar>'  to  emphasize  this  point.  A  number  of  facts  must  certainly 
be  memorized  for  this  reason  if  for  no  other. 

In  addition  to  the  value  of  its  facts  in  direct  application  to  the 
needs  of  life,  and  in  addition  to  its  conventional  value,  geography 
has  a  peculiar  value  as  a  preparation  for  other  subjects.  A  knowledge 
of  geography  is  especially  important  in  the  successful  study  of  (1)  his- 
tory- and  current  events.  (2)  literature,  and  (3)  natural  science. 

(1)  "Histor}'  is  not  intelligible  without  geography,"  says  a  recent 
Nvriter.*  "This  is  obviously  true  in  the  sense  that  the  reader  of  history 
nuist  learn  where  the  frontiers  of  States  are.  where  battles  are  fought 
out,  whither  colonies  were  dispatched.  It  is  equally  if  less  obviously 
tnie  that  ixei^graphical  facts  ver}-  largely  influence  the  course  of  history. 
Even  the  constitutional  and  social  developments  within  a  settled 
region  an^  scarcely  indejx^ndent  of  them,  since  geographical  position 
affects  the  nature  and  extent  of  intercourse  with  other  nations,  and 
thon^fore  of  t  he  intluenco  exert eil  by  foreign  ideas.  All  external  relations, 
luv^tile  and  |>eai*eful.  are  baseii  largely  on  geography,  while  industrial 
progn^ss  de|HMuls  primarily,  though  not  exclusively,  on  matters  described 
in  every  giH\craphy  lHM>k — the  natural  products  of  a  country  and  the 
facilities  which  its  structure  affonls  for  trade,  both  domestic  and  for- 


H«  K  Qeoiltr:     The  RtkUiom  of  Gto^raphy  and  Hittcnry,  Oxford.  1901 ,  p.  1 . 


*904  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY  229 

It  should  not  be  overlooked,  however,  that  the  relation  of  geography  t^ 
to  history  is,  in  some  measure,  reciprocal — that,  while  geography  is 
essential  to  the  understanding  of  history,  history  is  sometimes  no  less 
important  in  the  rational  study  of  geography.  It  is  perfectly  obvious 
that  the  significance  of  many  geographical  facts  depends  in  no  small 
measure  upon  historical  conditions.  Boundaries  between  countries, 
for  example,  are  important  geographically,  yet  they  frequently  have 
no  adequate  geographical  explanation  and  must  be  interpreted  entirely 
from  historical  bases.  This  point  is  also  illustrated  by  the  location  of 
certain  cities,  although  here  a  geographical  influence  may  often  be  traced 
through  historical  media.  For  example,  the  capitals  of  the  South 
American  republics  in  the  Andes  region  (including  also  Venezuela)  are 
all  situated  away  from  the  seacoast  in  all  but  inaccessible  mountain 
regions.  The  cause  of  this  phenomenon  must  be  sought,  not  directly 
in  geographical,  but  rather  in  historical  conditions.  For  generations 
the  neighboring  seas  were  infested  with  pirates,  and  cities  on  the  coast 
were  constantly  subject  to  pillage  and  sack  at  the  hands  of  these  out- 
laws. Nevertheless,  that  this  historical  condition  should  have  arisen 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  operation  of  geographical  causes. 

Admitting  the  reciprocal  nature  of  geography  and  history,  however, 
it  is  plainly  apparent  that  geography  is  the  more  fundamental,  hence 
its  grfiatezLprepacatory  value  in  connection  with  history. 

The  study  of  geography  is  also  essential  to  the  rational  understand-*' ' 
ing  of  "current  events."  Not  to  evaluate  current  tendencies  with  some 
ciegree  of  intelligence  is  certainly  not  to  prove  oneself  efficient  in  society. 
In  this  day  when  an  occurrence  on  the  other  side  of  the  globe  may 
immediately  and  directly  influence  the  humblest  citizen  on  this  side, 
'^he  ability  to  read  newspapers  intelligently  needs  no  elaborate  argu- 
^K^nent  for  its  defense.  And  the  ability  to  read  newspapers  intelligently 
^iertainly  involves  not  a  superficial  but  a  thorough  knowledge  of  geog- 
^^*aphy,  as  the  contemporary  happenings  in  the  Orient  abundantly 
"^^estify. 

(2)  Geography  stands  in  an  intimate  relation  to  the  study  of  litera- 
"tiure.  The  classics  commonly  read  in  the  elementary  schools — Robinson  ^ 
<!ruBoe  and  Evangeline,  to  name  only  two — could  not  be  adequately 
appreciated  without  a  prior  knowledge  of  geographical  facts.  Just 
"what  weight  should  be  attached  to  geographical  study  upon  this  ground 
'is  necessarily  indeterminate,  but  this  factor  certainly  adds  an  increment, 

«nd  a  large  increment,  to  its  total  value. 

(3)  Rather  more  tangible  is  the  relation  of  geography  to  the  natural^ 
sciences.     As  pointed  out  above,  geography  borrows  many  of  its  facts 


230  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  May 


from  (lifT<»ront  fields  of  natural  science — from  geology,  meteorology, 
UHtroiioiny,  botany,  zoology,  etc.  In  the  high  school  and  college  each 
of  th('S(»  sri(Mic(\s  is  treated  in  and  for  itself  as  a  pure  science — that  is, 
without  (explicit  reference  to  its  economic  or  human  relations.  It  is 
ol)vi()Us,  liowover,  that  the  initial  study  of  a  science  should  be  from 
the  human  side.  The  child  should  be  introduced  to  facts  and  principles 
in  tlieir  relation  to  his  life.  This  is  what  geography  attempts  to  do. 
In  a  s(Mise  it  might  be  looked  upon  as  an  introduction  to  all  the  sciences 
of  natun*.  It  is  here  that  the  child  must  get  that  first  large  view  which 
sliould  precede  all  detailed  and  abstract  study — abstract  in  the  sense 
of  b(Mng  consid(»rod  apart  from  its  human  relations.  Educators  are 
now  coming  to  believe  that  the  curriculum  should  include  geography 
not  only  as  a  preparation  for  the  sciences,  but  also  as  a  culmination 
of  all  scientific  study;  that  is.  an  advanced  course  in  geography 
should  form  the  capstone  of  the  science  work  in  high  school  or  college. 
The  student  should  bring  together  the  facts  and  principles  that  he  has 
acipiiriHl  in  tlie  ilet ailed  study  of  the  various  sciences,  and  discover 
their  Halations  to  human  life.  This  is  only  a  consistent  application 
of  the  giMieral  principle  that  mind  begins  with  large  wholes,  passes 
fn^n\  these  Xo  detailed  parts  ami  then  back  again  to  the  wholes — 
analysis  fi>llowiHl  by  synthesis,  differentiation  followed  by  integration. 
In  any  case,  however,  we  can  i\ot  doubt  that  get>graphy  has  great  value 
as  pivparatory  to  ilie  study  of  science,  and  that,  if  the  student  is  to 
iiet  the  most  from  tl\o  study  oi  scionoe  in  high  schcK^l  or  collie,  he 
must  Iv  thonniiihly  irnnuuKHl  in  ir^Hyirrapliy  in  the  elementary'  school. 
Uen\  hvnvovor.  wo  atv  ^|vakini:  for  the  few  rather  than  for  the  many. 
To  the  majority  of  our  pupils  ti\e  initial  study  oi  geography  forms 
the  sum  total  of  tlioir  scientific  instruction.  Therefon^  the  preparatory- 
\  aluo  of  coocraphy  ca!\  iiot  Iv  u!\di;ly  pn^s-sovi  as  a  justification  for  its 
p:x\  r.iiv.o:;co  in  t!\e  oleir.c.rvary  sc!\oo;.* 

riie  v;i\iiii:\c:  H:.c  Iv:n\iv!\  p-*.:*:;V';.'  aiui  c\!:ural  values  is  indeter- 
v.'.;r.a:o  \\  l.,r.  wo  !.:n 0  viiscv.^so;  r.v.vior  :!\o  lioad  of  utility  is  beyond 
V U ^ V. *:^ ;  " * ; v:» V : . i- :i  1  '  i : .  : ; *. o  : ^. a rr\ ^ w os :  so : ; <<^  « ^ f  : lie  won.! .  Hut  con ven- 
v.ov,;r.  N  .r./.os  l\\\^v..o  i^rai'tio:**.  wi.ov.  wo  !vv»k  a:  them  from  a  certain 
s:ar,x;i\^::.:  w'.or.  wo  rv^:r.o:v.lvr  ::\a:  oonvor-V.-^i-aliy  valuable  fact;?  aid 
v^r.o  w,  v^v»o'<  >ov::i*  ;Vvi;r.s::v.ov.:s  The  i^rt^par^itorv  values  are  practical 
v.'.:.:v.:4:i '.\ .  i^rv^\  ;.1<nI  :•.,*»:  :V.o  sr.l\\v:s  w:.-cV.  :hoy  \vk  forwarvl  to  an? 
;:-.   :  '<:*.M  AC-*  v--^"*^''^-       1 --^^  v;\*v.o<  wV/.oh  wo  h.^vo  now  to  viisciiss 


«904  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


^11  doubtless  appeal  to  one  as  ultimately  practical,  although  with 
more  intermediate  steps  than  is  the  case  with  those  considered  above. 
IBecause  of  this  distinction  we  may  class  the  following  as  cultural 
values,  remembering,  however,  that  the  distinction  between  practical 
^nd  cultural  is  one  of  degree  rather  than  of  kind. 

Acquisitiveness  in  man  is  an  instinct.  Like  all  instincts  it  owes  its 
existence  to  the  forces  of  natural  selection  working  upon  fortuitous 
variations  in  nerve  structure.  It  has  been  good  for  man  to  be  curious 
about  his  environment,  to  study  his  environment,  and  to  determine 
the  laws  that  govern  it.  Primitive  man  did  not  realize,  probably, 
that  his  inordinate  curiosity  was  good  for  him.  In  his  own  rude  way 
he  investigated  things  for  the  mere  ''fun  of  it" — for  the  pleasure  which 
it  afforded  him.  Later  in  his  development  he  came  to  find  out  that 
many  of  the  facts  which  he  discovered  and  many  of  the  laws  which  he 
worked  out  were  "good"  for  him — that  the  knowledge  which  he  had 
gained  helped  him  in  solving  the  problems  of  his  life.  But  this  appre- 
ciation of  the  value  of  acquisitiveness  came  only  after  a  long  lapse  of 
time. 

The  desire  to  satisfy  curiosity  is  thus  seen  to  be  at  the  basis  of 
knowledge.  The  child  evinces  this  desire.  His  curiosity  is  boundless, 
and  upon  this  native  instinct  the  educator  may  build.  It  is  clear, 
however,  that  he  can  not  trust  to  it  entirely,  for  the  very  fact  that  it 
is  an  instinct  means  that  it  runs  its  course  in  passive  attention.  It  is 
Hot  sustained,  directed,  organized.  All  these  things  mean  active 
^it/tention,  mean  work.  Curiosity  soon  tires,  but  any  measurable  addi- 
tiion  to  knowledge  involves  persistent  effort. 

It  is  the  problem  of  the  educator,  then,  to  replace  this  instinctive 
o\iriosity  with  a  higher  mental  process.  The  desire  to  obtain  knowledge  /.^ 
for  the  sake  of  knowledge  is  not  to  be  discouraged,  but  it  is  to  be  held 
ti^o  a  definite  line  until  results  follow.  Wherever  possible,  the  child's 
oxiriosity  should  be  directed  along  fines  that  will  help  him  most  in  his 
fxiture  adjustments.  There  are  times,  however,  when  this  curiosity 
^^iiay  be  directed  toward  ends  the  practical  significance  of  which  is  not 
Once  apparent,  and  it  is  these  cases  that  we  must  discuss  under  the 
liead  of  cultural  values. 

In  the  first  place,  some  children  may  be  curious  in  certain  special 
directions.  They  may  evince  a  desire,  perhaps,  to  learn  all  that  they 
can  about  Arctic  exploration.  The  facts  that  they  obtain  from  various 
sources  may  not  be  applicable  to  the  problems  that  they  nmst  solve 
in  later  life,  yet  no  sensible  teacher  would  attempt  for  a  moment  to 
curtail  this  interest.    He  has  here  the  opportunity  to  replace  instinctive 


232  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  3Uy 


curifmity  with  a  hif^hcr  Hcntiment,  namely,  intellectual  interest.  This 
iH  (rloHoly  akin  to  other  forms  of  sentiment,  such  as  appreciation  of  art, 
mimic,  and  lit^iraturc.  None  of  these  is,  in  itself,  "practical."  yet 
(?ach  Hu)mMyvH  a  very  practical  end.  Without  some  form  of  pleasure, 
life  would  be  imfK)ssible.  If  the  higher  forms  of  pleasure — the  senti- 
ments— fiVi;  not  developed,  the  individual  will  be  thro\\Ti  back  upon 
the  primitive  pleasures.  He  will  follow  the  instincts,  the  lines  of  least 
resiHtanci!.  In  our  s(;hool  work  to-day  we  are  trying  to  develop  the 
aesthetic  sentiments — to  cultivate  an  appreciation  for  art,  music,  and 
literature.  We  shoidd  certainly  not  neglect  the  intellectual  senti- 
ment the  pleasure  that  conies  from  knowing.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
the  wise  teacher  would  never  think  for  a  moment  of  curtailing  interest 
in  such  a  subji'ct  as  Arctic  exploration.  The  opportunity  is  too 
valuable  to  l>e  lost.  With  a  little  trouble  he  may  lead  the  child  to  take 
delight  in  an  intellectual  pursuit,  ju.st  as  with  a  little  trouble  he  may 
lea<l  tlu»  (^hild  to  see  the  beauty  in  a  great  picture,  or  a  classical  musical 
composition,  or  a  world  epic. 

In  the  second  place,  items  of  knowledge  which  have  little  or  no 
significance  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life  may  nevertheless  be  necessary 
to  a  HjfHtvm  of  knowhnlge.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  systematic 
arrangenuMit  or  organization  is  an  extremely  important  factor  in  the 
'*(»Hici<Mit  r<M»all "  of  itcMus  of  experience  at  times  when  they  are  needed.* 
Very  frtMiuently  in  making  a  system  of  knowledge — in  arranging  the 
itiMus  of  experience  in  an  orderly  fasliion — it  is  necessary  to  insert 
many  facts  and  principles  whicli  have  in  themselves  little  practical 
value.  Thus  the  imlividual  may  never  l)e  called  upon  to  apply  his 
knowledge  o(  the  .Vrctic  regions,  but  such  knowledge  is  necessarj'  in 
onler  to  make  his  world  view  conipix^hensive.  Without  it  there  would 
Iv  a  distracting  gap. 

The  briefest  e\an\ination  o(  tlie  curricula  of  the  secondary'  schools 
and  colleiics  will  serve  lo  demonstrate  tl\e  importance  of  the  "cultural'" 
valuoN  \\l\iol\  we  liave  discussed  in  t!ie  two  {^receding  paragraphs.  The 
larvi^M'  part  of  these  curricula  is  made  up  o(  subjects  which  sul>?en*e 
one  or  the  o{\wr  of  tliese  two  functions:  tending  either  to  develop 
ititelUvttial  ituoivsts  or  to  make  mon^  compn^hensive  and  complete 
the  bod\  of  knowledge.  The  science,  the  mathematics,  the  language 
:\\u\  literatmv.  w  hioh  oioe.py  so  prvMuinent  a  place  in  the  higher  education, 

*  t'ho  •.;\usxr;,*v.vv  ot  *  :houcht-vV.  r.*v!uv.>"'  ir.  rwall  has  been  (kfiM>n$tni;<d, 
t\'.^\,-  :\y.y\  M\^\\\.  h\  \\w  '\w^\^\\<  o:  oxjvrKuov.ta':  p<vohvA\i^-.       Cf.      The  ino>ri:  of 


X904  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  GEOGRAPHY  233 

can  be  justified  only  upon  these  grounds.  In  the  elementary  school, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  cultural  values  are  not  so  prominent.  The 
bulk  of  the  time  is  given  over  to  the  study  of  arithmetic  and  language, 
the  latter  including  reading,  writing,  composition,  and  grammar. 
Literature  and  geography  divide  most  of  the  remaining  time  between 
them.  Arithmetic  and  language  are  justified  principally  because  of 
their  utilitarian  values.  Literature  is  prominent  chiefly  because  of  its 
conventional  and  cultural  values.  Geography  might  be  said  to  occupy 
a  midway  position,  being  important  from  all  sides. 

If  the  foregoing  analysis  of  the  aims  and  functions  of  geography 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  is  valid,  it 
follows  that  our  methods  of  teaching  must  be  organized  with  these 
points  in  view.  If  possible,  the  various  aims  should  be  classified  with 
reference  to  their  relative  importance  in  fulfilUng  the  general  end  of 
education,  namely,  the  production  of  the  socially  efficient  individual. 
We  should  know  with  approximate  accuracy  just  what  facts  and  prin- 
ciples are  to  be  impressed  because  of  their  utiUtarian  value,  what  are 
essential  from  the  conventional  standpoint,  what  from  the  preparatory, 
and  so  on.  In  many  instances  the  groups  will,  of  course,  cut  across 
one  another,  but  it  seems  tolerably  clear  that  methods  of  impressing 
facts  and  developing  principles  will  var>'  according  to  the  function 
which  the  facts  and  principles  are  to  subserve. 

These  are  problems  which  it  must  be  left  for  educational  research 
to  solve.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  practitioner,  at  least,  this  suggests 
a  field  of  investigation  infinitely  more  promising  than  those  which  con- 
temporary educational  experts  are  attempting  to  exploit. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Wind-Blown  Trees. — The  communication  on  Wind  EffectSy  by  Prof. 
M.  S.  W.  Jefferson,  in  your  January  number,  interests  me  much,  as  it 
concerns  a  subject  to  which  I  have  given  some  attention  for  several 
years.  Observations  of  the  kind  to  which  your  contributor  refers  are 
easily  made,  and  add  much  to  the  interest  of  the  study  of  meteorol- 
ogy* because  they  give  it  life.  If  any  of  your  readers  cares  to  pursue 
this  subject  further,  he  will  find  an  instructive  discussion  of  it  in  a  recent 
paper  by  Prof.  J.  FrQh,  entitled  Die  Abbildung  der  vorherrschenden 
Winde  durch  die  Pflanzenwelt  {Jahresber,  Geogr.  Ethnogr.  GeselU.y  Zilrich, 
1901-02,97  pp.).      In  this  study  Professor  Friih  classifies  the  effects 


234  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 

of  wind  action  on  trees,  names  the  most  sensitive  trees,  and  gives 
observations  from  different  parts  of  the  world.  Savage  tribes  often 
make  use  of  tree  wind-vanes  to  guide  them  on  their  wanderings. 

Apropos  of  wind-blown  trees,  I  have  somewhere  heard  a  story  of  a 
gardener  who,  when  shown  a  large  number  of  trees  which  had  been 
blown  by  the  prevailing  wind,  and  not  appreciating  the  fact  that  what 
he  saw  was  the  result  of  wind  action,  said  he  could  not  take  the  place, 
because  he  could  never  keep  all  those  trees  trimmed  at  that  particular 
angle. — R.  DeC.  Ward,  Harvard  Ihnversitji^y  Cambridge ,  Mass. 

Our  Proportion  of  the  World. — **ln  area  possessing  one-four- 
teenth of  the  entire  earth,  in  population  one-twentieth,  and  increasing 
more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  rest  of  the  world:  in  wealth  one-fourth, 
in  international  conunerce  one-nintli,  in  banking  power  more  than 
one-half,  in  savings  deposits  nearly  one-third,  in  Government  revenue 
one-tenth,  in  stock  of  gokl  nearly  one-fourth,  in  stock  of  silver  one- 
sixth,  in  amount  of  life  insurance  two-thirds,  in  railway  mileage  over 
one-third,  in  coal  production  one-third,  in  copper  production  one-half, 
in  zinc  production  one-fourth,  in  iron  and  steel  production  more  than 
one-third,  in  wheat  crop  one-fifth,  in  corn  crop  two-thirds,  in  cotton 
crop  eight-tenths,  in  wool  crop  one-tenth,  in  outpiU  of  newspapers 
and  [periodicals  over  one-third  —tliis  is  the  achievement  of  the  United 
States  after  a  century  and  a  i|uarter  of  existence." — Wall  Street  Journal. 

Primary  Geography. — \ears  ago.  as  many  teachers  remember, 
such  subjects  as  botany,  zoology,  and  chemistry  were  taught  from  the 
written  descripti(>n  in  tlie  text-i>(>(>k.  but  wo  have  progressed  in  such 
a  degree  that  any  one  attempting  to  teacl\  now.  other  than  objectively, 
would  be  considered  on  tlie  verjre  of  huiacy.  (Vography  was  taught 
in  the  same  maiuuT.  bnt  each  succeeding  year  places  it,  too,  more  and 
more  on  an  objective  l)asis.  We  iiave  advanced  to  a  stage  where 
objectiv(»  teacliing  of  every  subject  seisms  imperative.  Verbal  descrip- 
tions are  inadequate,  for.  no  matter  how  graphically  you  describe  a 
place  or  tiling,  each  listener  is  forming  a  different  mental  image,  and 
no  imagination,  however  clear,  can  create  a  mental  picture  at  all  correct, 
ludess  then^  is  alrt\idy  in  the  mind  suitable  exjierience  gained  from 
actual  observation  of  the  thing  liescrilx^l  or  from  pictures  of  the  object. 
So  little  do  business  men  dejHMui  on  verbal  descriptions  that,  if  they 
wish  to  construct  a  building,  l>efore  entering  into  a  contract  for  the 
samei  they  must  see  on  paj>er  a  complete  picture,  that  there  ma\-  be  no 


X904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


235 


misunderstanding.     They  realize  ^Hhat  a  greater  amount  of  informa- 
tion and  a  more  lasting  impression  is  gained  from  a  single  picture  than 
from  pages  of  description."     We  as  teachers  are  slowly  adopting  busi- 
ness methods.     We  are  beginning  to  realize  the  importance  of  securing 
^ood  mental  images. 

We  know  the  best  means  of  doing  this  is  to  visit  the  object  itself; 
bxit  since  we  can  not  charter  an  airship  and  travel  with  our  little  flocks 
from  pole  to  pole,  nor  can  we  import  mountain  peaks,  seas,  or  rivers  at 
oxar  convenience,  the  next  best  means  is  to  model  them  on  the  sand 
ti^^ble,  and  at  the  same  time  present  the  best  pictures  on  the  subject 
titiat  can  be  secured.  Dr.  Red  way  says  that  in  the  teaching  of  geog- 
^i^^phy  climate  is  fundamental,  and  the  first  topic  that  should  be  consid- 
^x-ed,  as  its  influence  has  every^thing  to  do  with  the  food,  shelter,  and 
<^lothing  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  To  illustrate  the  power  of 
^liis  influence,  I  know  of  nothing  better  than  the  story  written  by  Jane 
-«?Xwndrews  of  the  '^  Seven  Little  Sisters,'*  which  should  be  in  the  hands 
<^"f  ever}'  primary  teacher.  It  is  easily  illustrated  and  dramatized  and 
<^»^ates  a  desire  for  the  further  study  of  geography  in  children  of  every 
^i  ze. — Nebraska  Teacher,  February-,  1904. 

^i^urrent  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry. — 

FEBRUARY 

Bulb  Growing  in  America  (Illus.),  Country  Life  in  Am. 
Camphor  from  Turpentine,  Paint,  Oil  and  Drug  Rcv.j  February  10. 
China,   Commercial,    in    1904,    Mo.    Summary   of    Commerce    and 
f^inancej  January. 

China,  Railways  of  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 
Coal  Mining,  Short  History'  of,  BradstreeVs,  February  20. 
Cod  Liver  Oil  Industry,  Paint,  Oil  and  Drug  Rev.,  February  24. 
Cotton-Boll  Weevil  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 
Cotton  Culture  in  Foreign  Countries,  Crop  Reporter. 
Fire  Curtains,  Asbestos,  Making  of  (Illus.),  Sci.  Aim.,  February  6. 
Flour  Milling  (111.),  Sci.  Am.,  February  27. 
Fruit  Ranch  in  California  (Illus.),  Country  Life  in  Am. 
Indigo,  Early  History  of,  Paint,  Oil  and  Drug  Rev.,  February  24. 
Korea,  Commercial,  in  1904,  Mo.  Summary  of  Commerce  and  Finance, 
January. 

Lumbering  by  Machinery  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 
Maple-Sugar  Industry  (Illus.),  Country  Life  in  Am. 
Panama  Canal  and  the  Mississippi  Valley,  World's  Work. 


236  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 

Peanut  Crop,  Comm.  B\dL  and  N.  W.  Trade,  February  6. 

Peru  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 

Philippine  Tobacco  Cultivation,  Mo.  Summary  of  Commerce  of  the 
Philippine  Is.  f  August,  1903. 

Philippine  Mineral  Deposits,  Mo.  Summary  of  Commerce  of  the 
Philippine  Is.,  September,  1903. 

Porto  Rico,  Mineral  Industries  of,  Census  Bulletin,  No.  6. 

Power  for  the  World,  World^s  Work. 

Rose  (larden  Under  Glass  (Illus.),  Country  Life  in  Ain. 

Shipping  and  Organization  (IDus.),  System. 

MARCH 

Abyssinia,  Our  Mission  to.  The  Manufacturer,  March  15. 

Advertising,  Bradstrcct's,  March  26. 

Asia,  Economic  Changes  in,  Century. 

Electric  Inventions  and  Human  Activity  (Illus.),  Engineering  Mag. 

Farming  I'nder  Olass  (Illus.).  World's  Work. 

India.  Old  and  New  (llhis.).  World  To-Day. 

Irrigation  in  the  Far  West  (lUus.),  Kvv.  of  Revs. 

Jew.  Russian.  Americanized  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Korea.  Japan  and  Russia  (Illus.).  World's  Work. 

Labor  Savers  of  the  World  (llhis.).  Engineering  Mag. 

Lampblack.  Manufacturing  of,  PniiU,  Oil  and  Drug  Rev.,  March  23. 

Manchuria  ami  Siberia,  Lumber  Industry  in.  Consular  Report. 

Manchuria,  Wheat  (Irowing  and  Milling  in,  Consular  Report. 

Natural  (las.  History  of.  in  the  V .  S.,  Paint,  Oil  and  Drug  Rev., 
March  16. 

Negro.  The.  McClun  \n\ 

Pacifies.  The  Two  (^Ulus.).  Booklorcr's  Mag. 

Panama  and  its  People  illlus.V  Riv.  of  Rivs. 

Paris  Bourse  (^lllus.V  (\ntury. 

Pei>ia.  Trade  and  Commerce  in.  Consular  Rc}wrts. 

Prime  Miuer  and  its  Inthienco  i^n  World's  Progress  (Illus.).. 
Enginttring  Mku:. 

Railroading.  Ten  Years'  Advance  in  (Ilhis.),  World's  Work. 

Ru.ssia's  Coal  Supplies.  Bradstntrs.  March  19. 

Santo  Pomingo  vHlus.\  Rtv.  of  Rtvs. 

Texas  Panhandle.  Transformation  oi,  Bradsirect's,  March  19. 

White  licad  Manufactun\  Paint.  Oil  and  Drug  Rev,,  March  30. 

E.  D.  J. 


■yn  EDITORIAL 


EDITORIAL 

GEOGRAPHY  FOR  TEACHERS  DURING  THE  COMING  SUMMER 

^"^HE  opportunities  for  enlarging  and  improving  one's  geographic 
knowledge  during  the  coming  summer  vnW  be  exceptionally 
varied  and  alluring.  In  fact,  no  such  combination  of  geographic 
possibilities  has  ever  before  been  possible.  The  numerous  summer 
schools  in  the  larger  universities  and  normal  schools  of  the  country 
offer  facilities  for  geograpliic  study  valuable  for  t^'achers  of  all  grades 
of  work,  detailed  announcement  of  which  will  be  found  in  our  columns 
i;his  month. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  much  geographic  training 
of  exceeding  value  can  be  secured  without  tuition  and  that  the  cheap 
rates  to  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  will  make  it  possible  for  many  teachers 
to  secure  a  wealth  of  information  of  daily  use  in  their  class  work,  at 
an  expense  less  than  would  be  incurred  in  a  six  weeks'  summer  school. 
The  exhibits  of  industries  and  mankind  at  St.  Louis  will  be  exceptionally 
fine  and  will  form  a  school  of  geography  of  an  unicjue  character.  The 
trip  to  St.  Louis  will  also  give  opportunity  for  personal  study  of  the 
topographic  and  climatic  conditions  of  a  region  of  great  interest  to 
any  one  living  amid  the  varied  surroundings  of  the  Eastern  States. 
To  make  such  a  trip  of  geographic  profit  the  Journal  will  be  devoted 
next  month  to  the  geography  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  and  will  be 
particularly  valuable  as  a  guide  book,  to  be  read  before  leaving  home. 
People  may  pass  through  the  most  interesting  region  without  seeing 
or  appreciating  the  geography  about  them.  Teachers  anticipating  a 
trip  to  St.  Louis  should  therefore  prepare  their  minds  for  what  is  to  be 
seen  by  securing  a  preHminar\^  knowledge  of  the  geographic  possibilities 
during  such  a  trip. 

The  studying  of  geography  first  hand,  either  in  the  field  or  the 
classroom,  is  obviously  the  best  means  of  increasing  one's  power  in 
this  field.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  there  is  no  single 
means  of  securing  inspiration  and  a  due  appreciation  of  the  depth  and 
significance  of  geography  like  coming  in  personal  contact  with  the  men 
and  women  who  are  leading  in  geographic  thought  and  work.  This 
unusual  opportunity  will  be  given  this  summer  at  the  meetings  of  the 
International  Geographic  Congress,  announcement  of  which  has  been 
already  made  in  these  columns.     This  is  the   first   meeting   of  the 


2  7,S  THB   JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  May 

Congrcfss  in  this  coiiiitr}^.  and  one  of  the  first  opportunities  there  has 
been  for  securing  the  presence  of  geographers  from  abroad.  Neither 
have  there  been,  in  the  past,  many  chances  for  an  assembly  of  the  geog- 
raphers of  this  country.  All  enthusiasts  should  attend  some  of  the 
meetings  of  the  Congress  without  fail!  All  interested  in  the  subject 
will  gain  inspiration  and  help  from  listening  to  the  papers  and  meeting 
their  fellow  workers. 

Thus,  in  at  least  three  different  ways,  opportunities  for  growth  in 
geography  are  possible  this  summer.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  every 
teacher  will  therefore  take  advantage  of  these  conditions,  which  may 
not  be  duplicated  again  for  many  years.  Summer  schools  increase 
in  number  and  worth  constantly;  World's  Fairs,  cheap  cross-countrj' 
trips,  and  assemblies  of  geographers  are  rare.  They  therefore  must  be 
taken  advantage  of  at  the  moment. 


REVIEWS 

New  PhjTsical  Geography.     Hv  Halph  S.  Tarr.     Pp.  xiii.  4.57.     The  Macmillan  Co., 

New  York,  19(H. 

Tarr's  New  Physical  Cieogniphy  is.  as  ihe  author  announces  in  his  preface,  a 
**  new  lK>ok*'  as  comparcti  with  his  earhor  texts:  and,  as  we  should  expect,  is  in 
most  resjxvts  a  distinct  iniprovenicnt  \i}x>n  them,  ahhough  their  excellence  is 
attt^sttnl  by  the  numlK?r  of  ciiitions  throiicli  which  each  of  them  hrts  passed. 

Tliis  icxl  .'iciMns  l>est  adaptcil  t<.  tlic  l:i>t  years  of  the  high  school,  where  the  sul>- 
ject  is  mon*  anil  mon»  fimling  plue;  aiul  the  author  has  evidently  adapted  his 
treatment  alike  to  the  retjuircment*;  of  those  who  exjKvt  to  go  to  college,  and  to 
the  murh  larger  class  who  get  their  only  training  in  earth-science  in  the  high  school. 
S<i  we  find  hen^  nuirh  thai,  in  the  opinion  of  the  strict  tH>nstructionist.  would  not 
iH'long  to  physical  gtM>graphy. 

Hy  his  ••Tt>pifal  iMitlincs,'*  "  l^ut^tions."  "Sugi^fStions,"  and  l»sls  of  "  Reference 
lVn>ks.*'  giving  pul^lishcrs  anil  prict^.  at  the  end  of  each  chapter,  tin*  author  has 
done  an  invaluable  scr\  ice  fi»r  the  vast  army  of  teachers  who  are  called  upon  to 
te;irh  plu>iral  s;ci>graphy.  but  who  have  not  Invn  spivially  trained  for  the  woric. 
Thi'M^  will  th.nik  him  :ilso  tor  hi**  su^gestior.s  as  lo  '*  Laln^ratorv  R^uipment'*  and 
•'  Kiclvl  Work."  apivridiivs  J  an^i  K 

ri'c  lopii-al  sn'.innarit's.  cxrclleni  astlicy  ar.\  can  r.oi  be  considered  an  unmixed 
ad\antagc.  ;»s  they  :»ri^  an  c\  cr  prt\<ent  temptation  to  neglect  the  longer  eonsidera- 
tii^n  that  prcivdc^  tliom  Many  tcachci^.  tin*,  prefer  to  have  .heir  scholar?  make 
tlifir  own  ^vumuanc< 

rhc  illu^;r:ition>  arc  bo;h  apprv^priaic  atid  aiiraitivc:  but  iNinsidering  the  size 
and  weigh:  of  the  book,  po^-il^ly  tix^  niimon^us  In  a  few  instances  they  are  not 
as  near  their  appn^pr.atc  ic\t>  as  iv.iM  iv  ii«Mn\l.  :ind  the  exivssive  number  of 
iMTnekot  n^fen^uvs  to  theni  >ccn!>  *o!if using  A  siwial  word  of  praise  is  due  the 
block  drawing>.  and  nu»rc  of  tlu^c  .oif.d  ha\c  I  een  pn.>titably  used. 


REVIEWS  239 


The  treatment  of  the  Land  before  the  Atmosphere  is  not  logical,  nor  does  the 
author's  reason  for  it  seem  sufficient.  Such  treatment  must  be  either  empirical, 
which  the  book  before  us  is  far  from  being,  or  to  the  scholar  unintelligible.  The 
study  of  physiographic  features  in  their  evolutionary  development  presupposes  a 
knowledge  of  the  air.  It  is  unfortunate,  too,  that  the  author  has  seen  fit  to  give 
even  less  space  to  his  consideration  of  the  air  than  he  gave  in  his  "  First  Book." 

Most  of  the  appended  matter  might  better  find  place  under  its  appropriate 
topic  in  the  body  of  the  text;  and  a  fuller  treatment,  at  the  end  of  each  chapter, 
of  the  response  of  organic  forms  to  their  physical  environment  would  make  un- 
necessary their  separate  treatment  in  chapters  XVII  and  XVIII,  which  are  too 
largely  biological. 

There  is  not  the  logical  arrangement  of  topics  in  sequence  that  one  would  expect, 
and  in  some  cases  topics  are  considered  out  of  what  would  seem  their  proper  setting. 
Thus  superimposed  and  rejuvenated  rivers,  and  river  piracy  are  considered  under  the 
subject  of  plateaus  rather  than  under  rivers. 

A  few  unfortunate  omissions  occur,  as  on  p.  45  where  gravity  is  omitted  from 
the  agents  of  erosion,  and  p.  50  where  slope  of  the  land  is  not  mentioned  among  the 
factors  determining  the  amount  of  nin-off. 

The  author's  u.se  of  "  divide"  is  at  lea.st  unusual,  and  leaves  no  place  for  undivided 
regions. 

The  treatment  of  tides  and  ocean  currents  are  alike  unsatisfactory;  and  the 
mistake  is  made  of  considering  risiyig  and  flood  tide  coincident  in  period,  and  likewise 
falling  and  ebb  tide. 

A  very  small  number  of  typographical  errors  have  crept  in,  as  on  p.  259  where 
"southeast  trades"  and  **northea.st  trades"  should  l)e  interchanged,  and  in  Fig. 
325  where  -35  is  evidently  not  intended. 

Chapters  XV,  XVI,  and  XIX  are  distinct  additions  to  the  excellence  of  the  book. 

In  spite  of  these  minor  roughnesses,  many  of  which  can  be  remedied  in  a  later 
edition,  the  New  Physical  Geography  will  ea.sily  take  its  place  among  the  very  best 
texts  on  physical  geography  availal)le.  W.  R.  C. 

A  Laboratory  Manual  for  Physical  Geography.  Bv  Frank  W.  Darling.  Size 
9i  X  8i.  Exercises  32.  Chicago:  Atkinson  &  Mentzer,  1903. 
The  growing  emphasis  laid  upon  laboratory  work  in  physical  geography  is 
evidenced  by  the  steadily  increasing  number  of  laborator>^  manuals.  The  breadth 
of  the  field  and  the  lack  of  unanimity  in  regard  to  what  the  essentials  in  laboratory 
work  really  are  is  clearly  shown  by  the  radical  differences  which  these  various 
manuals  present  to  the  laboratory'  teacher. 

The  manual  under  consideration  contains  thirty-two  exercises;  of  these,  six 
illustrate  various  problems  in  mathematical  geography,  seven  treat  of  the  atmos- 
phere, while  nineteen  pertain  to  the  lands.  The  apportionment  is  certainly  unfor- 
tunate. The  topic  of  the  ocean  has  been  entirely  omitted,  and  that  of  the  atmos- 
phere, which  lends  itself  so  admirably  to  laboratory  uivestigation,  has  received 
scant  attention.  While  no  one  can  (juestion  the  importance  of  the  land  as  a  subject 
of  study,  the  causal  relation  existing  among  the  various  elements  of  climate  and 
weather  may  be  so  clearly  demonstrated  that  this  topic  seems  plainly  entitled  to  an 
emphasis  approximately  equal  to  that  which  the  lands  receive.  In  this  book, 
however,  the  author  disposes  of  the  subject  of  climate  summarily — a  single  exercise 
on  planetary  winds  being  practically  the  extent  of  treatment.     The  topic  of  the 


\ 


240  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  May 

weather  is  studied  by  means  of  daily  weather  observations,  with  the  addition  of  one 
or  two  exercises  on  cyclonic  stomis. 

The  treatment  of  the  lands  is  excellent — adequate  in  scope,  det>ailed  in  character, 
and  of  a  nature  requiring  careful  observation  and  clear  thinking. 

The  exercises  deaUng  with  mathematical  geo.s^raphy  are  so  suggestive  that  one 
can  not  help  wisliing  for  an  amplification  in  this  case  also.  The  relation  of  the  earth 
to  the  other  heavenly  bodies  becomes  more  a  matter  of  fact  and  less  a  matter  of  faith 
to  the  pupil,  who  makes  direct  though  simple  observations  of  the  heavens,  accord- 
ing to  the  plan  outlined  by  the  author,  than  to  one  whose  knowledge  of  this  field 
is  gained  through  laboratory  e<iuipment  and  text-books. 

While  the  omissions  in  the  volume  under  consideration  are  of  a  serious  nature 
and  greatly  impair  its  usefulness,  its  strong  points  and  it^  valuable  suggestions 
should  reconnnend  it  to  every  teacher  of  physical  geography  either  in  a  secondary 
or  in  a  nonnal  school.  C.  B.  K. 

The  Yellowstone  National  Park.  By  Hiram  M.  Chittenden.  Fourth  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  Pp.  vii,  355.  Cincinnati:  The  Robert  H.  Clark  Com- 
pany, 1903. 

Chittenden's  well-known  volume  on  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  has  lately 
appeared  in  a  new  and  up-to-date  edition,  which  forms  one  of  the  best  guides  to  this 
"Wonderland."  The  book  is  abnost  eciually  divided  into  an  historical  and  a 
descriptive  section.  The  historical  portion  is  extremely  interesting,  and  gives  the 
salient  points  in  the  hi.stor\'  of  this  region  in  a  small  compass.  For  any  one  who  is 
unfamiliar  with  the  current  beliefs  in  reference  to  the  veracity  of  the  early  explorers 
in  this  region,  Chittenden's  volume  will  form  a  welcome  introduction  to  some  inter- 
esting histor>'. 

Moat  people  who  use  the  volume  will,  however,  get  the  greatest  help  from  the 
descriptive  portion  of  the  Ijook.  The  descriptions  are  written  in  clear,  accurate, 
unassuming  language,  in  strong  contrast  to  the  railroad  folder  style  so  common  in 
descriptions  of  the  indescribable.  This  portion  of  the  l>ook  is  also  practical  for  the 
tourist,  as  it  includes  a  detailed  account  of  the  customary  "tour''  as  well  as  descrip- 
tions of  the  animals,  plants.  geolo;2:icMl  hi.story,  and  hot  .springs.  In  fact  the  volume 
is  one  of  the  necessities  to  the  visitor. 

The  illu.strations  are  exc-cllcnt,  and  the  statistical  material  well  selected.  Unfor- 
tunately, however,  the  author  has  referred  but  infrequently  to  the  work  of  the  many 
noted  scientists  who  ha\e  unraveled  the  story  of  the  histor\'  of  the  Park, and  then  in 
such  a  careless  way  that  no  one  could  readily  find  the  original  articles.  This  Is  a 
serious  defect  in  a  book  descriptive  of  a  National  Park,  and  written  by  an  officer 
of  the  I'nited  States  army,  especially  when  most  that  is  known  about  the  Park 
has  been  tlue  to  the  indefatigable  energies  of  Government  officers,  some  of  whom 
have  practically  given  their  lives  to  the  task.  R.   E.  D. 


RECENT  PUBLICATION 

The  Philippine  Islands,  1-193-1808.     Edited   and    annotated  by  Emma  H.  Blair 
and  James  A.   Robertson.     Vol.  X,   1597-1591),  pp.318.     Vol.  XI,  1599-1602, 
pp.  318.     Cleveland,  Ohio:     Arthur  H.  Clark  Company,  1904. 
Like  the  preceding  volumes  in   the  series,  these  volumes  are  of  especial  value  to 

students  of  historical  geography. 


/ 


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"^ATe  have  devised  a  unique  system  of  book  prices  which  insures  the  cheapest  series 
c  f  gr^Tiuinely  made  books  ever  issued  in  America. 

Tliis  new  system  of  publishing  is  more  loj^ical  than  the  system  of  fixed  prices  for 
repi"irit8.  Other  thincrs  bein^  equal,  it  costs  less  to  produce  a  short  book  than  a  long 
one.  Hitherto  the  selling  price  of  the  short  book  has  been  as  high  as  that  of  the  long. 
A.n<3.  even  the  longest  book  has  not  been  sold  to  yi>u  at  a  loss.  We  give  you  the  benefit 
of  t.1:>«d  saving  on  the  shorter  book.  Our  prices  are  regulated  by  the  cost  of  the  actual 
iz&A^<5  rials  and  workmanship  which  go  toward  the  making  of  the  book. 

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National  Documents 
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York 
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De  Quincey's  Essays  27. 


Lear's  Nonsense  Books 
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THE  SCHOOL  WEEKLV 

40  Kandtjjph  Strtut 
CtiiCcigOt  HI, 


THE  GLUG  FAMILY 

I!y  WILLIAM  K.  WATT.  A.  M.,  Pti.  D, 

A  PLW  OF  THE  SORT  TO  TR/IW  ,^ 
CaOHD  AIND  CUE  SATISfACTtO.^ 

IliH*  A  Hi-hfKtl  pntprtalnmcDt  noltiliiir  ''an 
i  i^rniiii  rhiri,  for  li:  «tlM»»'si  up  III**  *-hi m 
ijiiiHly  In  ifh-^lki^n]  Pill  wrll  )'i»ii  wtiqkl  [tilnic 
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iJ  U  ir  i'  *J  I  ►  J: .  ifj  *!  ►-m  5  ^   #1 S ,  m  hI  *1> 

THE  SCHOOL  WEEKLY 

40  Randolph  St.  ChicaeOi  >■■■ 


n 


Some  Geographical  Publications 
Made  Out  West 

Bill  Good  EVer^Whe^e 

Havt    l>aHfir    QrVirtrtl    fV(»rfctrrflnll'ii'    By  HA flU  WAGNER.     ThU  fli^w  0«'«frr*nfer 

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NM«iit«lii>,  !be  Inkf 


ia  the  itarr  of  CiiHfnrnls.  it  prvfji  ;i  brief  tilt^t^ir^c^Al  ulit'tch;  fir  ikt^Iw*  in  ft  ()«*anJte  iisftmirr  liu 
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■  HftrlriH  tbPtPffinH 


KTenl  |M«n  nii  th«-  ^timiiftb  aii  1  Indlmi  nanin*  of  tftlirnnilii.  i:vefv  sraifEDt^ut  It  UioruDi^ttiy 
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rur  uiiniiuncohieut'i'  and  complete  litf^mno^ 
tlon,  aUdreiifl 

W.  F.  BABR,  Conductor 
Dei  Moinei,  Jow« 


THI 

New  Elementary  Agriculture 

By  Dr.  Chas.  E.  Bessey^  Prof.  Lawrence 

Brunery  and  Pro/.  G,  D.  Swezey 

of  the 

University  of  Nebraska 

hn  •I§0iwitar9  ttxt-book  for  tht  tmMnth  and  •tghtk 
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A  STRONG  ENDORSEMENT 

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benefited  by  a  course  of  study  in  this 
book  and  instruction  regarding  it  in  the 
class  room.          Hon.  J.ames  Wilson, 
(/.  S.  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Published  in  October,  1903,  but  already 
in  use  in  114  different  schools. 

THE  UNIVERSITY  PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 

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Birdies  at  Thetk  Trapes:  Mason-^ 
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"Weaver— Oriole,  Fuller— Goldfinch,  Carpen- 
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TiiK  Birdies'  Farewell:  Jack  Sparrovr 
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THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

The  Mississippi  Valley  was  destipteJ 
to  become  the  core  of  the  nation  as  it 
was  of  the  continent.  Its  fertile  soil 
would  support  a  demise  population,  and 
its  cheap  waterways  were  to  prove  of 
inestimable  value  for  a  yoiaig,  agri- 
cultural people.  The  acquisition  of 
the  new  West  prolonged  greatly  the 
fnost  distinctive  feature  of  American 
anthropO'geograph ic  conditions  —  the 
abundance  of  free  land,  A  nation  is 
influenced  7tot  only  by  the  topography, 
but  by  the  size  of  its  territory.  The 
presence  of  the  new  West  reacted  most 
wholesomely  upon  the  East  and  the  old 
West;  the  stimulating  effect  of  inex- 
haustible opportunity  never  allowed 
American  energy  to  abate,  and  the 
democratic  spirit  of  the  ever  youthful 
frontier  fostered  the  spirit  of  democ- 
racy and  youth  in  the  whole  nation. 

ELLEN     CHURCHILL     SEMPLE 


An  Important  Book  of  Travel 


1 


AFRICA 

FROM    SOUTH    TO   NORTH 
THROUGH    MAROTSELAND 

By  MAJOR  A.  St.  H.  GIBBONS,  F.  R.G.  S. 

Author  of  ''  Exploration  and  Hunting  in  Central  Africa/' 
^With  Numerous  Illustrations  reproduced  from  Photo- 
graphs, and  ilaps.     /.*     ;;     Octavo.     2  vols,     $7*50  net. 


Major  Gibbons'  ik.<tnptmi  of  his  irai'eh  thmugh  the  ^*uk&k  kn^th  cf 
the  Aft  it  tin  i^titinrfif  is  amon^i  the  most  imiuaifie  c&ntrihuti^m  to 
this  class  of  iitfrature  putili^hed  in  recent  years.  Amongst  other 
important  features  in  the  "tuork  is  an  account  of  the  tracing  of  the 
Zambesi  River  to  its  son  re  f,  li^'kich  had  hitktrto  remained  undiscovered. 


ORDER  FORM 


To  JOHN  LANE,  Pub/ishcr, 

6y  Ftjih  .Ivcnue^  A'i^^l*  ] 
Ptease  send  me  "AFRICA 
THROUGH  MAROTSELAND 

\'amf' 

— m —    H 

ork  City.                                               H 
FROM  SOUTH   TO  NORTH     ■ 

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244 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


June 


this  is  only  the  beginning,  for  we  go  south  and  find  Arkansas,  Okla- 
homa, the  Indian  Territory,  and  Louisiana,  another  group  that  would 
make  a  kingdom.  And  again  we  have  the  higher  plains  of  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  and  the  Dakota?,  and  most  of  Montana,  Wyoming,  and 


Fio. 


The  Mississippi  River  system,  showing  the  vast  area   and 
watered  surface  included  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase. 


Colorado.  So  ran  the  new  possession,  from  the  Gulf  to  the  49th 
parallel,  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
distances  that  are  bewildering,  areas  that  we  travel  over  but  never 
truly  appreciate,  an  empire  in  which  an  average  European  state 
might  be  lost. 

To  many  doubting  citizens  of  New  England  the  settlements  beyond 
the  Cumberland  Gap  seemed  far  away  and  of  doubtful  worth,  while 
the  nation,  the  wealth,  the  intelligence,  and  the  sound  judgment 
in  public  affairs  were  east  of  the  Appalachians.  Viewed  with  their 
perspective,  the  Mississippi  was  hardly  so  big  as  the  Connecticut  and 
it  is  not  strange  that  their  world  faced  eastward.  But  long  before 
Alaska  was  bought,  or  American  abodes  were  found  in  the  Pacific, 
the  geographical  center  of  our  territory  had  migrated  to  Northern 
Kansas.  And  now  our  population  center  is  in  Indiana,  and  the  center 
of  manufactures  follows  hard  on  in  Ohio,  and  if  there  is  in  America 
a  pivotal  area,  it  is  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley. 

When  Illinois  and  the  balance  of  the  old  Northwest  were  won,  we 
were  assured  of  respectable  fields  of  wheat  and  corn,  but  we  could 


x^04 


GEOGRAPHIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


245 


not  have  entered  the  markets  of  the  world.  For  this  we  must  have  the 
prairies  beyond  the  river,  as  well  as  on  the  hither  side,  and  run  on 
a  thousand  miles  to  the  plateau  of  Oregon  and  Washington  and  the 
valleys  of  CaUfornia.  In  any  reckoning  of  the  values  of  the  Louis- 
iana Purchase,  we  must  not  forget  that  it  made  possible  all  that  lay 
between  its  zigzag  western  boundary  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Across 
it  was  the  path  to  Texas,  to  the  Mexican  Territory,  and  the  waters 
of  the  Oregon;  and  this  northern  path  was  trodden  without  delay 
by  Lewis  and  Clark,  though  forty-three  years  were  to  pass  before 
Britain  finally  yielded  her  claim  to  Oregon. 

If  ever  figures  could  be  quoted  without  dulling  the  edge  of  truth, 
it  would  seem  that  we  might  do  it  here.  The  wheat  production  of 
the  Louisiana  tract  alone  in  1900  was  more  than  half  that  of  the  entire 
United  States.  The  corn  crop  of  that  year  came  up  to  forty-eight 
per  cent  of  our  total,  the  two  grains  amounting  w^ithin  the  area  to 
$464,000,000.  This  says  nothing  of  oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  hay, 
and  cotton.  In  1900,  also,  this  area  raised  more]  than  one-third 
of  the  wool  of  the   United  States,  and  adding  sugar,  and  live-stock 


Fig.  2a.     A  scene  on  a  Dakota  cattle  ran^e.      Thousands  of  similar  herds  scattered  over  the 

western  prairies  and  crazing  areas,  make  the  Louisiana  Purchase  region 

a  rich  cattle  country. 

products,  the  census  expert  affirms  that  one  per  cent  of  the  farm  prod- 
ucts for  that  year  would  meet  the  price  agreed  upon  by  Livingston 
and  Monroe  and  sanctioned  by  Congress. 

Without  Louisiana,  Chicago  might  be  an  Indianapolis  or  a  Toledo, 
and  New  York  herself,  we  need  not  fear  to  say,  would  not  be  the  second 


246 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Jane 


eit}^  of  the  world  ami  iiiii^ht  l>e  running  a  rat-e  with  Montreal  or  New 
Orleans  for  the  priinacy  of  North  Amerieu.  Witlioiit  the  herds  and 
harvesters  of  Prairies  and  Plains »  who  should  feed  the  East  and  where 
woidd  the  sons  of  New  England  have  liad  a  ehanre  to  ^row  up,  or  the 
colonizing  energies  of  the  eastern  seaboard  a  f)laee  to  ilisport  themselves? 
We  have  not  merely  a  country  by  so  iiuieh  bigger,  but  a  land  of  more 
men,  more  mills,  more  variety  of  industry*  autl  of  intenser  life. 

The  lumbernien  (jf  the  Southern  Appalachians  are  slashing  the 
forests  with  ruinous  hand;  every  hamlet  shows  its  sawmills  and  stacks 
of  lumber,  and  the  washed  and  banen  slopes  tell  of  the  tardy  hand 
of  the  national  government,  which  might  stay  the  ravage.  Outside 
of  this  disappearing  wealth  of  forest,  the  great  reserves  are  largely 


j^^^fTS-. 


.<tufi>r"^  -' 


Fia. 


Coppi^  ♦«MU4,  BHid,  AhffiUHt>i 


found  in  Arkansas,  in  Louisiana,  and  in  Texas;  or,  leaping  again  past 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  they  cover  the  slopes  of  the  Sierras,  and  mantle 
with  the  densest  forests  of  North  America  parts  of  the  Cascade  and 
Olytwpic  ranges.  We  should  ruit  have  any  of  these  but  for  Louis- 
iana. We  will  not  say  that  all  lunged  on  the  bargaining  of  a  particular 
year,  or  of  nne  adnimi  strati  on,  for  the  westward  current  of  American 
life  was  too  strong  to  be  long  ciiecked.  It  liad  within  a  generation 
rolled  over  the  Appalachians,  and  was  in  no  danger  of  being  perma- 
nently restrainetl  from  the  long  incline  that  leads  np  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  particular  deeds  of  histor}-  that  make  most  of  wliat 
is  put  into  the  books  are  liut  euhninating  expressions  of  the  larger 
life  that  dtics  not  de|>end  on  accidents  or  persons. 

To  speak  of  Muntana,  South  Dakota »  or  Colorado  is  to  name  a  syno- 
nym for  the  wealth  of  the  mines.  In  1901  Colorado  yielded  more 
than  $27,000,000  of  gold  and  above  $18,000,000  in  silver,  while  the  two 


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I904 


GEOGRAPHIC  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


249 


fectly  logical,  if  Louisiana  and  New  Orleans  were  not  to  belong  to 
the  United  States.  Those  early  days  made  experiment  of  dividing 
the  Mississippi  along  its  course  and  failed.  Later  years  down  to  the  Civil 
War  made  trial  of  cutting  the  Mississippi  into  upper  and  lower  halves. 
The  simple  and  eloquent  words  of  Lincoln  in  1863 — *The  Father  of 
Waters  now  flows  un vexed  to  the  sea** — might  have  cast  their  meaning 
back  over  all  American  history',  for  now  first  in  our  own  time  does  the 
physical  unity  of  the  valley  begin  to  find  expression  in  social  and  his- 
torical solidarity.  Galveston,  Kansas  City,  and  Omaha,  or  Chicago, 
Memphis,  and  New  Orleans,  more  and  more  will  point  the  way  along 
the  lines  of  social  and  commercial  interchange. 

We  can  hardly  suppose  that  Jefferson,  or  his  diplomats,  or  his  ex- 
plorers even  dimly  knew  that  they  were  transforming  the  nation  into 
a  world  power.  After  Lewis  and  Clark  had  accomplished  their  mission, 
almost  nothing  was  known  of  the  riches  of  the  Columbia  basin  and 
fifty  years  were  to  pass  l^efore  railway  surveys  toward  the  Pacific 
were  well  in  hand.  The  Plains  were  the  Great  American  Desert  of 
every  schoolboy's  geography,  and  not  imtil  1849  did  the  greatness 
of  California  begin.  And  it  has  been  left  for  the  last  ten  years  to  tell  us 
"the  meaning  of  our  Pacific  shore  line.  A  friend  whose  wife  is  at  this 
moment  visiting  in  Los  Angeles  tells  the  writer  that  lie  was  looking 
\ip  her  proposed  journey  thence  to  a  point  in  Oregon.  It  had  seemed 
like  a  run  from  Boston  to  New  York.  He  found  it  was  nearly  a  thou- 
sand miles.     Doubtless  half  of  the  l:)oys  and  girls  in  our  high  schools 


Fig. 


5.     Shipping  wharf  on  the  Mississippi  River  levee  at  Xcw  Orleans.      This  port  has 
grown  rich  from  the  outflow  oj  products  through  it  from  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  territory. 


250  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Jtme 


would  be  surprised  to  find  that  if  California  were  reversed  and  super- 
imposed on  the  Atlantic  coast,  it  would  stretch  from  Boston  to 
Charleston. 

But  the  Pacific  coast  has  its  meaning  not  so  much  in  its  length, 
as  in  the  Golden  Gate,  in  the  estuary  of  the  Columbia  River,  and  in  Puget 
Sound.  These  are  the  gateways  that  lead  out  to  Alaska,  to  Hawaii, 
to  Manila,  China,  and  Japan.  Not  less  does  Louisiana  find  its  logical 
outcome  in  the  Isthmian  Canal,  in  preponderant  influence  in  the  West- 
ern Hemisphere,  and  in  more  complete  use  of  the  highw^ays  and  resources 
of  all  Pacific  lands.  The  Pacific  outlet  puts  us  in  easy  communication 
in  the  near  future  with  at  least  500,000,000  of  people,  and  opens  possi- 
bilities that  outrun  the  most  daring  imagination. 

Three  of  the  seven  greatest  ports  of  the  United  States  belong  to  the 
territory  which  was  foreign  until  1803;  these  are  New  Orleans,  Galves- 
ton, and  San  Francisco,  and  it  requires  no  seer  to  place  the  lower 
Columbia  River  and  the  cities  of  Puget  Sound  among  the  first  centers 
of  foreign  commerce.  Our  great  territory  has  given  us  room  for  all 
kinds  of  people  and  for  many  millions  of  them.  We  have  had  open  doors 
tow^ard  Europe  and  acres  enough  to  receive  her  children.  The  number 
and  the  cosmopolitan  breadth  of  our  population  have  been  possible 
through  the  expansion  which  made  its  vastest  stride  in  1803.  Adding 
to  the  weight  of  adequate  nimibers  the  variety  and  bulk  of  our  natural 
resources,  we  became  a  nation  largely  sufficient  to  ourselves  and  able 
to  reach  out  and  hold  what  the  unfolding  of  the  years  puts  into  our 
hand.  For  nations  as  for  men,  "To  him  that  hath  shall  be  given"  is 
law  inevitable. 

That  wo  should  have  more  land,  more  men,  more  corn  and  wheat, 
silver  and  gold,  that  we  should  l)e  many  and  rich,  has  flowed  from  the 
bargain  of  1803.  But  beyond  all  this  and  higher,  is  the  unfolding 
genius  of  our  people,  which  was  in  no  small  way  then  determined.  We 
were  then  assured  of  the  long  possession  of  a  frontier,  which  means 
toil,  danger,  plasticity,  and  free  evolution  of  institutions.  We  have 
had  a  hundred  years  of  migrating  frontier,  marking  an  epoch  from 
which  wo  are  now  passing,  l)ut  whose  consequences  we  shall  not  soon 
outrun.  We  have  had  daring  exploration,  we  have  sketched  in  the 
outlines  of  a  new  civilization  on  fresh  ground,  and  this  new  creation 
is  now  to  be  perfected  in  detail.  We  have  had  the  discipline  of  long 
distances,  the  strain  of  diverse  chmates,  the  appropriation  of  untried 
resources,  and  we  are  now  to  watch  the  growth  of  new  types  of  society, 
industry',  and,  it  may  be,  of  letters  and  the  higher  life. 


i9(>4  SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE  OP  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE  25  I 

Jefferson  did  not  shrink  from  saying  that  they  had  done  something 
outside  of  the  Constitution,  but  the  Constitution  grew  by  interpreta- 
tion rather  than  by  formal  amendment.  Events  and  not  theory 
develof)ed  the  corporate  life  of  the  nation  then  as  to-day.  It  was  then 
that  the  first  notes  of  secession  were  sounded,  and  they  were  heard — 
from  Massachusetts!  The  great  New  England  Commonwealth  was 
more  interested  in  fisheries  than  in  a  continent,  but  we  must  not  judge 
her  in  the  light  of  our  knowledge.  She  said  that  the  original  balance 
of  power  was  broken,  that  Virginia  was  all  in  all,  that  the  South  was 
outweighing  the  North  in  the  counsels  of  the  nation,  and  that  the  new 
slaveholding  states  that  would  arise  across  the  Mississippi  would  leave 
her  a  cipher  in  the  Union.  We  can  hardly  wonder  at  her  fears,  but 
looking  backward  we  can  see  that  the  Louisiana  Territory  did  indeed 
precipitate  the  struggle  over  slavery,  but  that  it  was  also  the  great 
Northwest,  the  wide  north  end  of  old  Louisiana,  which  turned  the 
scale  at  last  on  many  bloody  fields  for  freedom  and  the  Union. 

We  need  not  believe,  without  limit,  that  Jefferson  was  *'the  broad 
statesman  who  saw  beyond  the  Mississippi,  over  the  Rockies  to  the 
Pacific,  and  over  the  Pacific  to  the  cradle  of  the  world. ^'  We  may 
hail  him  not  only  because  he  was  wise,  but  also  because  he  was  wiser 
than  he  knew. 


THE  SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE  OF  THE 
LOUISIANA   PURCHASE 

BY    N.    H.    DARTON 
Of  the  United  State's  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 

STRETCHING  from  north  to  south  entirely  across  the  middle 
United  States,  the  region  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  naturally 
presents  great  diversity  of  surface  configuration  and  climate. 
There  are  lowlands  and  mountains,  hills  and  plains,  prairies  and  forests, 
with  climatic  conditions  var^^ing  from  cold  to  warm,  and  from  moist 
to  nearly  arid.  The  mountains  rise  to  altitudes  of  over  14,000  feet 
and  the  lowlands  extend  to  tide  water  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
plains  and  prairies  occupy  over  a  million  square  miles,  and  range  in  alti- 
tude from  200  feet  and  less  in  the  lower  Mississippi  region  to  the  high 
plains  of  Colorado,  of  which  the  more  elevated  portions  reach  7,000 
feet.  The  dominant  features  of  topography  are  the  products  of  depo- 
sition and  erosion  by  the  western  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  River. 


\ 


i9«4  SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE  OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE  253 


This  river  drains  all  of  the  region  excepting  its  northeastern  corner, 
out  of  which  flows  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  a  stream  emptying 
into  Hudson  Bay. 

Mountains.  From  the  Arkansas  Valley  in  Colorado,  northward 
through  Colorado,  Wyoming,  and  Montana,  the  western  portion  of  the 
Purchase  includes  the  Rocky  Mountain  Range  which  rises  steeply 
6,000  feet  and  more  above  the  Great  Plains  extending  far  eastward 
from  its  foot.  The  high  front  range  of  these  mountains  trends  nearly 
due  north  and  south  through  central  and  northern  Colorado  and  south- 
central  Wyoming,  passing  a  short  distance  west  of  Colorado  Springs, 
Denver,  and  Cheyenne.  Though  several  of  its  peaks  rise  to  over  14,000 
feet  above  the  sea  level,  it  is  not  the  main  continental  divide  between 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  for  branches  of  the 
Platte  and  Arkansas  head  behind  it.  In  Wyoming  the  front  ridge 
is  known  as  the  Laramie  Range  and  it  is  crossed  by  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  at  Sherman  west  of  Cheyenne,  where  its  altitude  falls  to  8,251 
feet.  The  elevation  increases  again  northward  in  Laramie  Peak, 
north  of  which  it  soon  sinks  into  high  plains  or  off-sets  west  to  the  Wind 
River  Range.  The  latter,  merges  into  the  Shoshone  and  Absaroka 
ranges,  which  extend  north  through  northwestern  Wyoming  on  the 
east  side  of  Yellowstone  Park.  Thence  through  Montana  the  Rocky 
Mountains  continue  as  a  high  range  to  and  into  Canada,  forming  the 
divide  between  the  headwaters  of  the  upper  Missouri  and  Columbia 
rivers. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  Range  thus  forms  the  northwestern  bojindary 
of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  region,  a  huge  rampart  of  high,  rocky  ridges 
interrupted  by  a  high,  wide  valley  in  central-southwestern  Wyoming, 
but  elsewhere  crossed  only  by  elevated  mountain  passes  from  8,200  to 
12,000  feet  in  altitude  and  a  few  deep  canyons  through  the  Front 
Range  in  Colorado  and  southern  Wyoming.  These  mountains  have 
not  had  the  effect  of  halting  the  tide  of  western  progress,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Appalachian  ranges,  for  railroads  and  highways  were  extended 
across  them  in  the  earliest  days  of  the  great  movement  westward. 
and  a  large  proportion  of  the  settlers  and  miners  pressed  forward  to 
the  western  slope  without  stopping  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  The 
growth  of  the  great  city  of  Denver  is  due  more  to  the  presence  of  the 
mineral  deposits  in  the  mountains  just  west  than  to  a  halt  in  westerly 
progress. 

The  Bighorn  Mountains  are  an  outlying  range  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  northern  Wyoming,  rising  to  an  altitude  of  over  13,000  feet 

2 


World's  Fair 

and  National  Educational 

Association  Number 


The  JOURNAL  of  GEOGRAPHY 

The  June  number  of  TA^*  Journal  o/Gedohafhv  will  be  a  WorM'si  Fair  aRd 
a  Hatianal  EducBtionol  AssociRtirm  Numth?r.    It  wtll  be  devt>lt?d  unlirely  to 

^he  Geography 

of  the  Louisiana 

Purchase 

Amnnfc  thc5  numerDii!i  articles  that  may  be  expected  are  tlie  fnJlowm^  i 

THE  GEOGRAPHICAL  VALUE  OF  THE  LOUtStANA  PURCHASE 

lly  PKOKKsstJH  A.  P    BkiGllAM,  if  Ct^ij^aff  Uftwersiiy 

THE   SURFACE   AND  CLIMATE   OF  THE   LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

ih'  K.  H-  ilAHiE^N,  lij  tfit  I'ntfi-tl  Sfafts  Geoj^rapkuai  Sttrirv 

THE    HISTORY   AND   EXPLORATION    OF   THE  I.OUISIANA 

PURCHASE 

Nv  Dr.   A.   C.    H'.>vvi.S%'i»^  iif  (he   lt\tclii>{\i  CtJlifge,  Ct?/tiftifiia   Uftive^rit/y, 

Xt'ii'   Vt^rJi  tffy 

THE   INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  LOUISIANA    PURCHASE 

/iv  PKfH  KssoR  SPEXCKH  Tkottf,w.  oJ  Suarthmi^ft'  ioii,-^,  Swarfkm&rt'^ 

Pa.   aiifhiff  tf^'A  Comfn^t'ciai  (ftv^rafi/iy''^ 

THE  IMPORTANCE  AND  PRESENT  CONDITIONS  OF  IRRIGATION 

//v  Geu.   11   Hi]  I. LIST  BR.  AsSiUiafi'  /ii/f/tr  t'/    /7ir  Jduntiif  *}/  tMig^rafAy , 

ffydrtf^rnph^r  f*r  /A*'  L'tnleti  Staie^  Gtvlo^Atii  SHn*ey 

ST.  LOUIS 

By  ¥aa.vs  C.  SEMJ-LF.,  of  Lou/srtl/r'.  A>.;    an/k&r  if  '\hnttiCiifi    J/tsUry 

atiii  G^ttfj^f-jfAtt'  L'i*fidief\>fis*' 

DENVER 

By  £HAHLm  E.  CI  I  Ate,  Kv,  Asjstjfattt  Sttfcrintend^nl  tf  ike  DtHVer^ 

Citii-vradtii  Sc^tfh 

Tlii'  iirtifles  will  be  iliu^trateO  t'Xl;i?nsli'C'lv  hv  phuiu^'^faphs  untl  n]apt» ; 
thert*  will  bu  u  lurKt?  fuklin^  ini%|i  t>f  tlit  Lnuisuiha  Pvirehase  insvrleiJ,  anil 
the  iiuttiber  will  be  irtvahisiblt-  Ui  all  HL?at:her-'«  wlio  intend  iii  viail  *SL  Luiii!*  gii 
IJ^J^*i^^  whi*  wi^h  tn  hove  v%f  U  Htkiiictl  i;i'ii>;riiplijcal  nuitirial  on  thtf  Oruai 
Weist  and  especially  uf  llu*  Louisiana  PurehH?»t.  available  far  vIa&&  ii*ie.  The 
n umber  will  nls*i  indude  a  brief  selected  bjblii>g;ruphy  i*n  ihe  jfeoffrophv  uf 
the  LDUisiuiia  Purchase,  (ind  sLntjstieal  m^ivm  ^hnvfink  ils  piipulatian,  eum- 
mcrcei  induslrie?*,  ;ind  relaiive  en'^onymic  irnpfirluncf. 

The  price  i3  2Qc»  postpaid 

This  remark nble  Special  Issue  should  \nr  in  Ihe  hnnds  of  c%'crv  teacher 
before  attendinKf  the  Cfsnvenliim,  lis  pubKfftti<m  U  of  dedded  JniportanL^ 
in  the  Keo^rnphicol  w*irld.    f^rder  miw  and  he  surf  nf  «  copy. 

ijiibscriptums  and  advertisiemonts  i^hould  be  sienl  to 

T/u-  JOURNAL  0/  GEOGRAPHY 

Riiiim  s/fl,  !6o  Adams  St.,  CinCAGO,  ILL. 


1904 


SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE  OF  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


255 


ami  local  areas  of  bad-lanil?^.  Wide  dij^tricts  i^f  sand  hills  surmount 
the  plains  in  some  localities,  notably  in  northwei?tern  Nebraska,  where 
high  sand  dunes  occupy  an  area  of  several  thousand  S(juare  miles. 
The  pn>vince  is  developed  on  a  great  thickness  of  soft  rocks,  sands, 
clays,  and  loams,  generally  spread  in  thin  but  extenisive  beds  sloping 
gently  eastward  with  the  slope  of  the  plains.  These  deposits  lie  on 
relatively  smootli  surfaces  of  the  older  rocks.  The  materials  of  the 
formations  were  deriA^eil  mainly  from  the  west  and  were  depositee!, 
layer  by  layer,  either  by  streams  on  their  flood  plains  or  in  lakes  and, 
during  earlier  times,  in  the  sea.  x4side  from  a  few  very  local  flexures, 
the  region  has  not  been  subjected  to  folding,  but  has  been  broatily 
uphfted  and  depressed  successively.  The  general  smoothness  of  the 
region  to-tlay  was  surpassed  by  the  almost  complete  planatious  of 
the  surface  during  earlier  epochs.  (Hving  to  the  great  breadtli  f>f 
the  plains  and  their  relatively  gentle  declivity,  general  erosion  has  pro- 
gressed slowlVj  notwit  list  audi  iig  the  softiu*ss  of  the  forouitions,  and, 
as  at  times  of  freshets  many  of  the  rivers  bring  out  of  the  niountams 
a  larger  load  of  setliment  than  they  can  carry  to  the  Mississi|>pi.  they 
are  now  building  up  their  valleys  rather  than  deepening  them. 


«B»Li 


'S)^« 


Sam's  Hancht  in  tiw  Bad  Lands.     A  iypicM  view  p;  //»<*  Grmtt  Plains  and  catttt  ranch  in 
central  SoHih  Dakota, 


Read 
This 


Here  /v  a  list  of  ixrth  ies  thiit  are  soon  to  appear  in  THE 
JOURXAL  OF  Cl-J  HiRAPUV.  Will  these  help  jv  •/  /;/  the 
j^eo^raphitiil  'n'ork  of  your  ela^^ .' 

The  Functions  of  Geography  in  the  Elementary  School. 

Geography  in  the  United  States. 

The  Delta  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

A  Noteworthy  Cave  in  the  Coastal  Plain  of  Georgia. 

Weather  Lore. 

The  Scope  and  Content  of  Geography.     Two  articles. 

Map  Drawing. 

Studying  the  Sun,  Moon,  and  Stars. 

Transportation.     A  scrios  of  articles. 

River  Study. 

Geographical  Education. 

The  Geography  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.     A  series  of 

ten  articles. 
Practical  Exercises  in  Physiography. 
The  Geography  and  History  of  Chattanooga  and  Vicinity. 
Geography  in  the  Civil  War. 
The  Conduct   of  Excursions  in   Elementary  Geography 

Work. 
The  Growth  of  Wheat  in  the  United  States. 
The  Geography  of  the  Fall  Line. 
Geographic  Influences  of  Government. 
Anthropogeography. 
Mathematical  Geography.     A  series. 

Geographical  Course  of  Study  in  the  Following  Normal 
Schools: 

Terre  Haute,  Indiana. 

Los  Angeles,  California. 

Oswego,  New  York. 

Wcstfield,  Massachusetts. 


Suf'SKfif't'  Jor  this  }  urnal,   .in J  c  z*    //f'"    u^i'*.\f  fitt'ii'  artiiltS 


Talk   The 


THK  JOl'RXAL  OF   (iFOCiRAPHY 

Doom  560.  160  Adams  Street.  Chicago,  ilU 


L 


,M^ ■>   T^V   ,»^ =^£ 


Ji im^" 


Twin  yttsUn    j  typical  Imttt    iti  Hanncr  Connty,  Xebrniku,    fkntt  tluiniiL 

i.oui;*.     Its  average  volume  of  water  a  day  at  its  mouth  is  ten  hillioa 

cubic  feet.  The  longest  affloent  of  the  Mist^ouri  River  h  tlic  Platte:^ 
Kiver  whirh  rises  in  the  R*>rky  MnniitMins  in  .soiilhem  Wyoinitig  and 
northern  Colonulcj  arnl  eTn[)ties  iiiio  the  Missouri  River  at  Platt.suKmtiL 
a  few  uiiles  Ih>1ow  Omaha,  Its  daily  flow  averages  nearly  a  half  billion^ 
cuhie  feel.  The  Yellowstt*iK*-Hi^horn  River  s^^steni  ik  the  next  longest- 
affluent,  flawing  north  out  of  northwestern  Wyoming  anrl  north- 
ea?^1wiirfl  acrc»s8  the  southeastern  corner  of  Ahnitana,  U  has  a  larger 
volume  than  the  Platte  i>nt  the  anK>unt  of  flruv  has  not  lux'n  ai^eertainetl 
The  Kunsu.s  Kiver,  wliieh  flows  across  th**  northern  portion  of  Kansas. 
is  a  large  fitreani,  anrl  in  the  spring  of  1903  this  river  was  the  principal 
t'anse  of  the  ^^vphX  flood  in  tht*  lowrr  portion  (»f  Kansas  City,  The  Mis- 
souri Kiver  receives  but  rt^lativeiy  little  drainage  from  the  east,  the  Big 
Sifuix  Kiver  hrint-  it^  [irincipal  affluent  on  that  side.  Its  larger  branches 
mostly  rise  in  the  innnntains  and  firing  vast  vohnnes  <if  water  from 
the  melting  snow  and  great  watershe-iw.  The  Missouri  River  and 
lower  Mississi|>]>i  Kiver  as  one  great  stream  have  a  length  of  4^2(K) 
miles,  tiie  longest  in  tin*  world. 

The  Arkansas  Kiver  is  the  third  in  size  of  the  affluents  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  rising  in  the  niitldle  of  the  Rnt'ky  Mountains  in  central  i 
Colorado  and  draining  a  large  watershed  area  in  Kansas,  Oklahoniatj 
Indian  Territory   rnid  Arkansas.     Its  length  is  1,514  miles  and  it  rarrie^ 


SURFACE  AND  CLIMATE  OP  THE  LOUISIAKA  PURCHASE 


259 


to  the  Mississippi  River  a  volume  of  neaHy  six  billion  cubic  feet  of  water 
a  day.  The  Red  River  of  the  South  rises  in  the  southern  end  of  the 
Rocky  iMovintains  in  northern  New  Mexico,  flow*^  across  the  panhandle 
of  Texai?,  the  j^outhern  portion  of  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territories, 
and  through  Louisiana,  joining  the  great  river  near  its  mouth.  Its 
length  is  l,20f)  miles  and  its  average  daily  discharge  is  five  billion 
cubic  feet.  These  volumes  of  discharge  represent  a  vast  amount 
of  water  going  tu  waste,  nmeh  of  whieh  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
Purchase  will  eventually  be  husbanded  for  irrigation. 

The  rivers  of  the  (Ireat  Thiins  present  many  interesting  problems  for 
students  of  physiography.  They  are  not  all  of  the  same  age  and  pre- 
sent many  features  of  diversity.  Some  of  thosie  which  rise  in  the  high 
mountains  to  the  west  bear  a  heavy  loa<l  of  se<liments,  especially  dtiring 
freshets,  which  they  can  only  varn'  in  the  regions  of  greater  ileclivity, 
and  as  their  velocity  diniiiiishes  in  the  Plains  eastward,  they  deposit 
a  portion  of  their  burden.  In  this  way  the  Platte  is  filling  u{>  its  pres- 
ent trough,  especially  in  eastern  ('oloradi>  and  througli  Nebraska.  The 
Arkansas  and  portions  of  the  hnver  ^lississippi  present  similar  con- 
ditions of  overloading  and  de[)osition.  For  several  hundn*d  miles 
in  its  lower  portion  the  Mississippi  flows  on  an  embankment  wliich 
it  has  built  up  ten  to  twenty  feet  above  the  adjoining  lowlands. 


.7.      The  \prih  Platte  River  at  ihi  SttbraskQAVyi>nn»g  ^taU*  hnt,  laoktng  dcnLfi 
Slrtatn^  siuruit^X  shfunkctt  condition  of  tlut  rwer  in  mid-suwtwer. 


260  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  June 


In  North  Dakota  and  South  Dakota  the  Missouri  River  has  a  rela- 
tively new  course,  the  waters  having  originally  flowed  down  the  James 
River   N'alley.      During   the   Glacial   Period,  the  river  was  displaced 
from  this  valley  by  the  advance  of  \he  continental  ice  sheet  alon^ 
the  western  margin  of  which  the  outlines  of  the  present  course  wer^ 
incised.     The  new  valley  was   cut  so  deep  during  this  period  that, 
when  the  ice  retreated,  the  old  channel  could  not  be  regained  and  th^ 
river  has  remained  in  its  new  valley,  cutting  it  down  gradually  to  it^ 
present  level.     One  of  the  most  striking  contrasts  between  an  over — 
loaded  and  an  eroding  stream  is  in  southern  Nebraska,  where  thc^ 
Platte  is  filling  up  its  valley  and  its  neighbor  on  the  south,  the  Rcpubli — 
can,  a  branch  of  the  Kansas,  is  deepening  its  valley.     This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  Platte  is  overloaded  with  sediments  from  the  moun — 
tains,  while  the  Republican,  fed  by  springs  in  eastern  Colorado,  received 
relatively   little    sediment,    besides    having    a    slightly    greater   mearrfc 
declivity,  so  that  erosion  preponderates  over  sedimentation. 

Climate.  The  Louisiana  Purchase  region  presents  a  general  reg — 
ularity  in  its  variations  in  climate  from  north  to  south  and  east  tc:> 
west.  This  is  most  marked  in  the  annual  precipitation.  At  the  south — 
ern  extremity  of  the  region,  the  mean  annual  rainfall  is  slightly  oveX* 
sixty  inches  and  this  amount  diminishes  gradually  to  the  northwes'*> 
to  less  than  fifteen  inches  in  the  Great  Plains  of  Eastern  Colorado,  Wyo^ — 
ming,  and  Montana.  On  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Bighorn  Mountains;  ^ 
and  Black  Hills  there  is  locally  increased  precipitation  to  from  twenty^ 
to  thirty  inches  a  year,  due  to  the  influence  of  these  highlands  iir>- 
arresting  moisture  passing  ac^ross  the  Continent. 

In  thermometric  range  there  is  a  regular  diminution  of  mean  annuarl- 
temperature  to  the  north.     In  southern  Louisiana  the  mean  is  slightl>^ 
over  70°.     In  Arkansas  it  is  57°  to  65°  and  then  the  diminution  i^ 
regular  to  considerably  below  40°  in  the  northern  portion  of  Nortln^ 
Dakota  and  on  the  high  mountain  summits  to  the  west. 


The  JOURNAL  of  GEOGRAPHY 

Volume  III.  JUNE,  1904  Number  6 

Copyright,  1004,  by  E.  M.  Lchucrts. 

PAGE 

The  Geographic  Importance  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase 243 

ALBERT  PERRY  BRIGHAM 
The  Surface  and  Climate  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  N.  H.  DARTON     251 
Explorations  within  the  Louisiana  Purchase  A.  C.  ROWLAND    261 

Present  Industries  within  the  Louisiana  Ptirchase 270 

SPENCER  TROTTER 
The  Value  and  Development  of  Irrigation  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase 

Tract GEORGE  B.  HOLLISTER     278 

Geographic  Influences  in  the  Development  of  St.  Louis      ....     290 

ELLEN  CHURCHILL  SEMPLE 
Denver,  the  Queen  City  of  the  Plains    .      .      .      .     C.  E.  CHADSEY    300 
Geographical  Notes  : 

Area  and  Popiilution  of  States  and  Territories  within  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase,  304— Rank    of    Principal    Manufactures    in    the    Several 


Purchase  States.  1900,  ^04      Agriculture  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  305  —  Graz- 

urchase,  \o^- 
Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry,  j*./). 


ing  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Territory,  nyx.,  305— Localization  of  Indus- 
tries in  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  305  —  HiblioKraphy  <»f  the  Purchase,  305  — 


Editorial: 

The  Louisiana  Purchase,  307. 

Recent  Publications 308 

IVews  Notes 309 

Autlwrs  are  personally  responsibh^  for  opinions  ami  statements  expressed 
in  the  JOURNAL 


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264 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


to  American  authority  was  made,  Jefferson,  now  in  a  position  to  give 
effect  to  his  eariicr  plans,  organized  an  expedition  to  explore  the  coun- 
try, and  early  in  1803  obtained  from  Congress  the  necessary'  authority 
and  an  appropriation  of  money.  His  objects  were  varied.  Primarily 
the  expedition  was  to  seek  for  the  best  practicable  route  for  commerce 
from  the  Mississippi  \'alley  to  the  Oregon  coast.  At  the  same  time 
the  nature  of  the  country  was  to  be  determined,  its  soil  and  produc- 
tions, the  plant  and  animal  life,  the  course  of  the  streams,  the  mineral 
productions,  and  the  Indian  inhabitants  and  their  characteristics. 

In  selecting   leaders   for   the   exploring    party,   Jefferson   exercised 
great  judgment.      He  chose  two  young  men,  Virginians  and  originally 


Map  2.     .'1  ntap  shawinfi  the  Ixwis  and  Clark  Expedition. 
(From  Murf's  Iltstory  of  the  I'nlted  States.) 

neighbors  of  his  own,  Ciipt.  Meriwether  Lewis,  his  private  secretary-, 
and  Capt.  William  Clark,  brother  of  (len.  (Jeorge  Rogers  Clark,  who  had 
won  the  Illinois  country  from  the  l^ritish  during  the  Revolution.  They 
were  acconipanietl  by  a  party  of  thirty,  including  two  French  Canadian 
interpreters  and  an  Indian  s(juaw,  wife  of  one  of  the  latter.  The 
winter  of  1S03  4  was  spent  in  camp  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  in  the  following  spring.  May  14,  1804,  the  little  expedition 
crossed  the  river  and  set  out  on  their  dangerous  journey.  Their  plan 
was  to  proceed  up  the  Missouri  River  to  its  source,  there  hide  their 
boats,  and  then,  passing  over  the  mountains  by  the  easiest  trail,  descend 
the  Coluni])ia  to  the  ocean.  This  plan  they  carried  out  successfully. 
The  journey  up  the  Missouri  was  long  and  tedious.  The  current  was 
swift  and  their  canoes  often  were  inipedetl  by  snags  and  sand  bars. 
The  banks  fro(iuently  crumbled  in  or  were  covered  by  brush  and 
bushes  so  that  towing  was  almost  inipossiljle.  They  made  frequent 
stops  to  hold  councils  with  the  Indians  and  distribute  presents  from 


X9CH  EXPLORATIONS  WITHIN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE  265 

the  Great  Father  in  Washington,  now  heard  of  for  the  first  time  by 
most  of  these  savages.  Finally  after  nearly  six  months  of  weary  labor 
they  reached  at  the  end  of  October  the  villages  of  the  Mandan  Indians, 
situated  1,600  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  near  the  present 
Bismarck,  North  Dakota.  These  Indians,  whose  peculiar  character- 
istics differentiated  them  from  all  other  natives  of  the  northwest, 
proved  on  the  whole  ver>'  friendly,  and  here  Lewis  and  Clark  passed 
the  following  winter. 

On  the  approach  of  spring  the  expedition  once  more  set  out.     Work- 
ing their  way  slowly  and  with  difficulty  up  the  Missouri,  they  reached 
the  mouth  of  the  Yellowstone,  April  26th,  and  on  June  3d  the  Marias 
River,  which  is  so  considerable  a  tributary  that  the  travelers  were  in 
doubt  which  was  the  main  stream  of  the  Missouri  and  cast  about  for 
some   time   making   careful   measurements   before   deciding.     It  was 
a  matter  of  much  importance,  for  the  wrong  course  would  have  taken 
them  far  away  from  their  tme  objective,  the  nearest  branches  of  the 
Columbia.     Finally,   against   the   judgment   of   the   majority   of  the 
party,  Lewis  and  Clark  decided  to  take  the  more  southerly  stream, 
which  proved  the  correct  one.     On  the  1 3th  of  June  they  came  to  the 
falls  of  the  Missouri.     Here  they  had  to  make  their  first  portage  of 
eighteen  miles,  which  consumed  some  time  and  required  great  labor  on 
the  part  of  the  whole  party.     It  was  not  till  July  25th  that  they  reached 
the  second  forks  of  the  river  where  the  same  decision  confronted  them 
as  before.     There  were  three  streams  to  choose  from,  but  they  rightly 
selected  the  northern  one,  naming  the  other  two  Madison  and  Gallatin 
after  the  Secretary'  of  State  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

The  party  were  now  well  within  the  mountains  and  it  became  neces- 
sary to  find  and  make  friends  with  some  of  the  Indians  of  the  region 
who  might  guide  them  across  the  divide  to  the  headwaters  of  the 
Columbia.  The  Indian  woman  of  the  party,  squaw  of  one  of  the  inter- 
preters, was  fortunately  a  native  of  this  district,  having  been  captured 
by  one  of  the  enemies  of  her  tribe  some  years  before  and  sold  into  the 
lower  country.  By  her  aid  the  explorers  soon  met  a  party  of  Shoshones 
and  persuaded  them  to  show  the  way  through  the  pass.  They  came 
out  on  the  Lemhi  River,  a  tributar}^  to  the  Salmon  which  flows  into 
the  Snake  River  and  thence  into  the  Columbia,  so  that  the  course  of 
the  explorers  seemed  clear  before  them.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
they  had  arrived  at  the  most  difficult  part  of  their  journey.  The 
Lemhi  and  Salmon  rivers  proved  impracticable  and  they  were  forced 
to  abandon  them  and  strike  off  to  the  north  over  an  almost  impassable 


266  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Jmie 

trail  leading  through  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains  along  the  great  con- 
tinental divide.  Game  became  scarce  and  they  almost  starv^ed,  being 
forced  to  kill  and  eat  some  of  the  horses  they  had  procured  from  the 
Indians.  From  August  30th  to  Sept^mper  20th,  they  struggled  through 
these  mountains,  but  finally  emerged  in  the  valley  of  the  Clearwater, 
where  they  encoimtered  a  band  of  Nez  Perc6  Indians  from  whom 
they  procured  food  and  further  imformation  as  to  the  way.  They 
built  and  launched  canoes  on  the  Clearwater  and  paddling  down  this 
and  the  Snake  River  at  last  reached  the  Columbia  on  October  16th. 
Notwithstanding  the  dangerous  rapids  of  this  river,  they  passed  safely 
through  in  their  boats  and  on  November  7,  1805,  came  out  on  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific. 

The  winter  was  passed  here  in  camp  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia, 
and  the  following  spring  the  party  set  out  on  the  return  trip  across 
the  mountains.  On  their  way  back  they  discovered  the  Willamette 
River,  which  had  escaped  their  notice  on  the  descent,  owing  to  the 
islands  at  its  mouth,  and  then  retraced  their  st^ps  to  their  old  camp 
among  the  Nez  Percys,  on  the  Clearwater.  Obtaining  guides  here,  they 
plunged  into  the  intricacies  of  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  and  on 
the  1st  of  July  found  themselves  at  a  point  near  the  mouth  of  Travel- 
ers Rest  Creek,  where  the  party  was  cUvided  into  three  sections  in 
order  to  fmd  if  possible  an  easier  route  through  the  mountains  than 
the  one  they  had  followed  coming  out.  Lewis  was  to  proceed  by  the 
shortest  trails  to  tlie  falls  of  tlu^  Missouri  and  explore  Marias  River 
while  waiting  for  his  comj)anions  to  come  up.  Another  party  was  to 
follow  the  old  route  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Missouri  and,  collecting 
the  stores  left  there,  join  Lewis  at  the  falls.  Clark  was  to  accompany 
these  men  to  the  three  forks  of  the  Missouri  and  then  ascend  the  Galla- 
tin River,  pass  over  to  the  head  of  the  Yellowstone,  and  follow  this 
down  to  its  junction  with  the  main  stream.  All  these  plans  was  success- 
fully carried  out  and  after  many  adventures  with  Indians,  grizzly 
bears,  and  buffalo,  as  well  as  dangers  incident  to  the  wild  countr}" 
through  which  they  travelled,  the  entire  party  was  once  more  united 
on  the  12th  of  August,  a  short  distance  below  the  mouth  of  the  Yellow- 
stone. Two  days  later  they  came  to  the  Mandan  villages  where  they 
had  spent  their  first  winter  and  on  the  23d  of  September,  1806,  reached 
St.  Louis  after  an  absence  of  nearly  two  years  and  a  half. 

One  of  the  members  of  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition,  John  Colter, 
had  turnetl  back  before  reaching  St.  TiOuis  and  joined  a  ])arty  of  trappers. 
He  spent  several  years  in  the  mountains  and  in  the  winter  of  1807 


EXPLORATIONS  WITHIN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


267 


he  crossed  what  is  now  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  the  first  white 
man  to  behold  the  wonders  of  that  region. 

While  the  way  to  the  Pacific  was  being  blazed,  another  officer  of 
Captain  I^wis'  regiment,  I.ieutenant  Pike,  was  associating  his  name 
with  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  In  1805  he  was  sent  to  explore  the 
headwaters  of  the  Mississippi,  where  he  made  careful  observations  and 
supposed  he  had  found  the  source  of  the  river  in  Leech  Lake.  The 
following  year  he  was  sent  with  a  party  to  discover  the  headwaters  of 
the  Arkansas  River.     Leaving  St.  Louis  he  traveled  overland  through 


Fio. 


Drawn  from  an  old  print  l»y  H.  ^V,  Coll>y. 
riu-  city  of  St.  Louis  iu  the  early  fur-trading  days 


Kansas,  turned  south  to  the  Arkansas,  and  then  pushed  on  into 
Colorado,  where  he  discovered  the  famous  mountain  peak  that  bears 
his  name.  In  endeavoring  to  reach  tlie  head  of  Red  River  he  came 
upon  the  upper  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  trespassing  on  Spanish 
territory  was  arrested,  and  taken  to  Mexico,  whence  he  was  later  sent 
back  to  the  United  States. 

The  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  and  the  exi)lorations  of  Pike  led 
to  the  estabhshment  of  two  trade  routes  through  the  western  part 
of  the  continent  known  as  the  Oregon  trail  and  the  Santa  ¥6  trail. 
The  former  owed  its  existence  to  John  Jacob  Astor,  who  established 
a  fur  company  to  operate  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  sent  out  an  expedi- 
tiion  in  1811  under  W.  P.  Hunt,  to  estabHsh  posts  along  the  route 
followed  in  1S04-6.  Instead  of  following  the  great  bend  of  the  Mis- 
souri so  far  to  the  north,  however,  Hunt  turned  west  some  1,300  miles 
from  its  mouth  and  passed  by  way  of  the  Black  Hills  and  Green  River 


268  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Juni 

through  the  mountains  and  thence  to  the  Columbia.  The  War  of 
1812,  however,  broke  up  Astor's  trading  post  on  the  Pacific  and  when 
the  route  was  reopened,  a  somewhat  different  course  was  followed 
still  farther  to  the  south.  Commercially  the  Santa  F^  trail  was  more 
important  than  the  Oregon.  The  year  after  Pike's  expedition  the 
first  trading  journey  was  made  from  the  Mississippi  to  New  Mexico, 
but  the  real  history  of  the  trail  l)egins  with  the  trading  operations 
of  William  Becknell,  shortly  after  1812.  P>om  that  time  to  the  intro- 
duction of  railroads  the  Santa  Fe  trail  was  the  most  important  land 
route  in  America. 

The  road  over  the  mountains  followed  by  the  Astorians  was  not 
satisfactor}',  and  in  1819  the  government  sent  out  Major  Long  to  search 
near  the  sources  of  the  Platte  River  for  a  more  southern  pass  through 
the  mountains.  In  this  he  failed  through  following  the  South  Branch 
of  th?  Platte  instead  of  the  North.  He  made  many  important  dis- 
coveries, however,  within  the  state  of  Colorado,  including  Long's  Peak, 
and  explored  the  canyon  of  the  Arkansas.  His  journey  had  pointed 
to  the  valley  of  the  Platte  as  the  shortest  route  to  the  mountains  and 
it  was  but  a  few  years  before  the  Great  South  Pass  in  Wyoming  was 
discovered,  it  is  said  by  Alexander  Henry,  a  Canadian  fur  trader,  in 
1823.  Through  this  pass  afterwards  ran  both  the  Oregon  trail  and 
the  Overland  trail  to  California. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  decades  of  the  century  the  fur  traders  con- 
tributed most  to  the  histor\'  (^f  oxj^loration  within  the  Ix)uisiana 
Purchase.  Gen.  W.  II.  Ashley  of  St.  Louis  organized  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Fur  Coni|)any  in  1S22,  and  established  many  trading  posts. 
He  led  several  expeditions  into  the  interior,  explored  the  Green  River 
near  South  Pass,  and  visited  Groat  Salt  Lake,  which  had  already  been 
discovered  by  the  famous  guide  and  tra])per,  James  Bridger.  Another 
trader  was  Nathaniel  J.  Wyeth,  who  led  two  expeditions  to  the  Colum- 
bia in  1S32  and  1S34,  and  did  much  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
East  to  the  Oregon  cc^untry  and  thus  lead  to  its  occupation  by  Amer- 
ican emigrants.  Captain  Bonneville,  l'.  S.  A.,  was  also  interested 
in  tITe  fur  trade  and  traveled  much  through  the  Rockies  from  1832 
to  1S35.  Ho  crossed  over  into  California  by  way  of  Great  Salt  Lake 
and  is  said  to  have  discovered  the  Humboldt  and  San  Joaquin  rivers, 
althou»rh  he  was  i)rocedod  in  the  overland  journey  to  California  by 
a  St.  Louis  fur  tra<lor  named  Pattio.  who  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  white  man  to  cross  the  continent  in  this  direction. 

Durintr  this  period  a  number  of  sciontifio  men  added  to  our  knowl- 


EXPLORATIONS  WITHIN  THE  LOUISIANA   PURCHASE  269 


?(lge  of  these  parts.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  Bradbury, 
the  naturalist,  Nuttall,  the  botanist,  Townsend,  an  ornithologist, 
Nicollet,  a  French  astronomer  and  .^.^eographer,  and  Maximilian,  Prince 
of  Neuweid,  a  German  naturalist.  Nor  should  Schoolcraft's  excellent 
descriptions  of  the  Indians  of  this  region  and  Catlings  Indian  portraits 
be  forgotten. 

In  1843  began  the  great  emigration  to  the  Columbia  country.  In 
that  year  about  a  thousand  people  followed  the  Oregon  trail  to  the 
Pacific  Coast,  and  thereafter  for  a  number  of  years  the  exodus  steadily 
increased.  It  was  important  that  fuller  information  regarding  the 
routes  of  travel  across  the  mountains  should  be  obtained  and  laid  before 
the  country  and  therefore  the  government  determined  to  undertake 
an  official  exploration.  At  the  head  of  the  expedition  was  placed 
Lieut.  J.  C.  Fremont,  son-in-law  of  Senator  Benton  of  Missouri. 
Fremont's  work  was  of  great  importance  in  opening  up  the  Rocky 
Mountain  country  for  travel,  and  from  the  passes  he  discovered  and 
the  number  of  routes  he  demonstrated  to  be  practicable  he  became 
known  throughout  the  country'  as  the  ''Pathfinder."  His  first 
expedition,  undertaken  in  1842,  led  him  to  South  Pass  and  the  Wind 
River  Mountains  in  western  Wyoming.  The  second,  in  1843-4,  took 
him  first  into  Colorado  where  he  found  a  new  pass  through  the  moun- 
tains, and  then  north  through  the  basin  of  Great  Salt  Lake  and  on  to 
the  Columbia.  All  this  region  he  carefully  mapped  out  and  then, 
aft^r  resting  for  a  short  time  in  Oregon,  proceeded  south  through  an 
entirely  unknown  country-,  into  the  Sacramento  Valley  of  California. 
He  returned  by  way  of  the  Utah  basin.  In  1845  Fremont  again  started 
out,  this  time  to  find  the  best  route  for  a  railroad  to  San  Francisco, 
then  a  Mexican  town.  Shortly  after  reaching  the  coast  news  came  of  the 
outbreak  of  war  and  he  led  a  successful  revolt  of  American  settlers  against 
the  Mexican  authorities.  Two  more  exploring  expeditions  were  or- 
ganized by  Fremont,  one  in  1848  in  which  he  discovered  a  practicable 
route  along  the  upper  Rio  Grande  to  the  coast,  and  the  other  in  1853 
when  he  opened  new  passes  through  the  mountains  between  the  38th 
and  39th  degrees. 

In  1849  began  the  stampede  for  the  California  gold  fields  and  there- 
after all  energies  were  turned  for  some  years  to  a  quest  for  the  pre- 
cious metals.  The  mountains  were  penetrated  in  every  direction 
by  the  gold  diggers,  and  the  demand  arose  for  railroad  lines  across 
the  continent.  Subsequent  exploring  expeditions  were  mainly  confined 
to  railroad  surveys,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  government 

8 


270  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Jvoe 

surveys  of  I.  I.  Stevens,  in  1853-4,  from  St.  Paul  to  Puget  Sound,  now 
largely  followed  by  the  Northern  Pacific ;  of  Lieutenant  Beckwith,  in 
1854,  through  the  region  of  the  South  Pass,  the  route  of  the  Union 
Pacific;  and  of  Lieut.  John  Pope,  in  1854,  along  the  line  subsequently 
followed  by  the  Southern  Pacific.  Besides  these  there  were  many 
surveys  undertaken  both  by  the  government  and  private  corporations 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  between  1850  and  1860. 


PRESENT  INDUSTRIES  WITHIN  THE 
LOUISIANA  PURCHASE* 

BY   SPENCER   TROTTER 

Pro/eHnor  of  Biology^  Swarthmore  College,  Pennsylvania.  Author  of  the 
"^ (ieography  of  Commerce"* 

INDUSTRIAL  Development  of  the  Region.  The  eastern  border  of  the 
I^ouisiana  Purchase  was,  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  western  frontier  of  settlement.  The  vast  expanse  of 
rolling,  grass-covered  "plains"  that  stretched  away  westward  from  the 
frontier  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  was  the  then  little  known  "Indian 
Country"  and  the  pasture  land  of  the  great  bison  herds.  The  first 
commerce  of  the  region  was  in  the  hands  of  Rocky  Mountain  trappers 
and  the  traders  of  the  Santa  F^  trail  and  the  Missouri.  Pelts  were 
the  earliest  commodity,  and  St.  Louis,  from  its  location  on  the  Missis- 
sippi-Missouri waterway,  was  the  focal  point  of  this  trade.  St.  I^uis 
was  the  gateway  to  the  "Far  West"  as  Pittsburg  was  to  the  Ohio  traffic 
and  Buffalo  to  the  Lake  Region.  Here  expeditions  fitted  out  for  the 
long  traverse  of  the  "plains"  and  the  wharv-es,  piled  high  with  goods, 
were  lined  with  the  flat-bottomed  steamboats  of  the  Missouri  naviga- 
tion and  the  hirger  craft  of  the  Mississippi.  Parkman  gives  a  vivid 
picture  of  St.  Louis  trade  in  the  summer  of  1846. 

The  trapper  and  the  trader  were  essentially  a  part  of  the  Indian 
life  of  the  Great  Plains  and  gradually  disappeared  as  the  frontier 
moved  farther  westward.  The  fertile  prairie  lands  of  more  abundant 
rainfall  in  the  area  now  embraced  by  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  the  eastern 
parts  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  were  rapidly  settled  as  the  danger  from 
Indians  grew  less,  and  the  great  farms  of  corn-land  spread  to  the 
borders  of  the  arid  plains.  To  the  north,  in  western  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas,    the   wheat   was   advancing   westward.     The   Coastal    Plain 

♦The  statistical  diagrams  that  appear  in  this  article  are  from  Dodge's 
Advanced  Geography,  and  are  used  by  special  arrangement  with  the  author  and 
the  publishers. 


PRESENT  INDUSTRIES  WITHIN   THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


271 


and  its  upland  borders  in  Louisiana  and  Arkansasjwas  a  cotton-growing 
country  with  river  facilities  for  shipment  of  the  crop  to  the  port  of  New 
Orleans.  The  western  extension  of  the  railroads  gave  further  impetus 
to  settlement  and  trade.  In  the  decade  from  1870  to  1880  the  last 
traces  of  the  picturesque  frontier  period  vanished  from  these  prairie 
lands  which  had  become  the  home  of  an  agricultural  people. 


400 


500 


United  States 
Afintusota... 
North  Dakota 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Kansas 


_L 


_L 


_L 


^1^ 


Fig.   I.      The  production  of  wheat  in 

millions  of  bushels,  in  IQ02,  in  the 

leading  wheat- producing  states. 


The  deficient  rainfall  over  the  Great  Plains  determined  an  industry 
essentially  pastoral  and  nomadic  in  character.  While  scattered  bands 
of  Indians  still  pursued  the  rapidly  dwindling|herds  of  buffalos,  the 
cattlemen  invaded  these  hunting  grounds  and  pastured  their  droves 
of  "long  horns*'  on  the  wiry  buffalo  grass.  Then  followed  the  years 
of  the  cowboy,  the  range,  and  the  round-up  and  the  estabhshment  of 
ranch  Ufe  from  end  to  end  of  the  region.  With  cattle  came  sheep 
and,  as  the  railroads  reached  out,  wool  became  an  item  of  growing 
importance. 

The  industries  of  the  area  embraced  by  the  Louisiana  Purchase  are 
essentially  agricultural,  although  considerable  mining  is  done  in  certain 
localities,  notably  that  of  lead  and  zinc  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and 


United  States. 
Illinois 


lotua 

Missouri  . 
Nebraska . 
Kansas . . . 


i    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I 


Fig.   2.     The  production   of    corn^^in 
hundreds  of  millions  of  bushels, 
in  1902,  in  the  leading  corn- 
producing  states. 


^^^  mining  operations  of  the  Black  Hills  district  of  South  Dakota, 
^^op  growing  and  stock  raising  and  the  industriesjdependent  thereon 
^'I'e  the  leading  features  of  the  region. 

Some  notable  facts  are  available  which  indicate  the  vast  importance 


272  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Jane 


of  this  area  in  relation  to  national  growth.  That  the  westward  expan- 
sion of  population  found  an  abundant  opportunity  in  this  fertile  land 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  increase  of  farms  in  several  states  during 
the  decade  from  1870  to  1880.  Thus  in  Iowa  the  percentage  of  increase 
of  the  total  number  of  farms  was  59.4% ;  in  Missouri,  45.3% ;  in  Dakota, 
(then  one  State)  913.7% ;  in  Nebraska,  415.3% ;  and  in  Kansas,  262.7%.* 

o  /  2         s  4         J  0  7         ^^         9         fo 

I    I    I   I    I    I    I    I    I    !   I    I    |.|    I   I    I    !    ■ 


United  States 

Illinois 

IovL>a 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Kansas 


Fig.  ^.     r//^  Production  of  oats  in  hund- 
reds of  millions  of  bushels,  in  1902^ 
in  the  leading  oat-producing 
states. 


An  equally  significant  fact  is   seen   in   the   westward   movement  of 
wheat  cultivation,  the  center  of  which  at  present  is  in  southwestern- 
Iowa,  having  advanced  to  the  Missouri  River  from  a  point  just  east^ 
of  the  Mississippi  within  the  past  twenty  years.     In  1850  the  greatest 
wheat-producing  area  was  in  the  Genessee  Valley,  in  New  York  State. 
In  the  last  decade  (1890-1900)  the  movement  has  been  up  the  Mis- 
souri, under  the  influence  of  the  rapidly  increasing  growth  of  the  hard- 
grained  wheat  production  and  the  milling  industries  of  the  Dakotas 
and  Minnesota.     The  center  of  corn   production  to-day  is  in  south- 
western Illinois,  just  above  the  junction  of  the  Missouri  and  Mississippi 
rivers  and  not  far  from  St.  Louis.     The  center  has  shifted  scarcely 
at  all  in  the  last  decade,  owing  undoubtedly  to  two  facts — (1)  the 
unavailability  of  land  for  corn  growing  to  the  west  of  the  100th  meri- 
dian due  to  increasing  aridity,  and  north  of  the  parallel  of  42®  north, 
due  to  increasingly  low  temperature,  and  (2)  the  centrallizing  of  the 
live  stock  industries  (fattening  of  cattle  and  hogs,  meat-producing, 
etc.)  on  the  Missouri  and  at  Chicago.     This  second  factor  is  due  largely 
to  transportation  facilities.     Although  the  corn  center  has  not  advanced 
to  within  the  hmits  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  its  present  position 
close  to  the  eastern  border  of  that  area  is  in  large  part  the  result  of  the 
immense  territory  of  grazing  land  to  the  west,  the  live  stock  of  which 
is  shipped  east  to  fatten  on  the  farms  of  the  corn  belt. 

In  reviewing  the  present  industrial  features  of  the  territory  embraced 

*  Tenth  Census, 


1904  PRESENT  INDUSTRIES  WITHIN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE  2  73 


by  the  Louisiana  Purchase  the  predominant  industries  will  be  consid- 
ered from  the  standpoint  of  the  several  commodities  which  form  their 
basis.  The  commodities  may  be  grouped  under  three  main  heads — 
(1)  Crops  (including  corn,  wheat,  and  other  cereals,  forage  crops, 
cotton,  and  crops  of  minor  importance);  (2)  Live  Stock  (including 
cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep,  and  the  meat-packing  industry'  and  wool); 
(3)  Mineral  Resources  and  Mining  Operaiions. 

Crops.  Iowa  produced  14.4%  of  the  total  United  States  production 
of  com  for  the  year  1899;  Kansas  produced  8.6%;  Nebraska  7.9%; 
and  Missouri  7.8%  of  the  total.  All  other  corn-growing  states,  with 
the  exception  of  Ilhnois,  rank  below  these  four  which  are  included 
within  the  domain  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  The  yield  per  square 
mile  throughout  the  greater  part  of  these  states  was  over  3,200  bushels, 
as  high  as  in  any  part  of  the  corn  belt.  A  large  proportion  of  the  com 
grown  in  this  area  is  fed  to  stock,  the  amount  varying  with  the  greater 
or  less  demand  for  meat  products.  Another  considerable  portion 
finds  its  way  to  the  distilleries  at  Peoria,  111.  Still  another  portion 
enters  into  starch  and  glucose  manufacture,  and  a  fourth  considerable 
portion  into  domestic  economy.  A  comparatively  small  amount  finds 
its  w^ay  into  the  export  trade  of  the  country. 

The  wheat-growing  area  reaches  much  farther  to  the  northwest 
than  that  of  corn,  as  a  result  of  the  lower  temperature  relations 
of  the  former  cereal.  The  Twelfth  Census  reports  that  four-fifths  of 
all  the  farms  in  Minnesota  during  1899  produced  wheat.     South  Dakota 


( 

) 

10 

1 

20                          ,fO                         40                        _U 

1               1               1              1 

United  States 

Iowa 

Fir. 

4 

in 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Xebraska 

Ohio 

The  number  of  millions  of  hogs, 
I  go  J,  in  the  leading  hog- 
raising  states. 

came  second  with  nearly  the  same  proportion,  and  North  Dakota 
third  with  almost  three-fourths.  These  three  states  are  in  the  Spring 
Wheat  area.  The  Census  of  1900  reports  Minnesota  as  contributing 
14.5%  of  the  total  wheat  production  of  the  country,  over  5%  more 
than  any  other  wheat-growing  State.  The  great  milling  industry 
of  the  upper  Mississippi  is  a  direct  result  of  the   expansion  of  the 


2  74  '^^^  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  June 

wheat-growing  area  in  the  Northwest  and  the  demands  of  the  mills 
even  overreach  the  vast  supply  from  the  contiguous  United  States 
territory  and  draw  wheat  from  the  harvests  of  Canada  and  from 
Washington  and  Oregon. 

Other  cereals  are  grown  in  this  eastern  area  of  the  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase, but  to  a  small  extent  compared  with  corn  and  wheat.  Wheat 
creates  an  enormous  traffic  movement  from  its  areas  of  production 


United  States 

Montana 

Wyonting  — 
New  Mexico . 

Idaho 

Utah 


10  20  ^^  40  JO  ttO 

I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I      I 


Fig.  5.     The  number  of  sheep  in  millions, 

in  IQ02,  in  the  leading  sheep- 

raising  states. 


to  the  mills  and  to  the  disbursing  points  of  Duluth,  Superior,  and 
Chicago,  and  forms  a  vcr>'  large  proportion  of  the  whole  export  trade 
of  the  country  (breadstuffs,  of  which  wheat  and  wheat  flour  form 
the  major  portion,  constitute  20%  of  the  total  export  value  of  the 
United  States,  being  second  only  to  cotton). 

In  the  low-lying  coastal  lands  of  the  state  of  Louisiana  the  sugar 
cane  has  long  been  an  important  crop.  I^ouisiana  is  practically  the 
only  state  producing  the  cane,  its  output  of  sugar  for  1901-1902  amount- 
ing to  275,000  long  tons.  The  production  of  sugar  beets  has  developed 
as  an  important  industr}^  in  Nebraska  and  Colorado,  where  several 
large  factories  are  located.  The  more  important  centers  of  beet 
sugar  production,  however,  lie  outside  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  area, 
in  California  and  in  Michigan. 

Cotton,  the  largest  item  in  the  export  trade  of  the  United  States 
(22%  in  the  raw  and  unmanufactured  state),  is  grown  to  a  consider- 
able extent  within  the  southern  area  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.  The 
entire  State  of  Louisiana,  the  greater  part  of  Arkansas,  Indian  Terri- 
tory, and  a  portion  of  Oklahoma  are  all  cotton-producing  areas  of 
more  or  less  importance.  Of  the  total  increase  of  cotton  acreage 
in  the  last  decade,  Indian  Territory  and  Oklahoma,  together  with 
Texas,  contributed  8S.796»  each  of  the  former  two  adding  371,987 
and  239,569  acres  respectively  to  the  entire  cotton-growing  area  of 
the   country'.'" 

♦Twelfth  (ViK<iis. 


PRESENT  INDUSTRIES  WITHIN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 


2/5 


The  hay  crop  of  the  country  outside  of  New  York  State,  which  led 
in  the  last  decade,  is  contributed  largely  by  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Mis- 
souri. The  two  former  states  produced  4,649,378  and  4,337,342  tons 
each;  while  Missouri  and  Nebraska  each  produced  over  2,000,000  tons, 
with  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  Illinois  as  their  only  rivals  above 
this  figure. 

Live  Stock,  The  dry  character  of  the  high  '^plains"  has  precluded 
crop  growing  on  any  large  scale,  save  where  irrigation  has  been  estab- 
lished, and  has  made  this  western  area  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase 
pre(?minently  a  group  of  ^^range  states."  Montana,  Wyoming,  and 
Colorado  are  the  great  ranch  states  of  the  section  that  lies  within  the 
limits  of  the  Purchase.  Notwithstanding  the  great  ranges,  the  char- 
acter of  the  pasturage  is  against  fattening  for  market  purposes.  As  a 
consequence  a  large  number  of  cattle  are  shipped  into  the  western  corn- 
belt  section  along  the  Missouri  River  and,  apart  from  Texas,  which 
is  the  greatest  cattle  state  in  the  I'nion,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska 
report  the  largest  numbers,  over  five  million,  four  million,  and  three 
milhon  head  respectively.  Iowa,  also,  stood  second  in  the  number  of 
dairy  cows,  being  exceeded  by  New  York. 

On  the  other  hand  sheep  thrive  well  on  the  dry  pasturage  of  the 
high  "plains"  and  foothills.  Montana  and  Wyoming  led  all  other 
states  in  the  number  of  sheep,  each  contributing  over  4,000,000  head. 


United  States 

Texas 

Iowa 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Kansas 


I      I     I 


I      I     I      I 


Fig.  6.    The  number  of  millions  of  horses 

and  mules,  in  iQo^,  in  the  leading 

stock-raising  states. 


and  Colorado  over  2,00(),0()()  head,  out  of  a  total  of  over  61,000,000 
head  for  the  entire  country.  Most  of  the  wool  produced  in  the  United 
States  is  used  in  domestic  manufacture. 

Iowa,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  together  with  Indiana  and 
Illinois,  raise  nearly  two-thirds  of  all  the  swine  produced  in  the  country, 
Iowa  ranking  first  as  a  hog-producing  state  with  15.5%  of  the  entire 
number. 

The  centralizing  of  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  in  the  western  portion 


J  76  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


of  the  corn  belt,  as  a  result  of  the  enormous  food  supply  raised  there, 
has  given  rise  to  an  immense  meat-packing  industry.  This  industry, 
outside  of  Chicago,  is  chiefly  centered  along  the  Missouri  River  at 
8t.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  and  St.  Joseph.  At  these  five  centers 
the  rate  of  concentration  of  live  stock  for  one  week  during  the  year  190O 
reached  the  enormous  figure  of  844,000  head  (cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs). 

Mineral  Industries.     Mining  has  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
industrial  development   of  the   Louisiana   Purchase,   notably   in   the^ 
Cordilleran  Mountain  region,  in  the  Black  HilLs,  and  in  certain  localitie?!^ 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley.    The  smelting  of  metallic  ores  is  a  prominent- 
feature  throughout  the  mining  districts. 

Colorado  is  the  only  state  that  produces  iron  in  any  quantities,^ 
though  Iowa  adds  a  small  percentage  of  brown  hematite  ore  to  ther- 
total  United  States  product.  The  iron  ore  mined  in  the  vicinity  o] 
Leadville,  Colo.,  on  the  western  border  of  the  I^rchase,  contain: 
varying  amounts  of  manganese  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture-^ 
of  spiegeleisen  and  as  a  flux  in  the  silver  smelters.  The  steel  industry- 
is  being  rapidly  developed  in  Colorado  with  a  consequent  increasing 
demand  for  the  manganiferous  ores. 

Montana  leads  in  copper,  with  the  enormous  total  of  270,738,489 
pounds  (1000)  representing  44.7%  of  the  entire  United  States  product. 
Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  South  Dakota  are  all  gold  and 
silver  producing  states.  Colorado's  gold  output  increased  $2^846,600 
for  the  year  1000,  while  South  Dakota  increased  its  silver  output  for 

0  /<>  JO  ,\)  Jl*  <lt  (kt 

J \ I ; I \ I I L I \ L 


United  Suites. 

7VV.I5 

/.nici 

Kiiusos    

Xcbr.iik'a 
Illinois 


Vie.  7.    The  number  oj  millions  oj  cattle, 
in  /^(\?,  in  the  Icadinii  cattle- 
raising  states. 


the  same  year  §390,600.  Important  lead  and  zinc  centers  occur  in 
southeastern  Missouri,  in  the  Joplin-Galena  district  of  Missouri  and 
Kansas,  and,  locally,  in  the  Dubucjue  district  of  Iowa.  Lithia  ore  is 
mined  in  the  Black  Hills,  South  Dakota.  The  only  United  States 
locality  when*  nickel  and  cobalt  are  at  present  mined  is  the  Mine 
Lamotte,  Missouri.  Some  antimony  ore  is  mined  in  South  Dakota 
(Black  Hills)  and  tin -ore  (cassiterite)  is  mined  to  a  limited  extent 
in   the   same   ren^ion. 


1904 


PRESENT  INDUSTRIES  WITHIN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE] 


277 


Vast  areas  of  coal  exist  in  parts  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase;  a  strip  of 
98,000  square  miles  extends,  in  detached  fields,  from  Iowa  to  the  Mexi- 
can border.  Petroleum  occurs  in  Colorado  and  some  asphaltum  in 
the  bituminous  limestones  of  Indian  Territory.  Missouri  ranks  high 
as  a  producer  of  building  stones,  and  Arkansas  is  a  noted  center  for 
the  production  of  oil  stones  of  fine  grain. 


United  States 
Wisconsin . . . 

Michigan 

Minnesota . .. 
Pennsylvania 
Washington 


wo 

— L_ 


200 
_J_ 


^00 

I 


I 


Fig.  8.      77/c  value  of  the  lumber  product 

in  millions  of  dollars,  in  igoo,  in  the 

leading  lumber-producing  states. 


Concluding  Remarks.  From  this  very  brief  review  of  the  leading 
industrial  features  within  the  area  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  it  is 
evident  that  the  region  is  preeminently  the  great  food-producing  sec- 
i;ion  of  our  national  domain.  No  other  area  witliin  our  boundaries 
could  supply  the  live  stock  and  the  grain  that  this  region  supplies 
to-day.  Its  effect  on  national  growth  and  the  development  of  the 
people  has  been  most  remarkable.  Without  this  contiguous  western 
area  as  an  outlet  to  a  growing  population  the  conditions  east  of  the 
Mississippi  must  have  remained  for  a  long  time  cramped  and  undevel- 
oped. If  the  area  had  continued  in  the  possession  of  a  foreign  power, 
our  record  as  a  people  would  have  been  written  small  upon  the  pages 
of  history,  even  though  we  had  acquired  the  Pacific  Slope.  The  astute- 
ness and  foresight  of  Jefferson  and  the  statesmen  of  his  time  cannot  be 
overestimated.  More  than  the  mere  question  of  wealth,  the  effect 
of  this  land  upon  the  character  of  the  people  has  been  far-reaching. 
Within  the  past  thirty  years  it  has  become  the  home  of  an  industrial 
population  that  has  helped  to  weld  the  land  into  one  great  national 
unit.  As  we  stand  to-day  gazing  out  over  the  immense  vistas  of 
waving  corn  and  wheat  and  beyond  to  the  vast  cattle  ranches,  and 
see  the  long  trains  moving  the  wealth  of  this  land  to  the  consuming 
and  disbursing  cities;  as  we  view  the  manifold  inventions  that  gather 
in  the  harvest  of  the  prairies,  and  hear  the  hum  of  industry  from  hun- 
dreds of  towns  with  their  thousands  of  pleasant  homes,  we  catch  the 
sure  note  of  progress — the  sign  of  a  virile  people  that  has  responded 
to  the  opportunities  of  its  environment. 


278  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


THE  VALUE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  IRRIGA- 
TION IN  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE  TRACT 

HY    GEORGK    B.    HOLLISTER 
llydntgi'apher  U.  S.  OeoJtipicnl  Survey,  n'oshinytou.  />.  C. 

DRAW  a  line  from  the  Canadian  border  to  Texas  along  the  one- 
hundredth  meridian  and  you  will  have  approximately  the 
boundan'  between  the  arid  and  humid  regions  of  the  United 
States.  This  line  will  pass  through  North  and  South  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  strike  the  panhandle  of  Texas.  Eastward  the 
rainfall  amounts  to  twenty  inches  annually  and  over;  westward  to 
twenty  inches  annually  and  less.  Of  course  the  location  of  this  line  is 
not  absolutely  fixed,  it  swings  back  and  forth  with  seasons  of  increased 
or  diminished  ])recipitation.  It  is,  indeed,  rather  a  belt  on  which 
there  are  years  of  rain  and  years  of  drought.  The  belt  can  hardly  be 
called  arid,  it  is  certainly  not  humid,  so  for  convenience  it  is  knowTi  as 
the  semiarid  tract. 

This  imaginary'  division,  however,  is  a  real  boundar}-.  West  of  it 
dry  farming,  that  is  farming  without  irrigation,  as  practised  in  humid 
climates,  can  not  be  carried  on,  and  nature  has  here  set  a  barrier 
more  absolute  than  any  sea  or  mountain.  The  cause  of  this  peculiar 
condition,  as  already  indicated,  is  found  in  the  difference  in  rainfall. 
Twenty  inclies  annually  is  the  least  amount  suitable  for  farming  under 
ordinary  conditions.  When  the  precipitation  becomes  less,  artificial 
means  of  increasing  it  must  be  resorted  to  and  farming  is  conditioned 
wholly  by  the  amount  of  water  which  can  be  controlled  from  streams 
and  underground  sources.  Thus  the  territory'  of  the  original  Louisiana 
Purchase  is  divided  into  two  distinct  regions  agriculturally,  one  moist 
and  the  other  dr>'.  On  the  one  hand  the  rich  prairies  of  Iowa,  eastern 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  Minnesota  offer  the  acme  of  fertility  and  pro- 
duce with  a  minimum  of  labor  the  wonderful  grain  crops  which  have 
added  so  much  to  the  wealth  of  our  country;  on  the  other  hand  the 
dry  and  parched  stretches  of  the  high  plains  in  western  Kansas,  Neb- 
raska, the  Dakotas,  and  Montana,  and  the  equally  drj'  but  fertile  valleys 
of  Colorado  and  Wyoming  demand  the  utmost  care  and  vigilance 
and  large  outlays  of  money  in  engineering  works  to  supply  the  natural 
deficiency  of  rainfall.  And  yet,  when  the  proper  conditions  are  met 
in  the  arid  section,  that  is,  when  sufficient  water  is  provided,  the  fruits 


THE  VALUE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  IRRIGATION 


279 


and  vegetables,  as  well  as  the  grains  which  reward  the  patient  tiller 
of  the  soil,  are  the  wonder  of  the  farmers  of  the  East. 

My  purpose  is  to  oiitUne  briefly  the  more  important  aspects  of  the 
value  and  development  of  irrigation  in  the  arid  and  semiarid  Louis- 
iana Purchase  tract  and  show  how  regions  practically  worthless  so  far 
as  farm  values  are  concerned,  without^water,  have  become  in  many 
places  veritable  garden'^  spots  by  the  intelligent  application  of  the 
wat€r  other  than  that  from  direct  rainfall. 
To  do  this,  attention  will  be  called  to  a 
number  of  problems  which  characterize  the 
irrigation  movement  in  different  sections  of 
this  area,  a  region  so  diverse  in  physical 
characteristics. 

THE    FLOWING    WELLS    OF   THK    DAKOTAS 

Although  the  natural  rainfall  in  North 
and  South  Dakota  comes  perilously  near 
the  twenty-inch  mark  and  even  falls  beneath 
it  in  the  western  portions,  nature  has  pro- 
vided for  certain  sections  of  this  state  a 
seemingly  inexhaustible  supply  of  water  as 
a  substitute.  This  water  is  contained  in  a 
series  of  rock  strata  known  as  the  Dakota 
sandstones,  which  underlie  the  entire  area 
of  these  states.  The  Dakota  sandstones  are 
a  series  of  soft  and  porous  strata  which  are 
capable  of  containing  a  large  percentage 
of  their  weight  in  water.  The  great  uplift 
which  produced  the  backbone  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  chain  and 
also  the  peculiar  crustal  blister  known  as  the  Black  Hills  raised 
this  series  with  others  and  brought  them  to  the  surface  high  up  on 
the  eastern  flanks  of  the  Rockies  as  well  as  on  the  sides  of  the  Black 
Hills  uplift.  The  streams  from  these  upland  areas  flow  across  the  up- 
turned edges  of  the  Dakota  sandstones  and  a  very  considerable  portion 
of  their  waters  is  absorbed  by  the  porous  rock.  It  passes  by  slow  perco- 
lation down  under  the  Great  Plains  states,  sinking  with  the  strata 
many  hundred  feet,  and  obtaining  in  this  way  an  enormous  head 
or  pressure.  The  rock  is  not  accessible  from  all  portions  of  the  Plains 
because  the  overlying  material  is  too  thick  to  be  penetrated  by  wells 
at  economical  cost,   but   through  central  North   and  South    Dakota, 


Fig.  I.  Town  well,  W'oonsocket, 
South  Dakota;  725  feet  deep; 
fields  1. 1 50  gallons  per  minute ; 
is  throwing  a  stream  97  feet, 
under  a  pressure  of  130  pounds 
per  square  inch. 


28o  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  June 


especially  along  the  greater  river  valleys  where  the  streams  have  cut 
into  and  carried  away  a  portion  of  the  surface,  wells  have  been  suc- 
cessfully driven  and  reach  the  water-bearing  beds  at  depths  of  from 
one  to  two  thousand  feet.  The  residt  of  striking  water  is  most 
interesting.  A  true  artesian  flow  is  reached,  and  the  wat^r,  impelled 
by  the  great  head  above  referred  to,  is  forced  sometimes  as  high  as 
ninety  feet  or  more  into  the  air.  So  great  and  constant  is  the  pressure 
that  the  wells  in  the  Dakotas  have  been  used  as  a  source  of  power 
for  manufacturing  purposes,  the  generation  of  electricity,  and  for 
numerous  other  uses  of  this  nature.  But  especially  important  are  these 
wells  for  domestic  purposes  and  irrigation  and  considerable  areas  are 
annually  cultivated  by  means  of  them.  In  1899,  over  5,000  acres 
were  irrigated  from  wells  in  these  states. 

While  the  artesian  supply  is  indeed  phenomenal,  it  reaches  only 
certain  portions  of  the  region  and  irrigation  from  the  rivers  is  practised 
along  the  valleys,  chiefly  on  pasture  and  wild  hay  lands.  By  water 
from  all  sources  more  than  4,800  acres  were  under  irrigation  in  the 
Dakotas  when  the  census  was  taken,  in  1899,  which  showed  the  remark- 
able increase  of  994  per  cent  in  ten  years  for  North  Dakota  and 
177  per  cent  for  South  Dakota,  while  the  value  of  the  crops  thus  raised 
amounted  to  almost  $236,000. 

THE    HIGH    PLAINS    OF    KANSAS 

Kansas  is  a  frontier  state,  agriculturally  speaking,  for,  w^hile  the 
eastern  portion  enjoys  a  rainfall  sufficient  for  plentiful  crops,  its  pre- 
cipitation decreases  steadily  toward  the  west  until,  somewhat  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  distance  to  the  Colorado  line,  the  fatal  twenty-inch 
zone  is  reach(»d.  To  the  west  of  this  lies  a  region  of  magnificent  fertility 
known  as  the  High  Plains,  with  conditions  ideal  for  farming  in  level 
expanse  of  surface,  deep  loamy  soil,  and  proximity  to  transcontinental 
railroad  lines.  A  rich  carped  of  nutritious  grass  covers  the  land, 
promising  yet  more  luxuriant  stands  of  wheat  and  corn,  and  this,  with 
other  conditions  found  l)y  earlier  travelers  and  herdsmen,  gave  the 
impression  that  the  region  only  awaited  settlement  to  yield  the  phe- 
nomenal returns  of  the  prairie  lands  lying  nearer  the  Mississippi  River. 

No  mistake  could  have  been  greater.  In  spite  of  the  really  unusual 
soil  conditions,  the  region  was  found  to  be  as  treacherous  to  farming 
interests  as  many  a  desert  valley  in  the  admittedly  arid  states.  Hence 
it  has  follow(Ml  that  the  High  T^lains  are  associated  with  a  most  inter- 
estin«r  chapter  in  the  economic  development  of  the  West,  and  formed 


X904 


THE  VALUE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  IRRIGATION 


281 


the  setting  in  the  decade  from  about  1885  to  1895  of  a  veritable  tragedy 
of  settlement.  The  great  fertility  and  apparently  perfect  conditions 
for  farming  tempted  multitudes  to  settle  and  to  endeavor  to  procure 
a  livelihood  through  agricultural  pursuits.  Towns  sprang  up  and 
communities  were  formed,  and  for  a  time  there  was  partial  prosperity. 
This  was  because  there  happened  to  be  an' unusual  amount  of  rain- 
fall.    In  many  instances  the  profits  were  good  and  farmers  enlarged 


Fio. 


A  stnall  reservoir  in  westertt  Kansas,  fed  by  windmill,  which  makes  it  possible  for 
large  herds  of  cattle  to  live  at  threat  distances  from  a  natural  water  supply. 


their  acreage,  built  additional  structures,  and  bought  machinery 
for  which  purpose  many  of  them  mortgaged  their  property.  For  several 
years  these  conditions  continued,  the  speculative  side  being  fostered 
not  a  little  by  unscrupulous  agents  of  real  estate  and  banking  com- 
panies who  vied  with  each  other  in  placing  loans  for  money  supplied 
by  eastern  capitalists.  It  was  but  a  few  years,  however,  before  the 
period  of  excessive  rainfall  was  followed  by  conditions  more  normal 
to  the  locality  and  the  sweeping  hand  of  misfortune  fell  upon  the  region. 
Many  could  not  believe  that  the  drought  conditions  would  continue 
and  mortgaged  their  farms  more  heavily  to  tide  over  what  they  thought 
would  be  a  temporary  dry  spell,  but,  when  year  after  year  the  crops 
withered  away  and  large  sums  of  money  were  lost,  the  population 
deserted  the  region  as  rapidly  as  it  had  come,  leaving  unharvested 
crops  in  the  field,  deserted    houses  on  the  farms,  and  often    entire 


282  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Joae 

towns  depopulated.  The  High  Plains  to-day  are  dotted  with  the 
remains  of  this  exodus.  The  settlement  as  made  has  been  likened 
to  an  invasion;  its  sequel  resembled  a  precipitate  and  disastrous  retreat. 

Since  this  time,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  locate  a  water  supply 
sufficient  for  the  region,  but  thus  far  it  has  not  been  found.  The  land 
lies  at  too  high  an  elevation  above  the  river  valleys  for  irrigation  from 
them,  even  if  there  were  a  sufficient  supply  to  be  obtained  from  this 
source.  On  the  other  hand,  no  great  imderground  supply  has  been  found, 
so  that  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  any  considerable  area  of  the  High 
Plains  can  ever  be  utilized  for  farming  purposes.  There  is  to  be  found 
a  limited  amount  of  water  from  shallow  wells,  and  it  may  be  possible 
to  impoimd  for  use  some  of  the  spring  rains  in  the  numerous  sinks 
and  saucer-like  depressions  which  pit  the  High  Plains  area. 

But  the  prospects  of  western  Kansas  are  not  all  dark.  Considerable 
water  in  the  aggregate  may  be  secured  from  the  shallow  wells  for  pur- 
poses of  stock  and  irrigation,  which  will  make  it  possible  to  raise  by  in- 
tensive farming  on  small  holdings  enough  produce  to  support  a  family 
and  maintain  a  herd  of  cattle. 

The  future  of  the  tract  seems  to  lie  in  stock  raising,  unless  crops 
capable  of  thriving  under  dry  weather  conditions  are  found. 

Irrigation  by  means  of  water  taken  from  the  streams  of  the  state  is 
carried  on  to  some  extent.  The  Arkansas  River  has  been  the  chief 
source  of  water  sui)ply  for  this  ])urp<\so,  and  some  of  the  early  irriga- 
ting systems  (^f  the  country-  drew  their  water  from  it.  The  physical 
peculiarities  of  the  state  make  it  rather  difficult  and  expensive  to  con- 
duct water  from  the  rivers  to  the  bench  lands.  The  streams,  often 
broad,  have  trenched  their  valleys  far  below  the  general  level  of  the 
surrounding  country-,  and.  while  large  in  the  springtime,  frequently 
dwindle  to  insignificant  proportions  or  disappear  altogether  in  the 
summer  season.  The  census  statistics,  however,  show  that  in  1899, 
23,630  acres  wore  under  irrigation,  an  increase  in  ten  years  of 
13.5  per  cent,  with  a  crop  valuation  of  8226,453. 

NEnnASK.\,   THK    LAND    OF    WINDMILLS 

The  conditions  existing  in  Nebraska  closely  resemble  those  of  Kansas. 
In  the  east,  the  state  is  coini)aratively  moist;  in  the  west,  it  is  dry; 
in  its  northwestern  portion  is  foimd  a  waste  of  barren  sand  hills 
which  almost  completely  defy  cultivation  on  account  of  their  shifting 
character.  Like  Kansas,  Nebraska  is  a  typical  Great  Plains  State, 
a  vast  and  n(»arly  level  region  swept  in  the  summer  season  by  strong 


X904 


THE  VALUE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  IRRIGATION 


283 


and  steady  winds.  These  winds  have  been  taken  advantage  of  by 
the  farmer  and  have  become  the  source  of  not  a  little  wealth  by  skillful 
management.  The  windmill,  a  device  used  to  some  extent  with  success 
in  the  East,  is  a  necessity  on  the  Plains.  It  is  found  in  all  the  states 
of  this  region,  but,  as  its  development  in  Nebraska  has  become  spe- 
cialized and  somewhat  typical,  it  is  particularly  called  to  the  attention 
in  connection  with  this  state.  By  it  is  made  possible  the  profitable 
raising  of  stock,  as  well  as  the  successful  cultivation  through  irriga- 
tion, of  many  acres  otherwise  practically  useless.  By  it,  also,  are  fre- 
quently insured  comforts  and  conveniences  of  the  farmer's  house,  in 


Fig.  3.     Raising  su^ar  beets  by  irrigation  tn  Nebraska.     This  now 
important  western  crop  has  been  developed  during  tlie  last  ten  years. 

the  way  of  running  water,  found  only  in  the  city  or  the  houses  of  the 
wealthy.  The  windmills  are  of  every  variety,  but  they  may  be  briefly 
divided  for  our  purposes  into  two  distinct  classes,  the  shop-made  and 
home-made  mills.  Of  course,  the  shop-made  mill  is  more  efficacious 
than  the  home-made,  and  the  hundreds  of  them  in  use  add  greatly 
to  the  water  supply  of  the  plains,  but  the  home-made  device  is  of 
greater  interest  not  only  on  account  of  its  surprisingly  high  efficiency, 
but  also  from  its  low  cost  of  construction  and  the  interesting  ingenuity 
employed  in  its  manufacture.  Frequently  one  runs  across  a  mill 
pumping  water  for  the  use  of  all  the  cattle  on  the  farm,  providing  the 
house  with  its  supply,  and  furnishing  a  limited  amount  for  irrigation 
the  entire  cost  of  which,  to  the  farmer,  was  probably  not  more  than 
three  or  four  dollars,  exclusive  of  the  time  it  took  to  assemble  the 
parts.  Perhaps  the  low  cost  of  the  home-made  windmill,  as  found 
on  the  Plains,  is  its  greatest  recommendation.  It  virtually  has  its  birth 
from  the  scrap  heap  which  is  found  on  every  farm  and  is  composed 


284  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Jun^ 

of  such  odds  and  ends  as  the  sides  of  boxes,  the  chains  and  sprockets 
of  old  bicycles,  discarded  buggy  axles,  or  other  articles  for  which  the 
ingenuity  of  the  farmer  finds  a  place  in  the  strange  ensemble. 

These  windmills  are  found  scattered  over  the  Great  Plains  in  several 
distinct  varieties.  There  are  the  Jumbo  and  the  Baby  Jumbo,  which 
resemble  the  paddle  wheel  of  a  Mississippi  steamer,  the  lower  blades 
being  protected  from  the  wind  by  a  box  or  otherwise.  These  mills 
are  usually  set  facing  in  one  direction  and  take  advantage  only  of 
the  prevailing  wind.  The  Battle-ax  is  another  variety  of  mill  patterned 
more  after  the  shop-made  devices,  with  boards  nailed  to  the  end  of 
revolving  arms;  and  there  are  the  Merry-go-rounds,  Turbines,  and 
other  varieties,  each  individual  likely  to  be  of  weird  and  surpriising 
constniction.  But  the  remarkable  fact  which  must  not  be  lost  sight 
of  is  that  these  homely  devices,  though  crude  enough  in  themselves, 
add  a  total  benefit  in  the  way  of  increased  wat^r  supply  to  the  Great 
Plains  region  far  in  excess  of  their  cost,  and  form  a  positive  means 
of  agricultural  advancement. 

As  in  Kansas,  the  rivers  in  Nebraska  lie  in  deep  trenched  valleys, 
making  the  inigation  of  the  bench  lands  difficult  and  expensive.  The 
chief  irrigated  districts  in  Nebraska  are  located  along  the  valley  of  the 
North  Platte  to  its  junction  with  the  main  stream,  and  also  in  the 
valley  of  the  South  Platte.  A  serious  difficulty,  however,  to  the  in- 
crease in  irrigation,  especially  along  the  Soutli  Platte,  is  that  so  much  of 
the  water  is  used  in  Colorado  for  irrigation  purposes  before  it  reaches 
the  Nebraska  line  that,  in  the  summer  season,  the  stream  in  Nebraska 
is  practically  dry.  The  census  reports  show  that  in  1899  about  148,000 
acres  were  under  cultivation  by  irrigation,  a  remarkable  increase  of 
1,164  per  cent  over  the  number  cultivated  in  1889.  The  value  of 
the  farm  products  raised  by  irrigation  in  1899  was  nearly  $130,000. 

COLORADO 

The  enormous  mineral  wealth  of  Colorado  is  the  feature  most  prom- 
inent in  the  popular  estimation  of  the  state,  and  yet  there  is  a  larger 
acreage  under  cultivation  by  irrigation  in  Colorado  than  in  any  other 
state  in  the  I'nion,  California  not  excepted.  In  1899  over  1,600,000 
acres  were  irrigated — nearly  200,000  more  than  in  California.  The 
Colorado  climate,  however,  favors  the  growth  of  cereals  and  forage 
crops  and  particularly  vegetables,  while  that  of  Cahfornia  is  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  high-priced  citrus  fruits,  so  that  the  total 
value  of  the  California  irrigated  product  is  somewhat  greater  than 


THE  VALUK  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OP  IRRIGATION 


285 


that  of  Colorado,  Nuwhore  in  the  eouritryj  however,  except  in  Maine, 
are  potatoes  grown  in  such  ahiuulance  or  of  such  superior  size  and 
quality  as  in  this  state.  The  j>eaches  of  Canon  City,  raised  by  irri- 
gation, are  considered  among  the  finest  in  flavor  in  the  United  States, 
and  the  watermelons,  and  particularly  the  cuntalnufyes  grown  near 
Rocky  Ford,  have  a  national  repmtation. 

In  the  year  1S50,  Horace  Greeley,  while  on  his  Umr  in  Coloradtj» 
was  greatly  impressed  by  the  idea  that  the  lands  lying  to  the  east 


-^-j 


'--<sa*- 


'€*:3 


m 


'm 


Fh.  4       i'-!tt  vj  ii   40O'Urf*-  irrit;ati:d  jarm  at  Gardt^  City,  KntiJ-m       J  tuii.  i>t:tiitabU\  and  aijiilfa 

.ft  ps  irrtfo^rj  jrcm  the  rcscrtyjtr  in  the  fcrrctiround,  SMPpUfd  hy  wutdmiils.    By  thtt  cCfttstrMctUfU 

(*!  thi:.  irri^yitittc  systtm  tiw  vahtr  of  the  Uwd  was  ratted  jrom  oftc  to  fifty  dollars  ptt  aire. 

of  the  Rocky  Moontaiujs  were  susceptible  of  irrigation.  .Vfter  he  had 
returned  to  New  York,  he  discussed  the  matter  with  pronunent  citi- 
zens and  o!;ave  the  proposition  great  publicity  tlu'ough  the  columns 
of  the  '*New  York  Tribune/'  The  colonization  plan  there  suggested 
Fmally  materialized  in  the  Uninn  Colony  which  settled  in  the  Cache 
la  Poudre  \*alley  and  founded  Ihe  town  of  (xreeley.  A  few  settlers 
were  already  located  in  this  region,  who  found  a  precarious  existence 
in  harv^esting  wild  hay  and  securing  pasture  in  the  moister  lands  of 
the  valley  bi*ttonis.  These  people  regarded  with  scorn  the  idea  which 
the  new  colonists  entertained  of  cultivating  the  bench  lantls  located 
at  greater  altitudes  along  the  rivers  by  the  use  of  water,  but  ditches 
were  const rufted  and  canal  systems  laid  out,  and,  in  a  few  years,  the 


286  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  June 


faith  of  the  far-sighted  leader  of  the  enterprise  and  the  energy  of  the 
settlers  were  rewarded  by  plentiful  returns.  To-day  the  Greeley  dis- 
trict, embracing  a  number  of  different  irrigation  systems,  is  one  of 
the  most  successful  in  the  state  and  is  noted  all  over  the  country  for 
the  excellence  and  large  amount  of  its  agricultural  produce.  The 
engineering  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in  building  these  works  were 
great.  The  settlers  were  obUged  to  go  into  the  mountains,  build  large 
reserv^oirs  to  impound  the  flood  waters  of  the  stream  upon  which 
they  had  settled,  and,  as  the  resources  of  that  stream  became 
exhausted,  their  engineers  contrived  means  of  diverting  the  waters 
from  streams  of  adjoining  watersheds  and  carrying  them  across  low 
divides  to  supplement  the  flow  of  the  original  stream. 

The  products  which  were  at  first  raised  and  the  cultivation  of  which 
is  continued  to  the  present  day,  with  the  addition  of  other  crops  which 
have  been  found  profitable,  were  the  great  forage  crop,  alfalfa,  and  pota- 
toes. Alfalfa  is  generally  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
irrigated  crops  by  virtue  of  its  great  nutritive  quality  as  feed  for  cattle, 
and  because  of  its  remarkable  rapidity  of  growth.  In  the  East,  the 
farmer  is  satisfied  with  one  good  crop  of  hay  a  season;  sometimes  he 
gets  two.  But  alfalfa  under  irrigation  yields  five  crops  during  the 
growing  period,  though  usually  not  more  than  three  in  Colorado. 

Potatoes  are  usually  planted  in  Colorado  after  ploughing  under 
alfalfa.  Two  crops  can  often  successfully  be  produced.  Under  irri- 
gation, potatoes  in  the  Greeley  district  grow  to  proportions  unknown 
in  the  East.  An  idea  of  the  great  value  of  the  potato  crop  in  this 
one  district  may  be  had  from  the  record  of  the  year  1894,  w^hen,  in 
one  part  of  the  district,  over  600,000  sacks  were  produced,  valued  at 
$330,000.  After  paying  all  expense  of  planting  and  harvesting,  the 
resulting  profit  was  sufficient  to  pay  the  entire  cost  of  the  reservoir 
under  which  the  crop  was  raised.     This  was  an  unusually  good  year. 

Another  product  successfully  grown  under  irrigation  in  Colorado 
is  the  sugar  beet.  In  1899  there  were  1,094  acres  planted  in  this  crop 
and  over  6,600  tons  sold  at  a  value  of  $26,700.  Beet  raising  is  com- 
paratively new  in  Colorado  but  figures  for  the  present  time,  were 
they  available,  would  show  a  great  increase  in  the  industry. 

The  Greeley  district,  while  the  largest  and  probably  the  most  success- 
ful irrigated  portion  of  Colorado,  is  but  one  of  a  number  of  similar 
sections  in  that  state,  for  much  land  favorably  located  along  the  upper 
branches  of  the  Platte  and  Arkansas  rivers  is  being  reclaimed  in  this 
manner.     The  1,160,000  acres  under  irrigation  in  1899  was  an  increase 


288  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Jane 


of  80.9  per  cent  over  that  irrigated  in  1889.  The  value  of  the  crops 
raised  in  1899  was  striking,  being  $15,100,690,  and  the  cost  of  con- 
struction of  irrigation  works,  $11,758,000.  These  figures  are  especially 
suggestive,  showing  that,  in  one  year,  the  value  of  the  irrigated  crop 
was  about  one  and  a  half  times  greater  than  the  entire  cost  of  the 
irrigating  works  which  produced  them. 

W-YOMING,   THE    GREAT   GRAZING    STATE 

Wyoming  is  another  of  the  great  irrigation  states  and  ranks  fifth 
in  the  list,  though  its  possibilities  lie  rather  in  the  direction  of  grazing 
and  stock  raising.  The  average  altitude  of  the  state  is  high,  5,000 
feet  or  more,  it  is  wind-swept,  and  the  climate  cool  and  dry;  every- 
thing must  be  grown  by  irrigation.  In  one  respect,  it  bears  a  peculiar 
relation  to  the  other  irrigation  states,  for  within  its  boundaries 
rise  nearly  all  the  great  streams  of  the  West  from  w^hich  water  is  used 
for  reclamation.  The  headwaters  of  the  Columbia,  the  Colorado, 
and  the  Missouri  are  all  found  among  its  mountains,  but  the  phy^sical 
conditions  are  such  that  but  comparatively  little  of  this  supply  is  avail- 
able for  use  in  the  state. 

Wyoming  is  prei'minently  a  grazing  state,  but  the  last  census  figures 
show  that  600,000  acres  were  under  cultivation  by  irrigation  in  1889, 
an  increase  in  ten  years  of  163  per  cent,  producing  crops  worth  nearly 
$2,900,000.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  live  stock  interests  are  so  large, 
irrigation  is  of  growing  interest,  for  it  is  coming  to  be  recognized  as 
a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  grazing  interests.  The  public  range,  on 
account  of  overgrazing,  is  rapidly  deteriorating  in  quality  so  that 
it  is  not  possible  for  it  to  support  as  large  a  number  of  cattle  as  in  for- 
mer years.  This  fact  is  recognized,  and  it  is  further  understood  that 
the  remedy  lies  in  the  cultivation  of  the  forage  crops  by  irrigation  to 
supplement  as  nuich  as  possible  the  deficiency.  This  is  most  strik- 
ingly illustrated  by  the  fact  that  in  1899,  of  the  600,000  acres  under 
irrigation.  560,000  were  devoted  to  hay,  alfalfa,  and  other  fodder  crops. 

THE    PROMISE    OF    MONTANA 

Montana  stands  third  in  irrigated  area.  Although  needing  less 
assistance  from  irrigation  than  other  states  in  the  arid  West,  it  seems 
destined  to  surpass  them  all  in  the  amount  of  land  which  will  eventu- 
ally come  under  the  ditch.  At  the  date  of  the  last  census,  the  state 
had  over  950,000  acres  under  irrigation,  showing  the  notable  increase 
of  171  per  cent  in  ten  years.     Montana  contains  vast  areas  of  fertile 


I904  THE  VALUE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  IRRIGATION  289 

land  and  is  so  situated  with  respect  to  the  sources  of  a  number  of  large 
streams  that  its  water  supply  is  more  plentiful  than  that  of  any  of 
the  Western  States.  Economically,  it  has  had  a  most  interesting 
history.  During  the  period  between  1870  and  1900,  it  witnessed  a 
remarkable  change  in  agricultural  values.  In  the  former  year,  the 
value  of  live  stock  in  the  state  was  at  least  three  times  that  of  all  farm 
land  and  buildings.  In  the  latter,  the  live  stock  interests  had  gained 
enormously  and  were  nearly  forty  times  as  great  as  in  1870,  but  farm 
values  had  also  increased  with  such  rapidity  that  they  were  worth 
$10,000,000  more  than  the  total  live  stock  interests.  At  first  farming 
was  incidental  to  stock  raising,  but.  within  the  thirty  years  above  men- 
tioned, the  conditions  were  completely  reversed.  This  great  increase  in 
farm  wealth  is  due  largely  to  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  valleys  and 
the  changed  methods  which  followed  the  successful  application  of  irri- 
gation to  the  cultivation  of  forage  and  other  crops.  The  interesting 
statement  has  been  made  that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years,  the  value 
of  the  agricultural  products  in  Montana  will  be  greater  than  those 
of  the  mines. 

GOVERNMENT     RECLAMATION     IN     THE     LOUISIANA     PURCHASE     TRACT 

It  is  too  early  to  state  how  the  future  of  irrigation  in  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  tract  will  be  affected  by  government  irrigation.  Under 
the  Irrigation  Act  of  June  17,  1902,  the  engineers  of  the  Reclamation 
Service  have  been  making  a  thorough  investigation  in  this  region 
to  discover  irrigation  possibilities. 

In  the  region  particularly  under  consideration  a  number  of  projects 
have  been  found  which  seem  to  be  feasible,  but,  until  the  surveys  are 
completed  and  a  great  variety  of  facts  obtained  not  only  regarding 
the  engineering  features  of  the  projects  but  also  concerning;  business 
questions,  such  as  the  possibility  of  securing  needed  lands  for  reservoir 
and  other  purposes,  the  organization  of  water  users'  associations  and 
other  matters  which  require  much  time  to  work  out,  it  will  be  impos- 
sible to  make  any  definite  statements  regarding  them. 

In  a  general  way,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  it  appears  to  be  possi- 
ble to  reclaim  considerable  land  in  Soutli  Dakota  from  streams  rising 
in  the  Black  Hills;  in  western  Nebraska  along  the  North  Platte,  in 
Wyoming,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Shoshone  and  Snake  rivers,  and  along 
a  number  of  streams  in  both  northern  and  southern  Montana. 

If  these  projects  are  found  to  be  feasible  and  are  constructed,  the 
result  will  be  several  hundred  thousand  acres  added  to  the  cultivated 


290  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  June 

land  in  the  section.  The  chances  are  that  much  of  this  land  wiU 
be  reclaimed.  What  this  will  mean  in  the  great  increase  of  population 
that  is  sure  to  follow,  the  increase  in  business  and  in  land  values,  the 
social  and  political  changes  that  will  take  place,  it  is  difficult  now  to 
predict,  but  the  reclamation  of  these  desert  lands  by  the  Government 
can  not  but  have  a  profound  influence  not  only  on  the  development 
of  the  West  but  also  upon  the  destiny  of  the  entire  country. 


GEOGRAPHIC  INFLUENCES  IN  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  ST.  LOUIS 

.BY    KLLEN    CHURCHILL   SEMPLE 
lA)uisL'iUe.  Kentucky 

THE  development  of  St.  Louis  has  been  characterized  by  a  sort 
of  staccato  movement;  it  has  been  stimulated  by  a  close  succes- 
sion of  distinct  economic  impulses,  each  quite  different  in  its 
nature  but  each  nearly  related  to  the  geographic  environment  of  the 
city.  The  word  environment  in  this  connection  is  a  big  term,  as  under- 
stood by  the  anthropo-geographer;  it  includes  not  only  the  city's 
location  and  immediate  surroundings,  but  also  remote  features  in 
the  topography,  climate,  and  natural  resources  of  the  wide  Missis- 
sippi Valley.  The  long  westward-reaching  line  of  the  Great  Lakes 
with  their  short  portages  to  the  Mississippi  streams,  the  vast  system 
of  navigable  waterways  occupying  this  central  trough  of  North  America, 
the  cold,  bleak  climate  of  our  Northwest  and  upper  Rockies  thickening 
the  fur  on  the  backs  of  their  early  four-footed  inhabitants,  the  breach 
in  the  western  mountain  wall  just  east  of  the  old  Mexican  city  of  Santa 
F6,  the  grazing  lands  of  the  arid  plains,  the  mineral  belt  of  the  Ozark 
Mountains  and  of  the  Appalachians  at  the  sources  of  the  Ohio,  the 
tobacco  fields  of  Kentucky,  and  the  seaport  of  New  Orleans  at  the 
terminus  of  the  Mississippi  highway,  have  all  been  so  many  conspicu- 
ous factors  in  the  environment  of  St.  Louis,  potent  to  modify  its  his- 
tory. Now  one,  now  the  other,  geographic  influence  has  been  in  the 
ascendant.  In  the  early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  it  was  the 
Rocky  Mountain  sources  of  the  western  rivers  with  their  wealth  of 
beaver  skins,  while  in  these  recent  years  it  has  been  the  headstreams 
of  the  (.)hio  and  Illinois  rivers  with  their  wealth  of  coal.  Or  the  same 
geographic  factor  has  operated  under  different  guises  at  different  times. 
The  arid  plains  were,  in  early  days,  the  feeding  ground  of  the  buffalo 


X904         GEOGRAPHIC  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ST.  LOUIS      29 1 

whose  skins  and  dried  tongues  were  staples  of  the  St.  Loiub  trade, 
and  these  same  plains,  now  divided  up  into  ranches,  supply  the  cattle 
for  the  great  meat-packing  establishments  there  to-day. 

The  cities  of  any  new  or  imdeveloped  country  are  primarily  commer- 
<5ial  centers,  markets  where  the  crude  commodities  of  its  natural 
resources  can  be  exchanged  for  the  manufactured  wares  of  some  more 
advanced  industrial  section.  The  rapidity  of  their  growth  depends 
always,  first,  upon  their  command  of  an  extensive  system  of  inland 
navigation,  because  rivers  and  lakes  are  the  sole  highways  of  a  new 
country;  and  second,  upon  the  productivity  of  the  country  for  which 
they  serve  as  a  commercial  outlet.  When  such  cities  have  outgrown 
the  first  or  purely  commercial  phase  and  begin  to  add  industries  to 
their  other  activities,  they  necessarily  possess  many  quahfications  of 
successful  manufacturing  centers.  The  converging  routes  of  commu- 
nication which  they  command  insure  abundant  raw  materials  and  the 
best  faciUties  for  marketing  their  finished  products.  Moreover,  the 
capital  and  labor  necessarj^  for  large  industrial  enterprises  are  either 
at  hand  or  readily  attracted.  Hence  the  geographic  influences  favor- 
able to  the  earlier  or  commercial  stage  of  a  city's  development  con- 
tinue to  operate  advantageously  in  the  later  stage  when  industries  are 
<;ombined  with  commerce.  We  shall  follow  the  working  of  such  geo- 
graphic factors  in  the  history  of  St.  Louis. 

In  the  early  winter  of  1763  Pierre  Laclede  Liguest,  with  a  party  of 
men  and  a  goodly  store  of  merchandise,  came  up  the  Mississippi  from 
New  Orleans  to  the  French  settlements  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Ohio  and  lUinois  rivers,  to  establish  somewhere  in  that  vicinity  a  trad- 
ing post  whence  he  might  exercise  his  right,  formally  granted  by  the 
French  authorities  in  New  Orleans,  to  the  exclusive  trade  of  the  Mis- 
souri and  uppermost  reaches  of  the  Mississippi.  But  hearing  that 
France  had  ceded  to  Great  Britain  all  this  territory  between  the  Ohio 
and  the  Great  Lakes,  he  located  his  station  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  where  St.  Louis  now  stands,  at  a  point  nearly  opposite 
the  earUer  settlement  of  Cahokia,  which  had  been  a  gathering  place 
for  the  French  traders  of  the  Mississippi  basin. 

The  fact  that  impresses  the  student  of  early  American  history  is 
the  remarkable  insight  displayed  by  the  pioneers  of  this  western  wil- 
derness into  the  geographic  conditions  of  the  country  and  into  the  vast 
possibiUties  of  certain  favored  points.  Laclede  had  all  the  keen  scent 
of  his  breed;  he  ran  down  the  one  spot  destined  by  nature  for  the 
•development  of  a  great  commercial  center.     Twenty  miles  below  the 


292  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  June 


mouth  of  the  Missouri,  where  the  vohune  of  the  Mississippi  is  almost 
doubled  by  the  muddy  tide  of  its  great  western  tributary  and  where 
therefore  navigation  was  assured  even  for  the  growing  river  craft 
of  a  remote  future,  Laclede  built  his  little  town — in  this  respect 
**builded  better  than  he  knew."  The  particular  site  which  he  chose 
w^as  a  Hmestone  bank  extending  for  about  two  miles  along  the  river 
some  twenty  feet  above  its  flood  wat^r,  and  rising  by  natural  terraces 
to  yet  higher  ground  in  the  rear.  This  was  a  rare  advantage  on  the 
Mississippi,  because  that  great  stream  is  generally  bounded  by  high 
perpendicular  bluffs,  inhospitable  to  commerce,  as  one  sees  them  at 
Vicksburg,  Natchez,  or  Memphis;  or  by  low  alluvial  plains,  exposed 
to  inundation  from  the  annual  floods  and  at  all  times  teeming  with 
malaria.  Hence  Hutchins,  soon  after  St.  Louis  was  founded,  spoke 
of  it  as  "the  most  healthy  and  pleasurable  situation  of  any  known 
in  this  part,  of  the  country. '^  A  few  years  later  (1796)  General  Victor 
Collot,  a  Frenchman  traveling  in  the  West,  found  the  new  settlement 
to  be  endowed  **with  more  facility,  more  safety,  and  more  economy 
for  trade  and  navigation  than  any  other  given  point  in  North  America." 

Its  location  for  commanding  the  commerce  of  the  country  was  indeed 
unsurpassed.  A  central  position  in  the  highly  fertile  basin  of  the 
Mississippi  insured  abundant  raw  products  as  the  basis  of  its  exchanges, 
and  an  active  selling  market  as  the  inevitable  population  should 
respond  to  the  call  of  these  tempting  valley  lands.  Here  too  was  the 
great  river  (Tossroads  of  the  country,  affording  a  navigable  course  from 
the  falls  of  St.  Anthony  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  forks  of  the 
Ohio  at  Pittsburg  to  the  (Jrcat  Falls  of  the  Missouri  at  the  first  terrace 
of  the  Hookies,  two  thousand  miles  from  north  to  south  and  as  far  from 
east  to  west.  Short,  easy  portages  or  swamp-covered  watersheds 
connected  the  northeastern  tributaries  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
with  the  (Ireat  Lakes,  and  enabled  St.  Louis  to  lay  tribute  upon  the 
furs  of  the  C^anadian  North.  At  this  central  point  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  was  the  meeting  of  the  waters.  Besides  the  Missouri  and  Ohio, 
the  Illinois  opened  the  way  to  the  Chicago  portage  of  Lake  Michigan, 
and  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  served  as  primitive  highways 
from  the  southern  Appalachians  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  Here 
were  15,410  miles  of  navigable  waterway  available  for  large  river 
craft,  when  steamboats  had  come  into  use;  but  the  mileage  was  far 
greater  in  the  days  of  the  voyageur's  canoe  and  the  keelboat  of  the 
trader. 

When  St.  Louis  was  founded,  a  tide  of  l^>ench  immigrants  from  the 


1904  GEOGRAPHIC  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ST.  LOUIS      293 

eastern  side  of  the  Mississippi,  fleeing  from  British  dominion  there, 
gave  the  little  settlement  its  first  marked  forward  impulse.  By  1780 
it  was  a  town  of  over  a  hundred  stone-built  houses  with  a  population 
of  eight  hundred,  almost  all  French.  It  drew  to  itself  much  of  the  fur 
trade  north  of  the  Ohio,  all  that  of  the  upper  Mississippi  and  of  the 
Missouri.  As  settlement  expanded  from  the  east  across  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  fur  trade  migrated  farther  west  and  was  confined  for  the 
most  part  to  the  Missouri  system ;  but  St.  Louis  derived  continually 
greater  advantages  from  its  water  conmiunication,  with  the  rapid 
settling  up  of  the  valley  and  the  increasing  distances  to  be  covered 
in  collecting  raw  products  and  distributing  finished  merchandise. 
Through  the  Ohio  it  maintained  trade  connection  with  Philadelphia 
and  Baltimore;  through  the  lower  Mississippi  with  New  Orleans;  and 
through  the  Illinois  and  Great  Lakes  with  far-away  Quebec. 

In  the  territory  east  of  the  Mississippi,  St.  Louis  had  competitors 
in  the  various  Ohio  River  towns,  but  in  the  vast  area  of  the  Missouri 
basin  she  ruled  supreme.  It  was  the  fur  trade  of  this  country  that 
especially  encouraged  the  development  of  the  city  from  1790  to  1840. 
The  hundreds  of  hunters,  fur  traders,  Indian  agents,  and  military 
officers  scattered  over  the  wild  trans-Mississippi  country  came  down 
from  trapping  camps  or  frontier  posts  in  the  mountains  to  St.  Louis 
every  spring,  when  the  melting  of  the  snows  swelled  the  volume  of  the 
scanty  western  rivers  and  made  them  navigable.  Their  canoes  and 
pirogues,  laden  with  rich  skins,  the  harvest  of  their  winter  hunt,  found 
a  ready  sale  in  this  bustling  market  of  the  West,  and  went  to  purchase 
the  comprehensive  outfit  for  the  next  seas()n\s  operations.  This 
included  the  more  luxurious  articles  of  food,  like  coffee  (selling  before 
the  purchase  of  Louisiana  at  two  dollars  a  pound),  clothes,  ammuni- 
tion, and  cheap  wares  for  barter  with  the  Indians.  The  sale  of  these 
supplies  and  the  incoming  peltries  greatly  augmented  the  commerce 
of  St.  Louis.  The  skins  brought  in  were  beaver,  otter,  deer,  bear, 
fox,  raccoon,  wildcat,  marten,  and  lynx;  and  these  served  as  legal 
tender  in  all  commercial  transactions. 

The  western  fur  trade  required  capital,  so  big  companies  were 
organized  in  St.  Louis — tlie  Missouri  Fur  Company  in  1808,  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Fur  Company  in  1822,  and  the  Western  Department  of 
John  Jacob  Astor's  American  Fur  Company  also  in  1822,  besides 
numerous  other  smaller  organizations.  Under  their  control  opera- 
tions expanded.  The  Missouri  River  and  its  straight-flowing  western 
tributaries  made  many  paths  to  the  rich  fur  fields  far  in  the  heart 


294  '^^^  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  June 

of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  to  the  passes  which  led  over  the  Con- 
tinental Divide  to  the  sources  of  the  Pacific  rivers.  Hence  at  an 
early  date  furs  from  traders'  stations  and  trappers'  camps  on  the  head- 
streams  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Colorado,  on  Utah  and  Great  Salt 
lakes,  on  the  upper  Missouri,  Yellowstone,  Big  Horn,  and  Platte  rivers 
found  their  way  to  the  Missouri,  and  came  down  this  common  high- 
way of  the  Far  West  to  the  growing  city  just  below  its  mouth. 

Though  the  fur  trade  was  a  potent  factor  in  St.  Louis'  development 
till  1845  or  even  a  little  later,  its  glor>'  had  passed  by  1834.  But 
this  date  had  already  seen  the  sturdy  l^eginning  of  another  commer- 
cial movement  along  a  different  geographically  determined  line  which 
greatly  stimulated  the  growth  of  the  city.  This  was  the  Santa  Fe 
trade,  which  began  about  1822  and  initiated  the  next  step  in  St.  Louis* 
growth.  Far  to  the  west  of  St.  Louis  and  just  beyond  the  eastern 
range  of  the  Rockies  in  the  high  valley  of  the  Upper  Rio  Grande  lay 
the  old  Mexican  city  of  Santa  F^,  a  territorial  capital  in  the  days  of 
Spanish  supremacy  and  an  active  trading  point  under  the  less  arbi- 
trary rule  of  independent  Mexico.  The  commerce  of  the  place  was 
considerable,  for  it  supplied  all  the  population  up  and  down  the  Rio 
Grande  Valley  and  carried  on  a  busy  trade  some  three  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  to  the  south  with  Chihuahua,  an  important  town  of  north- 
ern Mexico.  It  bought  extensively  of  American  merchandise  from 
the  markets  of  St.  Louis,  which,  because  of  a  peculiarly  favorable 
geographical  location,  controlled  the  Sante  F^  trade.  St.  Louis  lay 
on  the  direct  hne  of  water  communication  from  the  manufacturing 
eastern  states,  whose  wares  it  got  by  the  cheap  steamer  carriage  on 
the  Ohio,  and  then  forwarded  again  by  river  to  the  great  elbow  of  the 
Missouri.  Here  began  the  Santa  Fe  trail,  a  wagon  track  eight  hundred 
miles  long,  which  followed  the  upper  course  of  the  Arkansas  and 
Cimarron  rivers  across  the  arid  belt  of  the  Great  Plains,  and  rose  by 
imperceptible  ascent  to  the  gateway  in  the  Rockies  leading  to  Santa 
F^.  The  outfitting  point  for  this  trade  was  naturally  at  Independ- 
ence, where  the  ]Missouri  boat  had  to  be  exchanged  for  the  packhorses 
and  ox-wagons  of  the  trail,  but  St.  Louis  supplied  Independence  with 
merchandise  and  was  the  market  for  the  furs,  gold,  and  silver  brought 
in   from   New   Mexico. 

At  the  time  the  Santa  F6  trade  opened,  the  introduction  of  steam 
navigation  on  the  western  rivers  enabled  St.  Louis  to  reap  the  full 
benefit  of  her  peculiar  location  and  to  increase  her  commerce  with 
the  growing  demands  of  the  West.     By  the  methods  of  poling  and 


vyn        GEOGRAPHIC  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ST.  LOUIS       295 

rowing  and  cordelling  on  the  old  flatboats  and  keelboats,  freight 
up-stream  from  New  Orleans  cost  fifty  cents  a  pound.  The  first  steam- 
boat reached  St.  Louis  in  1817;  twenty  years  afterwards  freight  charges 
for  the  same  distance  had  dropped  to  two  cents  a  pound,  while  over 
a  hundred  and  fifty  steamboats  were  entering  the  port  of  St.  Louis 
in  a  twelvemonth.     As  this  city   had   been  an  important  exchange 


Fig.  I.     .4  typical  Mississippi  River  steamboat.     These  light  draft 
vessels  have  a  large  carrying  capacity,  and  it  was  through  the 
use  of  fleets  of  these  vessels  that  commercial  suprem- 
acy of  the  Mississippi  River  came  about. 

point  in  the  old  keelboat  days  from  1780  to  1830,  so  its  commercial 
activity  grew  in  the  days  of  steamboat  supremacy  from  1830  to  1860. 
Below  St.  Louis  the  depth  of  the  Mississippi  is  six  feet  or  more,  above 
it  is  only  from  three  to  five  feet.  This  fact  differentiated  transporta- 
tion on  the  upper  and  lower  river  and  made  St.  Louis  a  point  of  reship- 
ment.  Thus  it  had  a  natural  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  as  well  as  of  the  Missouri. 

As  population  poured  into  the  central  valley  of  the  continent  between 
1840  and  1860,  the  lines  of  St.  Louis  commerce  increased  in  number 
and  extent,  and  river  transportation,  not  yet  feeling  the  competition 
of  railroads,  was  at  its  height.  In  1845  over  two  thousand  steam- 
boats,  aggregating  358,045  tons,   besides  several   hundred   keel  and 


296  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  June 

flat  boats,  drew  up  along  the  St.  I^ouis  whan-es  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
Of  these  250  came  from  New  Orleans,  bringing  fine  merchandise  of 
foreign  or  New  England  manufacture  to  exchange  for  the  flour  and 
bacon  of  the  more  northerly  states;  406  came  from  ports  along  the  Ohio 
or  its  tributaries,  laden  with  agricultural  products  for  the  St.  Liouis 
market  or  with  manufactured  goods  which  had  come  in  from  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  by  the  canals  and  the  Great  Lakes.  Its  increasing 
commerce,  due  to  the  stimulating  effect  of  st«am  na\'igation  on  the 
western  rivers  and  to  the  rapid  growth  of  settlement  in  the  vast  coun- 
try tributary  to  it,  is  reflected  in  St.  Louis'  population,  which  rose 
from  six  thousand  in  1830  to  over  sixteen  thousand  in  1840  and  over 
one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  in  1860. 

With  the  rapid  decline  of  river  transportation  after  1865,  follow- 
ing the  introduction  of  railroads,  St.  Louis  had  to  adjust  herself  to 
the  new  conditions.  Though  the  geographical  advantages  which  she 
had  enjoyed  over  other  western  cities  now  seemed  annulled,  and  Chi- 
cago was  beginning  to  win  supremacy  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  these 
years  saw  the  beginning  of  the  industrial  development  of  St.  Louis. 
Railroads  came  into  the  trans-Mississippi  West,  but  they  followed  the 
lines  which  the  river  trade  had  determined;  and  more  than  this,  in 
the  arid  belt  of  the  plains,  where  shifting,  shallow  river  beds  had  made 
water  transportation  impossible,  they  supplanted  the  creeping  pace 
of  packhorse  and  caravan  by  the  express  train,  and  with  the  settUng 
of  the  far  western  states,  gave  St.  Louis  a  larger  and  more  active  market 
in  the  wide  baok-countr}'  reaching  to  the  Rockies  and  beyond. 
To-day  twenty-three  great  railroads  enter  the  city  and  two  bridges  over 
the  Mis>^issippi  secure  connection  with  eastern  lines,  so  that  few  points 
in  the  middle  Wc^st  possess  superior  facilities  for  rail  transportation. 
These  advantafi^es,  together  with  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  \vateirways, 
still  the  most  economic  means  for  bringing  in  raw  materials  of  large 
bulk,  have  stimulated  the  industrial  development  of  St.  Louis,  while 
extending  the  area  of  its  commercial  field. 

St.  Louis  had  no  manufactures  of  a  systematic  character  prior  to 
1860.  Pork  packing  and  flour  milling,  those  first  industries  of  an  agri- 
cultural community,  were  carried  on  with  some  activity  in  those  early 
days;  their  products,  which  went  to  feed  the  towns  and  plantations 
on  the  lower  Mississippi,  were  packed  in  barrels  and  kegs,  which  were 
therefore  turned  out  in  considerable  (juantities  by  the  local  cooper 
shops.  These  industries  were  closely  related  to  the  city's  location 
in  the  fertile  lands  ni  the  middle  West,  in  ck)se  proximity  to  the  mar- 


^i»  .;^-!  t.»'  "^    v-v. 


TTii  .-.v^er 'T  T^*~  I li-  1   \    .-i"-    J--  iC:L".".>"  •"':•  ■. "  ^  x\ "  .v^   x'i\vV>. 

irv.  3I>jS''-;Ti  >  *  :  --  :  :;-:  ^"T:,-."  '  ~.\* .■.*''•  i'^o^^**\^:^  >..*,xNv  X* 
^t.  WyjiLr^  ir  i^'^^s::le  *  ":.t  i>*  >.:'/>  :  :  \^  \^  .^  \  .>^*\  \  a*  . '\ 
t*rr«iueei  oLe-hiJ:  :  -.:•  -  r^-v  r. :  :  :  i^  I  :vuv.  <*.,sv>nn  ^^  *AV 
Louisville,  th*^  r:vil  of  ^:.  I  •  v/>.  >  :V.^'  .,sn;x^s:  >,s:  ^x^a-^snv  ^v.^^^vo*,  *n 
the  world,  bu:  vHI  r^>er::*y  r.a>  '.^.k-.v.  :-.o  tAp::,i*  tuswv^^N  ;x^^  owo*^ 
sive  manuiact'^re.  A  :>-.v  yt:ir-  ncv\  '.v  won  or,  ;V.o  Tv^xvuvx^  INv,>\ 
bought  up  the  chief  :i.ii:;;fao:  ir^i.u  ;^'a:\:>  ;r.  l\^;i\  v*\;:o>.  j^i\a  \\\0\  0\o 
eye  for  economic  pnxiucTivr.  oh:\rao:orisTio  o!  all  >\;o)\  Im<  \nv\\i'\u;U 
combinations,  it  is  shiixiiii!  iho  iv!^.:er  of  its  pi\vi\u'iuM\  t'i\m\  s\  \  ^Mn^ 
to  Louisxille,  nearer  ti-e  supply  of  :ho  raw  tnaiovial  Thot^Mv^v  \\\\' 
next  census  report  oi  tobai-oo  protluoiion  in  St.  1  o\u^  n\a\  -how  j^ 
decline. 


298 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


June 


In  another  Ipiuling  industry  of  the  .Mitklle  West,  that  of  slaugh- 
tenng  and  nietit  packings  St.  Louis  has  na  tielive  share.  The  localiza- 
tion of  this  industr>^  is  determined  in  general  by  the  presence  of  a 
climate  and  soil  especially  adapted  to  the  protluction  of  the  corn  and 
hay  necessary  for  feeding  eattle,  and  by  the  factor  n{  mere  area  or 
abundant  land,  wliich  can  be  found  only  outside  of  the  older  settled 
regions  with  their  denser  populations.  The  industiy  is  most  highly 
developed,  therefore,  in  the  corn  belt  of  the  iMid<lle  West,  near  the 
cattle  ranches  of  the  Great  Plains  and  the  stock-raising  section  of  the 


u 

...  T^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 

^^^^^ 

^^^^^1 

Ftii 


Alotix  the  ivaUf  jronl,  St.  Louis,  as  ti  is  fa^day. 


upper  ^lississippi  A^dley,  The  meat  products  of  Illinois^  Kansas^ 
Nebraska,  Indiana,  ami  Missouri  constituted  nearly  three-fourths 
of  the  country's  total  in  1900.  These  figures  indicate  the  broader 
localization.  Taken  more  narrowly,  we  find  that  this  industry  must 
be  centered  in  cities,  because  it  is  depemlcnt  upon  ample  railroad 
facilities  for  its  refrigerator  ears,  and  hence  has  reached  its  greatest 
development  in  Chicago;  but  it  is  steadily  migrating  westward,  follow- 
ing the  withdrawid  of  stot^k  farms  and  ranches  to  the  abunilant  lands 
of  tiie  trans-Mississippi  auil  Missouri  country  before  the  growing  popu* 
lation  of  the  old  West.  St.  Louis  has  taken  advantage  of  this  trend. 
The  products  of  its  slaughter  houses  have  increased  in  value  almost 
fifty  per  cent  in  the  last  decade  and  will  probably  rank  yet  higher 
in   1910. 

Proximity  \i\  the  great  central  curn  area  and  to  the  barley  fields 
of  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  and  northern  Illinois  has  l>een  a  potent 
factor  in  the  brewing  industry-  of  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St,  Louis, 


1904         GEOGRAPHIC  INFLUENCES  IN  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  ST.  LOUIS       299 

while  the  steady  demand  from  the  large  German  population  in  each 
of  these  cities  has  contributed  also  to  the  same  end.  The  manufac- 
ture of  malt  liquors  is  widely  distributed  in  the  United  States,  because 
the  transportation  of  the  finished  product,  especially  in  bottles,  is 
relatively  expensive,  so  that  breweries  are  Ukely  to  spring  up  wher- 
ever the  demand  is  great;  but  pccuHar  advantages  stimulate  produc- 
tion on  a  large  scale  to  supply  something  more  than  the  local  demand. 
St.  Louis  ranks  fifth  among  the  brewing  cities  of  the  United  States^ 
and  sells  its  finest  beers  in  a  wide  range  of  markets  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley. 

The  other  active  industries  of  St.  Louis  include  the  manufacture 
of  foundry  and  machine  shop  products,  boots  and  shoes,  flour  and  grist, 
bread  and  other  bakery  products,  paints  and  oils,  and  men's  clothing. 
All  these  tell  of  proximity  to  an  abundant  supply  of  the  raw  mate- 
rials. For  instance,  the  manufacture  of  paints  and  oils  has  thrived 
because  of  the  soft  lead,  barytes,  and  other  minerals  of  choice  quality^ 
found  in  the  southwestern  part  of  ^lissouri.  Sometimes  the  demand 
has  been  the  stronger  agent  in  determining  the  supply.  Back  in  the 
early  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  Rocky  Mountain  trappers, 
the  Santa  F6  traders,  and,  a  little  later,  the  throngs  of  settlers  moving 
westward  over  the  Oregon  trail  to  the  Pacific,  made  a  great  demand 
for  patent  medicines.  St.  Louis,  as  the  center  for  this  valuable  west- 
em  trade,  responded  to  the  demand  and  manufactured  medicines. 
This  industry  naturally  grew  into  the  manufacture  of  chemicals  and 
drugs,  and  as  such  takes  an  important  place  among  the  activities  of 
the  city. 

St.  Louis  now  ranks  as  the  fourth  city  of  the  United  States  both 
in  population  and  in  the  value  of  its  manufactured  products,  according 
to  the  figures  of  the  latest  census;  and  yet  these  figures  do  not  tell 
the  whole  story,  because  St.  Louis  has  overflowed  across  the  Mis- 
sissippi into  Illinois  and  there  developed  the  towns  of  East  St.  Louis^ 
Madison,  and  Granite  City.  Located  just  across  from  their  mother 
city  at  the  eastern  termini  of  the  two  great  bridges  over  the  dividing 
stream,  they  occupy  favorable  sites  for  transportation  and  fuel,  are 
operated  by  St.  Louis  capital  and  enterprise,  but  escape  St.  Louis  taxes. 

The  rapid  growth  which  always  accompanies  marked  industrial 
development  in  a  city  is  evidenced  in  St.  Louis  by  the  increase  of 
its  population  from  310,864  in  1870  to  over  600,000  in  1903.  This 
advance  in  population  and  industries  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  rapid  development  of  the  extensive  country  to  the  west,  souths 


300  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  June 


and  southwest  of  St.  Louis,  where  the  city  finds  its  natural  markets. 
The  construction  of  the  embryo  state  of  Oklahoma  and  the  opening 
up  of  successive  strips  in  Indian  Territory  have  alone  contributed 
no  little  to  the  commercial  activity  of  St.  Louis.  All  this  broad 
area  is  engaged  primarily  in  agriculture  and  stock  raising,  except  for 
the  mining  in  certain  favored  localities;  it  therefore  makes  a  steady 
demand  for  manufactured  wares  of  all  kinds,  and  for  these  St.  Ix)uis 
is  the  nearest  producing  and  selling  point.  Hence  the  city  commands 
this  commercial  field  as  Chicago  does  the  Northwest,  and  its  growth 
and  prosperity  will  therefore  advance  with  that  of  the  wide  territory 
which  constitutes  its  market. 


DENVER  — THE  QUEEN  CITY  OF  THE  PLAINS 

BY   C.  E.  CHADSEY 
Su}>eiuaiendent  of  Sch<H}lii,  Denver,  Colorado 

IT  is  said  that  there  are  few  cities  which  impress  the  casual  visitor 
favorably.  The  uni)leaRant  features  of  a  city  are  generally  among 
its  most  prominent  ones.  The  smoke,  the  filth,  the  tumble-down, 
ramshackle  buildings,  generally  prove  to  be  the  most  forcible  impres- 
sions received  by  a  stranger  arriving  in  a  city  for  the  first  time. 

Seldom,  if  ever,  is  this  true  of  the  visitor  to  Denver.  Things  ordi- 
narily seoni  to  conspire  to  produce  favorable  impressions  of  Colorado's 
metropoUs.  The  wonderfully  clear  atmosphere,  the  panoramic  view 
of  the  rufi:ge(l,  snow-capped  Rockies,  many  of  whose  peaks,  plainly 
visible,  are  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  miles  distant,  the  varicolored 
foothills  risintr  from  the  level  prairie  ten  or  twelve  miles  from  the  city, 
give  a  setting  unsurpassed  and  of  untiring  interest.     (See  Fig.  1.) 

This  favorable  impression  is  increased  w^hen  the  tourist  inspects 
more  closely  the  city.  Denver  is  so  young,  its  growth  has  been 
so  rapid  and  its  building  ordinances  forbidding  the  erection  of  frame 
houses  so  sweeping  that  in  spite  of  the  large  area  included  within  the 
limits  of  the  city,  one  can  find  little  of  the  slovenly  or  unsightly. 

One  accustomed  to  the  spacious  grounds  and  stately  trees  of  some 
eastern  cities  may  wonder  why  when  there  was  so  little  apparent  need 
for  restricted  grounds  so  few  seem  to  have  profited  by  the  opportu- 
nity, but  the  care  taken  almost  uniformly  by  the  householders  of  their 
rather  limited  lawns  results  in  a  most  pleasing  general  effect. 

Denver  lawns,  like  all  Colorado  lawns,  exist  only  through  careful 


i9(H  DENVER -THE  QUEEN  CITY  OP  THE  PLAINS  3OI 

irrigation,  involving  more  attention  than  found  necessary  in  eastern 
cities  blessed  with  more  generous  rainfall.  This  doubtless  in  part 
accounts  for  the  comparatively  small  number  of  spacious  lawns  found 
surrounding  the  average  Denver  residence. 

As  compared  with  the  average  eastern  city,  Denver  has  little  in 
the  way  of  history,  but  as  an  example  of  how  in  the  territory  added 
to  our  country  through  the  far-seeing  statesmanship  of  Jeflferson  prosper- 
ous, solidly  built  cities  have  sprung  up  where  fifty  years  ago  only  a  few 
trappers'  cabins  could  be  found  in  the  entire  territory,  its  history  is 
of  surpassing  interest. 

For  nearly  half  a  century  after  the  cession  of  the  Louisiana  Terri- 
tory to  the   United  States   that  portion  known  as  the  Pike's  Peak 


BCr^-^^S 

^^ 

■S::— ^ji'^   .     ^ 

^.t  >    *       ^w^ 

....     . 

^^IMfini 

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■PB  ummm  1  i  1 1  pg 

^**^ 

1 ,  * 

Fio.  1.     A  panorama  view  of  the  city  of  Denver,  showing  the  rugged  snow-capped  Rockies,  over  75 

miles  distant. 

country  attracted  little  attention.  Some  fur  companies  were  early 
organized  and  their  trappers  began  to  establish  stations  in  Colorado, 
along  the  South  Platte  perhaps  in  the  early  twenties.  In  1832  a 
trading  post  was  established  near  what  is  now  Denver,  and  while  this 
was  followed  by  other  similar  settlements  in  the  neighborhood,  it  was 
not  until  the  discover\^  of  gold  in  Colorado  that  immigration  of  any 
consequence  commenced.  Many  stories  concerning  the  first  discovery 
of  gold  in  .this  territory  arc  in  existence,  and  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
the  real  origin  of  the  movement  westward.  Hunters  and  trappers  from 
as  early  a  date  as  1832  had  occasionally  found  gold  in  the  sands  of  the 
streams,  and  probably  reports  of  these  findings  were  circulated  in  the 
eastern  states  for  years  before  they  gathered  sufficient  momentum 
to  secure  any  serious  attention.  Probably  Colonel  Gilpin's  report 
of  his  observations,  made  in  1849  through  an  address  given  in  Inde- 
pendence, Mo.,  furnished  the  first  really  reliable  basis  for  the  rumors 
concerning  the  existence  of  gold.  These  reports,  verified  by  various 
returning  adventurers  during  the  succeeding  years,  produced  the 
traditional  gold  excitement  as  a  result  of  which  the  city  of  Denver 
was  founded. 


302  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Jane 

The  story  of  the  early  attempts  to  found  a  city  in  the  vicinity  of 
Denver  is  of  considerable  interest.  In  the  fall  of  1858  a  number  of 
families  established  a  little  settlement  about  six  miles  from  the  center 
of  the  present  city  of  Denver.  About  twenty  houses  were  erected 
and  gold  digging  was  attempted  in  the  sands  of  the  Platte  at  this  point. 
The  town  was  named  Montana,  but  was  short-lived  as  the  venture 
proved  unsuccessful  and  the  entire  settlement  moved  down  the  river 
in  the  following  spring.  About  the  same  time,  farther  down 
stream  within  the  limits  of  Denver,  another  town  named  Auraria  was 
established.  This  settlement  proved  quite  successful  and  grew  with 
great  rapidity.  For  some  time  it  seemed  to  be  destined  to  be  the  lead- 
ing town  of  the  Pike's  Peak  country.  Here  were  established  churches, 
newspapers,  lodges,  and  all  the  organizations  ordinarily  found  in  the 
active  western  town.  A  short  distance  away  a  rival  towii  company 
attempted  to  establish  a  town  to  be  called  St.  Charles  and  prepared 
articles  of  incorporation.  This  venture  did  not  flourish  and  was  soon 
abandoned. 

A  little  later  a  new  town  company  was  organized  and  established  a 
town  on  the  site  of  St.  Charles  and  in  honor  of  the  ex-governor  of  the 
Kansas  territory  named  it  Denver.  The  date  of  organization  is  given 
as  November  17,  1858.     (Sec  Fig.  2). 

For  some  time  this  town  was  a  rival  of  Auraria,  but  the  founders 
of  Denver  were  vigorous,  energetic  men  and  succeeded  in  more  than 
holding  their  own  in  spite  of  bitter  animosity.  The  village  prospered 
and  in  April,  1860,  the  two  towns  were  united  under  the  name  of  Denver. 

The  first  census  of  Denver  taken  in  1860  seemed  to  indicate  a  popu- 
lation of  4,749.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  even  at  this  early  date, 
knowledge  of  how  to  pad  census  returns  was  entirely  equal  to  the  task 
of  producing  this  remarka])le  result. 

The  first  railroad  running  into  Denver  was  in  operation  in  1870;  at 
which  time  the  city  had  a  population  of  4,759,  an  apparent  increase 
of  only  ten  over  the  returns  for  1860.  Since  1870,  however,  the  growth 
of  the  city  has  been  most  remarkable.  In  1900  the  census  showed 
that  Denver  contained  a  population  of  133,359.  In  1902,  as  a  result 
of  wiiat  was  known  as  the  Rush  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  of 
Colorado,  a  number  of  suburban  towns  were  annexed  to  Denver,  and 
the  entire  corporation,  now  known  as  the  "City  and  County  of  Denver/' 
contains  a  population  considerably  in  excess  of  the  above  mentioned 
figure.  This  amendment  is  popularly  known  as  the  "Home  Rule 
AnuMidment^'  and  Denver  is,  under  its  provisions,  blessed  with  a  degree 


DENVER -THE  QUE  EX  CITY  OF  THE  PLAIN'S 


O^O 


of  home  rule  possessed  by  perhaps  no  other  city  in  the  United  States. 

The  remarkable  growth  of  Denver  has  been  due  chiefly  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  great  mining  camps  of  Colorado  for  which  it  is  the  natural 
supply  center.  In  addition,  however,  to  these  groat  resources  a  very 
rich  agricultural  and  stock-raising  region  is  found  in  the  territory  to 
the  north  of  the  city  which  adds  greatly  to  the  resources  of  the  state 
and  furnishes  a  stability  to  the  city  which  a  mining  region  alone 
could  not  give. 

As  a  result  of  Denver's  early  prominence  as  a  commercial  center 
for  the  Pike's  Peak  country,  it  followed  that  when  the  railroads  began 


The  s'att  capital  bt4ilJtfit:  at  Denver. 


to  form  their  network  of  communications  through  the  Rockies,  the 
chief  railroad  center  proved  to  be  Denver.  More  than  one  western 
city  owes  its  prosperity  as  a  railroad  center  to  an  apparently  fortu- 
itous combination  of  circumstances.  In  this  case,  however,  the  loca- 
tion was  eminently  suitable  for  such  a  development  and  it  is  now  well 
established  that  Denver  will  remain  the  chief  railroad  center  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  Region. 

The  climate  of  Denver  is  one  of  its  chief  glories.  Its  winters  are 
mild  and  open.  Little  snow  falls  and  there  are  few  days  during  the 
year  when  the  sun  doe^  not  shine  and  outdoor  life  is  not  pleasant 
and  agreeable.  The  air  is  dry  and  possesses  a  tonic  quality  due  to 
the  elevation  above  sea-level — about  one  mile.  The  rainfall  is  very 
light,  the  annual  precipitation  being  about  fifteen  inches. 

As  a  natural  result  of  these  conditions  Denver  in  common  with  all 
CJolorado  has  come  to  be  recognized  as  a  highly  desirable  place  "of 
residence  for  those  who  suffer  from  mild  pulmonary  troubles.     Thou- 


304 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


June 


sands  of  Denver's  citizens  originally  came  to  Colorado  in  search  of 
health,  and  thousands  more  come  each  year  for  the  same  reason. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Denver  is  about  50®  Fahrenheit, 
and  the  average  number  of  clear  and  partly  cloudy  days  is  309. 
Although  Denver  owes  its  great  growth  to  its  favorable  location  as 
a  commercial  center  for  the  mining  districts  of  the  state,  it  has, 
through  its  proximity  to  the  coal  fields,  come  to  be  quite  a  manufactur- 
ing and  smelting  center.  There  are  in  operation  in  the  city  about 
fifteen  hundred  manufacturing  plants  with  an  aimual  output  of  over 
forty-two  million  dollars.  This  statement  often  creates  some  surprise, 
even  among  Denver  residents,  as  few  have  been  accustomed  to  think 
of  Denver  as  in  any  Avay  a  mamifacturing  city.  It  is  altogether 
probable  that  the  future  growth  of  the  city  will  depend  to  an  increas- 
ing extent  upon  the  development  of  its  manufacturing  interests. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


AREA  AND  POPULATION  OF  THE  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES  WITHIN 
THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE. 

STATK                                    Area  Pop.  1900          Chief  City  Pop.  1900 

Arkansas    53,850  1,311,564  Little  Rock  38,307 

Colorado 103,645  539,700  Denver  133,859 

Indian  Territorv 31,000  302,060  Ardmore  5,681 

Iowa 55,475  2,231,853  Des  Moines  62,139 

Kansas 81,700  1,740,495  KansaaCity  163,752 

Louisiana  45,420  1,381,625  New  Orleans  287,104 

Minnesota* 79,205  1,751,394  Minneapolis  202,718 

Missouri   68,735  3,106,665  St.  Louis  575,238 

Montana* 145,310  243,329  Butte  30,471 

Nebraska   76,810  1,066,300  Omaha  102,555 

North  Dakota    70,195  319,146  Fargo  9,589 

South  Dakota    76,850  401,570  SioiLx  Falls  10,266 

Oklahoma*    38,830  398,831  Oklahoma  City  10,037 

Wyoming* 97,575  92,531  Cheyenne  14,087 

♦Included  in  part  in  the  Purchase. 

RANK  OF   PRINCIPAL   MANUFACTURES  IN  THE  SEVERAL  LOUISIANA 
PURCHASE  STATES,  1900. 

Hank  in  Products. 

Arkansas  3  in  cotton  ginning,  6  in  lumber  and  timl)er  products. 

Colorado  4  in  coke,  5  in  copper  smelting,  1  in  lead  smelting. 

Iowa  3  in  butter  and  cheese,  4  in  food  preparations,  8  in  planing  mill  products. 

Louisiana  3  in  cotton  seed  oil. 

Minnesota  1  in  grist  mill  products,  3  in  lumber  and  timber  products,  3  in  linseed  oil 

Missouri  4  in  coffee  ana  spice  washing,  5  in  confectionery-  and  railway  cars. 

Montana  2  in  copper  and  lead  smelting. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


305 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE. 


Rank  in    Total  Value 
Union         of  Crops 
in  1900        in  1900 

Arkansas    20  56,803,494 

Colorado 34  16,857,533 

Indian  Territory  .  32  16,691,142 

Iowa 2  192,286.098 

Kansas 5      112,684,696 


Louisiana 27 

Missouri   7 


61.272,676 
117,012,895 


Minnesota 4      113.092,602 


Montana 35 

Nebraska   8 

North  Dakota  ...  13 

South  Dakota    ...  16 

Oklahoma 24 

Wyoming 48 


10,516,381 
92,056,580 
53,928,010 
44,069,331 
26,612,442 
3,119,023 


Principal  Crops  with  Rank  in  each  in  Union 

Com  14;  cotton  6;  sugar  8. 

Wheat  28;  oats  30. 

Com  25;  cotton  10. 

Com  2;  oats  1;  barley  3;  hay  2;  potatoes  5; 

flaxseed  4. 
Com  3;  wheat  5;  oats  12;  hay  3;  potatoes  10; 

flaxseed  5. 
Com  22 ;  rice  1 ;  cotton  7 ;  sugar  1 . 
Com  4;  wheat  9;  oats  11;  hay  4;  potatoes  12; 

flaxseed  6. 
Wheat  1;  oats  4;  com  21;  bariey  2;  hay  7; 

potatoes  6;  flaxseed  2. 
Oats  28;  wheat  36;  hay  20. 
Com  5;  wheat  8;  oats  5;  hay  9;  potatoes  11 . 
Wheat  2;  oats  14;  flaxseed  1. 
Wheat  3;  com  24;  barley  5;  hay  13;  flaxseed  2. 
Wheat  16;  com  23. 
Oats  41 ;  wheat  39;  hay  35. 


GRAZING  IN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE  TERRITORY,  igoo. 

Cattle  Horses  Mules  Sheep  Hogs 

Arkansas 166,267  (8)    1,713,307 

Colorado...   1,164,169  (15)    

Indian  Ter.   1,263,269  (13)    

Iowa 4,077,351  (2)      1,268,046  (1)    9,723,791  (1) 

Kansas. . . .   3,567,616  (3)        907,156  3,594,859  (6) 

Louisiana 141,645(9)    

Minnesota..    1,305,331(12^    1,440,806 

Missouri...   2,345,272(6)        908,860(4)    242,095(2)    4,524,664(3) 

Montana 4,215,214(1)    

Nebraska. .   2,421,743  (4)        728,542  4,128,000  (4) 

N.Dakota 331,323  

S.  Dakota  .    1,203,659  433,644  

Oklahoma.    1,409,627  

Wyoming 3,327,185(3)    

LOCALIZATION  OF  INDUSTRIES  IN  THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE. 

CHIEF  CITIES  AND  RANK  IN  INDUSTRY. 

KMisas,      slaughtering  and  meat  packing  (2)  76,829,139 — Kansas  City,  Kan.  (2) 


Nebraska, 

Missouri, 

Iowa 


(3)  71,018,339— South  Omaha  (3). 

(5)  42,229,127— St.  Joseph  (4),  St.  Lou- 

(7)  25.296,518  '  is  (6) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  PURCHASE. 

Annual  Reports  U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

Annual  Reports  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau. 

Brigham,  Albert  Perry,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History, 

Boston:     Ginn  &  Co. 
Chittenden,  Capt.  Hiram  M.,  American  Fur  Trade  of  the  Far  West. 

New  York:    Harper  &  Brothers. 
Gannett,  Henry,  United  States,  Stanford's  Compendia,  Chapters  I,  II, 

IV,  VII,  XI.     Philadelphia:    J.  B.  Lippincott  Co. 


306  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Gilbert,  Grove  Karl,  and  Brighani,  Albert  Perr>',  An  Introduction  to 

Physical  Geography,  pp.  163-165.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Hitchcock,  Ripley,  The  Louisiana  Purchase.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.,  1903. 
Hosmer,  James  Kendall,  History  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase.     New  York: 

D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Inman,  Col.  Henry,  The  Old  Santa  Ft'  Trail.     Topeka,  Kan.:   Crane 

&  Co. 
Inman,   Col.   Henn-,  and   Cody,  William    Frederick,   The   Great   Salt 

Lake  Trail.     Topeka.  Kan.:    Crane  &  Co. 
Irving,  \Va.shington,  Astoria.     New  York:    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
Johnson,  Willard  I).,  High  Plains,  Annual  Report  of  U.  .S.  Geological 

Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Mill,  Hugh  Ro])ert,  International  Geography,  pp.  750-760.     New  York: 

D.  Appleton  &  Co. " 
Newell,  Frederick  H.,  Irrigation  in  thi  United  States,  Chapters  II,  VI, 

VIII,  XII.     New  York:    T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co. 
Ogg,  The  Opening  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Parkman,  Francis,  The  Oregon  Trail.     Boston:   Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
Statesman's  Year  Book.     New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co. 
Semple,  Ellen   C..  American    History   and   its   Geographic   Conditions. 

Boston:    Houghton.  Mifflin  &  Co. 
Thwaites.   Reuben   Gold.   Rocky   Mountain    Exploration.     New   York: 

D.  Appleton  &  Co..  1904.     Exj)ansion  of  the  Republic  Series. 
Trotter,  Spencer,  Geography  of  Commerce.  Chaj)ters  \-XI. 

Current  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry. — 

APRIL 

Bermuda  Garden-Farming  (Illus.),  Country  Life. 

Camphor  Trade  of  the  World,  Paint,  Oil.  and  Drug  Rev.,  April  6. 

Chile  and  the  Panama  Canal  (lllus.).  Engineering  Mag. 

Japan,  Rise  of  Modern  (lllus.).  World's  Work. 

Japan,  Commercial,  in  1904,  Mo.  Summary  of  Cojnjn.  and  Finance, 
February. 

Malting  and  Browing  on  Scientific  Principles  (lllus.),  ^Sc/.  J  w.,  April 9. 

Manchuria,  Conditions  in  (lllus.).  Consular  Rep. 

Marconi's  Work  in  Europe  (lllus.),  World  Tn-Day. 

Mississippi  :     "  The  Great  River.''    Part  IV.  (lllus.).  World  To-Day. 

Negro  Problem.     Parts  I.-\'.,  incl..  World  To-Day. 

Paper  Manufacture,  The  Beginning?  of,  Success. 

Russia.  Conuiiercial,  in  1904,  Mo.  Summary  of  Comm.  and  Finance 
Febniarv. 


1904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  3O7 

Russia's  Civilizing  Work  in  Asia  (Illus.),  Rev.  aj  Revs. 

Siberian  Railway  (Illus.) ,  Century. 

Yellow-Pine  Lumber  Industry  in  the  South  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 

^lAY 

Cattle-Raising:   "The  Fight  for  Free  Grass  ''  (Illus.).  Success. 

Climatic  Features  of  the  Field  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  Rev.  of 
Revs. 

Clothing  Manufacture  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.,  May  21. 

Cotton:    ''  Making  Cotton  Pay''  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 

Cotton-Oil  Industry,  Paint,  Oil,  and  Drug  Rev.,  May  18. 

Cut-Glass  Manufacture  (Illus.),  Sci.  Am.,  April  30. 

German  Merchant  Marine,  Consular  Rep. 

Japan,  Fifty  Years  of  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 

Mississippi:  "Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Steamboat  Business  "  (Illus.), 
World  To-Day . 

Northwest,  Boom  in  (Illus.),  Sat.  Eve.  Post,  May  21. 

Porto  Rico,  Americanization  of  (Illus.),  TFor/rf'.s  Work. 

Siberian  Railway  in  War  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 

Woman  Unemancipated  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 


EDITORIAL 

THE  LOUISIANA  PURCHASE 

'"TT^HE  Great  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  now  open  at  St.  Louis 
I  has  been  the  means  of  arousing  a  deep  interest  in  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  in  the  political  and  economic 
history  of  our  country.  When  this  great  region  of  possibilities  was  first 
brought  to  public  notice  a  century  ago  the  geographic  significance  and 
importance  of  the  area  were  imperfectly  realized,  and  since  that 
time  few  people  have  fully  appreciated  the  part  that  geography  has 
played  in  determining  the  history  and  development  of  this  vast  domain. 
This  number  of  the  Journal  has  been  planned  to  present  a  brief 
and  concise  summary  of  the  past  and  j)resent  geographic  conditions 
of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  tract,  in  order  that  teachers  may  have 
at  hand  a  good  working  reference  volume,  which  shall  be  available 
in  their  teaching  of  this  important  portion  of  our  country,  not  only 
during  the  present  period  of  popular  interest  in  the  area,  but  also 
after  that  interest  has  subsided. 

The  authors  of  the   several  papers  here  presented  are  recognized 


308  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  June 

authorities  in  the  phases  of  geography  and  histor>'  which  they  have 
severally  treated.  Of  course  only  the  briefest  outline  of  the  vast  geo- 
graphic conditions  presented  on  such  an  enonnous  scale  in  this  area 
can  be  given  in  the  limited  space  available.  For  a  fuller  and  more  com- 
plete statement  the  interested  reader  should  consult  the  several  volumes 
and  monographs  mentioned  in  the  brief  selected  bibliography.  Yet 
the  papers  here  presented  have  a  distinct  value  above  any  larger  trea- 
tise, inasmuch  as  only  the  salient  features  pertinent  to  the  require- 
ments of  teachers  have  been  selected  for  treatment,  and  the  needs 
of  teachers  have  been  kept  constantly  in  mind,  not  only  in  the  planning 
of  the  number  as  a  whole,  but  also  in  the  variety  of  the  several  papers. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  number  may  be  of  distinct  value  also  to  those 
who  are  planning  to  visit  St.  Louis  during  the  coming  summer,  and 
particularly  to  those  who,  living  amid  the  varied  landscapes  of  the 
Eastern  States,  have  never  seen  the  vast  and  impressive  long  distance 
views  to  be  gained  in  those  regions  of  gentle  relief  which  make  up 
the  larger  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  territory. 


RECENT  PUBLICATIONS 

Lectures  on  Commerce  Delivered  Ijefore  the  College  of  Commerce  and  Adminis- 
tration of  the  University  of  Chicago.  Edited  by  Henr>'  R.* Hatfield.  Pp.  viii, 
388.     Chicago:    University  of  Chicago  Press,  1903. 

A  series  of  lectures  on  Railways,  Trade  and  Industry-,  and  Banking  and  Insur- 
ance delivered  by  experts  in  the  several  fields.  Full  of  infonnation  on  little  under- 
stood problems  m  conmiercial  life.  Helpful  to  teachers  and  the  general  reader. 
Valuable  for  the  school  library,  especially  where  commercial  g(.K)graphy  is  empha- 
sized. 

Early  Western  Travels,  17 18-1846.     A   series  of  annotated   reprints  of  some  of 

the  lx»st  contemporary  volumes  of  travel  during  the  periocl  of  early  American 

settlement.     To  l)e  completed  in  31   volumes.     Vol.   I,   1748-1764,   pp.  328; 

Vol.  II,  1768-1782,  pp.  329.     Cleveland.  Ohio;  The  Arthur  H.  Clark  C\).,  1904. 

The  volumes  of  this  series  of  reprints  of  early  travels  will  be  of  great  value 

to  all  students  of  the  early  geography  and  history  of  the  Western  States.     The  first 

volume  consists  of  a  scries  of  notes  of  expeditions  into  the  west.     The  second  volume 

presents  John  Long's  notes  on  his  life  among  the  Indians  of  the  St.  Lawrence  Basin 

and  Northeni  New  York.     Very  interesting  for  the  descriptions  of  Indian  life  and 

customs   and   vahial)le   for  history   and   geography   classes.     Inviting  reading  for 

any  one  who  is  hit  crested  in  early  conditions  as  contrasted  with  the  present.     Well 

annotated  and  attractively  printed. 

Geology.   Hy  Thomas  C.  Chaml)erlin    and    Hollin   I).  Salisbury.      Vol.  I,  Geologic 
Proccss'cti  and  Their  Result.s.  Pp.  xix,  654.     New  York:  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  1904. 
An  inclusive  and  clearly  written  volume  on  the  more  familiar  phases  of  geology. 
E.bpecially  valual>le  1o  teachers  of  physical  geograpliy  or  geology.     Superbly  illus- 
trated and  typograj)hically  pleasing.     To  l)e  reviewed  later. 


RECENT  PUBLICATIONS  ^Og 


A  Text-Book  of  the  Physics  of  Affriculture.  Bv  F.  U.  King.  Pp.  xvi,  604.  thinl 

edition,  1903.      Published  by  the  author,  \fadison,  Wis. 

Although  primarily  for  the  student  or  worker  in  agriculture,  the  book  includes 
much  of  value  to  the  teacher  of  geography  or  nature  study.  The  chapters  on  soils, 
the  uses  of  soils,  soil  moisture,  relation  of  air  to  soil,  on  ground  water,  farm  wells, 
farm  drainage,  and  the  atmosphere  are  simple  and  extremely  valuable. 

The  Louisiana  Purchase  and  the  exploration,  eariv  histor\',  and  building  of  the 
West.  By  Ripley  Hitchcock.  Pp.  xxi,  349.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.,  1904. 
A  brief  and  interesting  account  of  histor>'  of  exploration  and  development  in 
the  Louisiana  Purchase.  The  appendix  contains  a  ver>'  adequate  series  of  statistics 
and  is  accompanied  by  a  useful  index.  The  book  is  jMuticulariy  timely  and  per- 
tinent to  the  scope  of  this  number  of  the  Journal. 

Around  the  World  in  the  Sloop  Spray.     Bv  Captain  Joshua  Slocum.    Pp.  xiv, 

213.     New  York :  Charles  Scnbner's  Sons,  1903. 

An  abridgment  for  school  use  of  the  author's  well-kuo\%ai  volume,  describing  his 
trip  around  the  world  in  a  thirty-sLx  foot  sloop.  Interesting  for  adults  and  children. 
First  hand  in  formation,  clearly  and  forcibly  expressed.  An  excellent  geographical 
reader  describing  the  ways  of  people  in  distant  lands. 


NEWS  NOTES 

The  Eighth  International  Geographic  Congress. —  Mention  has 
already  been  made  in  the  Journal  of  the  Eighth  International 
Geographic  Congress  which  will  convene  in  Washington  on  September 
8th,  where  meetings  will  be  held  on  September  8th,  9th,  and  10th. 
On  September  12th  the  Congress  will  be  the  guests  of  the  Geograph- 
ical Society  in  Philadelphia.  On  September  13th  and  14th  sessions 
will  be  held  in  New  York  under  the  auspices  of  the  American  Geo- 
graphical Society  and  on  September  15th  an  excursion  on  the  Hudson 
will  be  given  by  that  society.  September  16th  will  be  passed  at  Niag- 
ara. On  September  17th  the  Congress  will  be  the  guests  of  the  Geo- 
graphic Society  of  Chicago.  On  September  19th  and  the  following 
days  the  Congress  will  take  part  in  the  sessions  of  the  geographical 
sections  of  the  Congress  of  Science  and  Arts  at  the  World's  Fair,  St. 
Louis.  After  adjournment,  about  September  24th,  an  excursion  is 
planned  to  Mexico  and  the  Grand  Canyon  of  Arizona. 

It  is  particularly  desired  that  many  American  teachers  of  geogra- 
phy should  take  part  in  the  Congress.  It  is  believed  that  the  time 
thus  spent  will  be  profitable,  not  only  from  the  value  of  papers  and 
discussions  during  the  sessions  of  the  Congress,  but  in  no  less  degree 
from  the  advantage  of  personal  intercourse  with  the  geographers  of 
Europe  and  America,  whom  the  Congress  will  bring  together.  One  or 
more  sectional  meetings  will  be  devoted  to  the  educational  aspects 
of  geography;  contributions  on  this  branch  of  the  subject  are  desired 


Dodge's    Geography 

BY  GRAJ)ES 

By  Richard  Elwoud  Dodge 

Profgssor  pf  Geography,   Ttachers  Cottege,  Cffiumbia  Cntvtrstfy^  New  York  City . 

C0-edti0r  of  the  Journat  of  G^^^raphy :  au/Aor  of  ^'-A  Reader  in 

Pity  si  cat  Geography  for  Bt^nners^'  etc^ 

niuslrated  with  half-tone  illustrations,  text  maps,  diagrams,  and  maps  in 
colors.     Each:  Cloth,  square  8  vo,  (3x  lo  mches). 

Book  1.  Home  Geography  and  World  Relations  -  35c. 

Book  IL  Elements  ol  Continental  Geography  .     .     .  55c. 

Book  IIL    Principles  of  Geography 00c. 

Book  IV.  Comparative  Geography  of  the  Continents  00c. 

RAND,   McNALLY  &  CO.,    Chicago  mnA  New  York  * 


I'l  ..  2f>,     A  view  of  fftountains  and  highland  imlleys  with  a  maun  fain  rangi  and 

peak  in  the  distant  e. 


AN    ill  USTR.M  irtN    FROM  'MlOitli  UEOGR.M'HV"   TO   ILLUSTRATE  THE  SURFACE   QF  THE   L.\ND. 


I 


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MAPS  and  GLOBES 


POLITICAL  MAPS 

Excelsior  Skries,  20  maps,  size  46x62  in. 

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JOHNSTON'S  MAPS 

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Price  (m  commcm  roller S-.25 

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District  vSchool  Series,  34X  28  in. 

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Stanford  School  Maps,  13  maps,  52  x6o  in. 

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lint  mJitieFV  m»ke  It  m  vBluablt'  recitnl  of  t'liucaUi^iD&l  WU^  sind  pTO|iFn-*N. 

JJ.    OVTUNE  STUmES  OF  COLLEGE  ENGLISH 

By  Mmh  KLji  a  Ki?c(J^Ki.Kv 
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en  of  Eoffltah.  JlereioC^jrv  nolij  hi'  MIm  Ivliuialey  at  f  l.iii»  earli.  tn  tjpf  writtrn  fi^i-m.  Sow  britUtflii 
cvnl  li^iu  At  15  c«Qta  cncb;  »  f or  il  .iD;  t;^  fi  ^r  tftJH,  J^oatpaM.  Si^nil  1»  ceoU  U^nnns^^  «atoplo  tirTLIN  K 
and  clrrolar^. 

L  Sllaa  Mamer.  7.  trAnhnp.  IX  rdmiii, 

t,  SfrRiiiiFfrdp  Coverlir  Papfra.      P.  i'arhlr'»  K!«4''iiv  cph  Uunm.       14.  t.^rlda*. 
9,  Juitaa  CiFPar,  i^.  Tbe  Priiifen*.  l^.  ]iiirlc(**a  J^m'^rirlj  on  t\iiu  lllatltm 

4  The  Mertbflnt  #f  Veoire.  lO.  Tbe  YMvu  of  bilr  IjtuiifaL     1*.  M*rau)ay'a  Eway  on  Sttlum. 

fi.  The  VleiT  of  Wnlt^iieiii,  ii.  MaHn-th.  IT.  >lrtc'»iiiiiT>  lUaa/un  Addln^ti. 

1L  The  Afuieiit  Mariner;  13*  L'Allc^roanail  PeajiepiKo.   IS.  i^onnPctliiK  LloKa  foT  ifto  Col 

Bhe  Palmer  Company,  publishers.  S'o'stc(nI''ma"s: 


Ceaci^eriEi'  Qi^tnt^  J^itectott 

^Colorado  Teachers' Agency 

WE  WART  COMPETENT  TEACHERS 
WE   RECOMMERD  HO   OTHERS 

M  TeasKeis'  flpcles 

EVEREH  0.  FISK  &  CO.,  Proprietors 

Send  to  anv  of  the  foiiovlDg  tddrenet  for  Agency  Kania]  Free 

4  A«bburtoa  FU.«.  B«t.«.  Mm.        1M  Fifth  A**.,  H««  Tark.  H.  T. 

303  MIchina  BoiiL.  ChXc^.  XXL           6»  CM|«r  BUf.,  Dwrv.  Cd*. 

414  e«aturr  Bldff..MlBD»t>olb.  Mlu. 
aS2  Iljde  Block.  SpokMf.  WMh.             »4  i>«T«aih  «i..  Pwtlaad.  On. 
&ld  Pmrrott  lU.lr..  1^  Prmndico.  r.L 

6S5  Stiuoa  Block,  hm  Ai«»1m.  Cal. 

FRED  DICK,  Ex-State  Superintendent, 

MANAGER 

1543  eitnann  Strtft,           DENVER,  COLO. 

Teachers  Wanted 

We  need  at  once  a  few  more  Teachers. 
Good  positions  are  bcinj<  tilled  daily 
by  us.     We  are  receivinj?  more  calls 
tliis  year  than   ever  before.     Schools 
and  colleges  supplied   with  Teachers 
free  of  cost.     Knclose  stump  for  reply. 

American  Teachers*  Association 

J.  L.  CrRAllAM,  LL.  D.,  ManuKfer. 
153-lM  Randolph  Buildinjf,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

TEACHERS'   INTERSTATE 
EXAMINATION  COURSE 

npEACHERS  wlshlnff  to  prepare  for  exmmlna. 
J-    tloHB  Hhould  write,  at  once,  to  I'ROF.  .1.  L. 
«RAII.\M,  LL.  I)..  1W-1.M  Randolph   BuIldlnK. 
Meinphlfl.  Teun..  for  particulars  concerning  bla 
Hpedal  Teachers'  Examination  Course. 

This  course  Is  tau»rht  by  mall,  aud  prepares 
Teachers  for  examination  In  every  Sute  In  the 
Unlun.    Leading  educators  pronoance  It  the  best 
rour»e  ever  offered  to  the  Teaching  profession, 
and  all  Tcacherh  wIshtnK  to  advance  in  their  pro- 
fession should  Immediately  avail  themselves  of 
it.    Enrlose  stamp  for  reply. 

THE 

Westland  Teachers'  Leajue 

LOCATES  TEACH CRS 
IN    NORTH    DAKOTA 

Address  the  Manager 

W.  G.  CROCKER,  Editor  W'cslUiud  Educator, 

Lisbon,  X.  1). 

SKXD  FOR  LIST  OP 

September Jacecies 

THE  TEACHERS  CO-OPERATIVE 

ASSOCIATION 

The  Auditorium,  Chicago,  III. 

Established  20  years.    Positions  Filled^  by^foo. 
Sfcciatty     The  Just  Teachers. 

AN  AGENCY  THAT  RECOMMENDS 

'T^HIS  is  the  day  of  Special  Ttachers.    Those  who  can  teach  any  subject  well,  noticeably 
J^       better  than  it  is  usually  tau>^ht,  are  in  demand  at  j^ood  salaries.     There  is  a  call,  not 
only  for  teachers  of  Cicoj^raphy,  but  f(.r  teachers  of  Physical  Geography  and  Com- 
mercial Ge<>),craphy  as  si>ecial  subjects.     If  v«»u  will  write  to  us  we  .shall  be  ^lad  to  send 
vou  evidence  that  we  have  opportunity  t«»  place  superior  teachers  by  RECOHIiENDATION. 
There  is  no  other  Ay^ency  to  which  .so  many  ai)plications  are  made  for  teachers. 

The  School  Bulletin  Agency,  c.  w.  Bardeen,  Syracuse,  N.Y. 

Uhe  IvOTAIvY^feSS? 

Published.      The 
Editor    ha^    taufrht     T-wvlre     Years    and    Superintended    Eteven     Years. 
Carefully  {.graded  Selections.  Lanxcua^^e  Studies  for  Composition  Work,  News  Items 
(Kindlings)  with  l»ertinent  Questions,  Sondes  with  Music,  P'ridav  Afternoon  Selection.s 
Story  Letters  Written  hv  the  Children,  and  Uncle  Will's  Corner  and  its  Personality  so 
prized  bv  the  Younjijer  Readers. 

Free" sample.     Jietter  still  :    Send  ten  cents  for  a  five  months'  "Trial  Trip"  to 

^he  ROTARY,  Lisbon,  North  Vakota. 

An  Important  Book  of  Travel 


AFRICA 

FROM    SOUTH    TO    NORTH 
THROUGH    MAROTSELAND 

By  MAJOR  A.  St.  H.  GIBBONS,  F.  R.G.  S. 

Author  of  '*  Exploration  and  Hunting  in  Central  Africa/' 
^With  Numerous  Illustrations  reproduced  from  Photo- 
graphs, and  Maps,     ;.■     ::     Octavo,     2  vols.     $7.50  net. 


Major  Gibbons'  dest'riptwn  of  hh  fratteis  through  the  'mhoie  iength  of 
tht  African  continent  is  amongst  fh^  most  va/nabi^  contributthns  to 
ikis  class  of  litfratnre  pubtisheti  in  recent  years.  Amongst  other 
important  features  in  the  7L*ork  is  an  account  of  the  tracing  of  the 
Zambesi  I^ii.fer  to  its  source,  u^hich  haft  hitherto  remained  uHitiscoztered. 


ORDER   FORM 


-igo^ 


To/OlfN  LANE,  Publisher, 

6f  Fifth  Avenue,  Kern  \mk  City, 
Please  semi  me  -AFRICA   FROM  SOUTH   TO  NORTH 
THROUGH  MAROTSELAND  "  for  which  I  enclose  $f.so 

.  Xame . . 


Address 


JOHN  LANE, 


Publisher,  ^^vHue  New  York 


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'I'hjt»  n*:w  -tyniem  'A  t>^-Mi«.h:n;<  i*  more  l"(f:caj  :hA=  :he  system  "f  fixe^l  prioeft  for 
r*rpr:n?s.  <>th*:r  T?.:n>c-»  '>einif  equai.  it  to!»ts  le^s  \r,  produce  a  short  bt^-k  tiar  a  lonip 
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of  ihe  savinif  on  «.h«r  shorter  b'/«.k.  Our  prxes  are  regulated  by  the  co«  of  the  actnal 
materials  ar.d  workmanship  wh'ch  ko  toward  the  niak:n;<  of  the'  book. 

What  do  you  mean 


•Whenever 


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2.  Such  b'iok'.  annotated  in  a  helpful  an<l  common-sense  manner. 

■<,  Then  printed  from  new  legible  ty^H;  on  featherweight  paper  and  bound  in 
paper,  <  lr/t}i,  and  leather. 

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weighs  I'.  It/.. 

5.  Prices  range  from  -.  to  'fy,  cents  per  volume.    Unabridged  texts. 

f:  f'ublishf-d  and  w>ld  on  the  unit  plan,  which  means  that  for  every  printed  p^a^ 
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York 
Democracy  in  America 
Ilamerton's  Intellectual  Life 
De  (Juincey's  Kssays 


15.  Lear*s  Nonsense  Books 

16.  Familiar    Letters    of    James 

Howell 

17.  Life  of  Ben venuto  Cellini 

18.  Pater's  Marius  the  Epicurean 
I';.  Boker's    Francesca    da    Rimini 

(with  a  com|)arative  study  of 
other  versions) 

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Clark 

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Austen 

25.  Hertzka's  Trip  to  Freeland 

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By  WILLI.VM  E.  WATT,  A.  M..  Fh-  D. 

A  FLAY  or  THE  SORT  TO  CRAW  A 
CROWO  AND  GIVE  SATISFACTiO?H 

171011  »  w;hts>|  entertalnTiH^nt  not h lag  ^an 
T     euual  tidii.  fur  U  ^^Mf^wj^  fi[i  tliR  wiir^^r 
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tlie  auih^^r  had  ttieni  in  mind.    It  belpii 

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file  tftwkl  work  1*1  tlic*  iM'buo)  are  no  well  pre- 
peiHi^  here  Miiit  tfsi-re  wfll  he  leum  i rouble  fyr 
yesiru  aficr  It  tiiw  Ih-i'ii  iETvGii.  Tlie  lucldfUU^ 
the  JoKPii,  tl]i-  fuDtiy  tmntiTfi,  Aiid  tlie  lati|^&ire 
eomi Pried  wHh  tbe  Olufsvsrip  tnkeiL  from  life. 
ThP  lOHtftncri"  where  Mr«»  Gluic  Ir  rffeired  Co 
(ho  t  ummfti^e  «a  Rep^Jm  to  K"r  toer  ifttie 
bui'V  trounera  mended  lia|tp4'n»*d  tn  t'hlru^u. 
Mr.  (;Eutf>  I  iMtdeiiLUHilotiof  M^e  teacher  In  the 
Iire^enre  or  hli*  unn  why  Ilea  Teiipstedly  tJLthtm 
ttud  I  he  [eiirNrranxl  iN^expoiied  on  th*'  sihihIj* 

II  real  ha  |ipi*i  tl  n  jT,  And  r  he  re  a  r*  o  i  h«  ra  f  alteo 
(rtmi  r€»l  life-  ihi-  erF*r*  t?l  apecchaad  the 
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THE  SCHOOL  WEEKLY 

40  Randolph  St.  Chtoago,  III. 


Some  Geographical  Publications 
Made  Out  West 

But  Good  Everywhere 
Npiv  Pnrifir  5^rViAn1   (It^ntrravkhjr  ^y  harr  waoner.    This  n«w  Oooin«ptay 

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to  the  teachers  in  (.'allfornla.  It  supplicH  many  of  the  features  that  are  lacking  in  other  geographleii. 
Itglyes  directions  for  drawlnK  the  map  of  the  State  of  California  (contributed  by  I>.  It.  Augaburgi. 

In  the  story  of  California,  it  kIvcs  a  brief  historical  sketch:  describes  in  a  definite  manner  the 
monntains,  the  lakeH«  the  rivpr  HyntemH*  the  climate,  the  nolU  the  prodacts^  the 
indnstrled,  the  commerce*  the  edncation.  the  animal  and  plant  life«  the  coanttefi  and 
ciileii.  There  are  also  six  pages  on  the  etymology  of  geographical  names  of  the  West,  Including 
Keveral  pages  on  the  Spanish  and  Indian  names  of  California.  Krery  statement  la  thoroughly 
up-to-date.    It  has  been  written  and  prepared  upon  the  census  statistics  of  19UU. 

There  are  also  special  maps  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  also  information  on  the  commerce 
and  industries  of  the  new  racillc.  It  is  Indorsed  by  the  leading  educators.  Price,  net,  Sl>##f 
postpaid. 

Qfnriae  nf  Our  MnfViAr  PaH-Vi  By  HAROLD  W.  FAIRBANKS,  Ph.  D.  Tlie 
OlOneS  OI  UUr  mOUier  r^ana  PaclAc  coast  is  particularly  rich  In  Illustrative 
material  for  the  study  of  inorganic  nature,  but  up  to  this  time  little  has  been  put  in  such  abape  as 
to  be  available  for  the  use  of  schools.  In  the  mountainous  regions  especially,  where  mining  Is 
nnch  an  important  industry,  and  physical  nature  seems  to  work  more  energetically,  it  Is  particu- 
larly desirable  that  the  children  should  go  out  from  school  with  some  living  knowledge  of  their 
surroundings.  It  has  been  my  purpose  In  the  preparation  of  the  following  chapters  to  present  in  a 
simple  manner  some  elementary  conceptions  In  geology,  mineralogy,  and  physical  geography.— 
ExTBACT  FROM  Pbkpa(;b.    Prlce,  net,  50  Cents,  postpaid. 

Just  published  in  our  Western  Educational  Help  Series,  Ideographical  Handbook  of 
Local  Geography.   Price,  net,  25  Cents. 

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E r utter  ^  and  Pri?/,  O.  U,  Su^eney 

of  the 

Umiversitv  of  Nebraska 

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prepBrlng-  of  teachera,  so   that   when 
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class  ruum.           H03).  J  AMES  %VlLBo|f, 
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BmoTKH   AT  TirEiR  TitAitK*:    Mftunn — 
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TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

XVI  DECEMBER  1908 

EDITORIAL  — College  Work  in  High  Schools —  Advantages  of  an  Advanced  High 
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THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS,  W.  A.  CLARK. 

UNSOUNDNESS  OF  THE  CULTURE  EPOCHS  THEORY  OF  EDUCATION, 
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A  SUMMEK.  SCHOOL  OF 
GEOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY 

At  CORNELL  UJVIVERSITY 

JULY  7th  TO  JtUGUST  19th,  1904 

COURSES  OF   INSTRUCTION 

PhyHlcal  Geoffraphy  of  the  liands,  Lerturen,  Professor  R.  8.  Tarr  (Professor  of 
Dynuuilc  Geology  and  I'hypfcal  Geoirraphy.  Cornell  rnlverslty;;  Lnborntom^  Assistant  Prtudpal 
Carnry  dthaca  lllfrh  School)  and  Mr.  (i.  I>.  Iltibliard  ( Asslstaut  In  Physical  Goo^rapbr,  Cornell 
Unlvprniiy;;  Fifld  Work,  Professor  Tarr.  Mr.  Carney,  Mr.  Whlttieck,  ancl  Mr.  IIubbaM: 

Elementary  Meteoro1offy«  lectures  and  Ltibomittry ,  Assltitant  Princlnal  Carney. 

IlyuamicalGeoloffy,  Ltfctureti,  Professor  A.  P.  BrlKliam  (Professor  of  GeoloRT  andNatoral 


Histoid,  Colgate  Unlverultyj;  Laborntonj,  Mr.  F.  V.  Emerson  (Assistant  In  Gcoion',  Cornell 
University);  Field  Work,  Professor  Drlgliam,  Mr.  Carney,  Mr.  Emerson,  and  Mr.  Hubbard. 

The  Geoffraphy  of  the  1'nited  HtateH.  l*rofessor  Brlffham. 

The  Geofrraphy  of  Europe,  I*rofcssor  Tarr. 

Geoffraphic  IntlucnceH  and  Relations*  Mr.  K.  11.  Whltbeck  (Supervisor  State  Normal 
and  Model  ^cnouls,  Trenton,  N .  .) .; 

The  Geoffraphy  of  Tropical  C-onntrien.  Mr.  Hubbard. 

Oooaaaercial  Geoffraphy*  IjectureHamilLctboratory  and  Field  ITorX:, Mr.  Philip  Emerson 
(CoblH't  Sehool,  Lynn,  ^lass.; 

ilooae  Geoffraphy.  I*rofes8or  Charles  A.  McMurr>'  (Director  of  I»ractice  Department, 
Northern  Illinois  Normal  School,  DeKalb.  111.) 

Type  StudlcN  In  Geoffraphy  for  l-rammar  Gradeii*  Professor  McMurry. 

AlmH  and  ProhleioH  in  Geoffraphy,  Mr.  Whitbeck. 

Round  Tahic  Conference.  For  consideration  of  topics  of  (geographic  Interest;  all  the 
teachers  and  such  students  as  desire  to  attend. 

Advanced  Coume  in  Dynamical  Geoloffy  and  Physical  Geoffraphy,  Professors 
Tarr  and  Brlgbain,  with  asHistanls. 

Flve-Hay  Field  ExcurHion  to  the  seashore,  the  Appalachians,  and  the  coal  mines  of 
Pennsylvania,  conducted  by  Profrssor  Tarr  and  other  members  of  the  faculty. 

The  Reffular  Hummer  HeHsion  also  includes  courses  in  Nature  Study.  Education^ 
History,  Economics,  Botany.  Zoology,  and  other  subjects  with  a  bearing  on  geographic  work. 

For  further  information  write  THE  KEGISTKAIi.  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y..  for 
special  circular  of  School  of  Geography. 


1 


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r>6^  JOURNAL^/ 
GEOGRAPHY 

jfn  IttMUtrated  Magarine  DeVoted  to  the  Interests  of  Teachers  of 
Ceographp  in  Elementarp,  Secondary,  and  in  Normal  Schools 

THE  JOURNAL  of  GEOGRAPHY  is  an  illustrated  maga- 
zine devoted  to  the  advancement  of  Geographic  education. 
It  is  the  only  journal  in  America  devoted  particularly  to  the 
cause  of  teachers  of  geography,  and  there  are  but  two  other  simi- 
lar journals  in  the  world. 

The  JOURNAL,  in  succession  to  the  JOURNAL  OF 
SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY  and  the  BULLETIN  OF  THE 
AMERICAN  BUREAU  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  is  now  closing  its 
seventh  year,  and  is  endorsed  through  usage,  not  only  by  teachers 
of  geography,  but  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  geographers  of 
the  world.  It  has  subscribers  in  all  parts  of  the  world  and  many 
of  its  articles  are  reprinted  in  geographic  and  educational  journals. 
Thus  its  usefulness  has  spread  beyond  the  expectation  of  the 
founders. 

The  JOURNAL  stands  for  progress  in  geography  teaching 
and  welcomes  all  contributions  towards  that  end.  It  supports  no 
particular  method  or  theory,  and  its  field  includes  all  grades  of 
work.  Teachers,  from  the  Elementary  school  to  the  University, 
find  the  JOURNAL  almost  indispensable,  if  they  would  keep  in 
touch  with  that  which  is  best  in  geography  teaching. 

Included  in  the  JOURNAL  are  articles  dealing  with  geograph- 
ical facts  and  the  teaching  of  geography ;  notes  summarizing  the 
best  and  most  helpful  advances  in  geography  reported  in  current 
literature  ;  brief  notes  on  recent  publications  in  the  bcH)k  and  map 
world,  longer  and  frank  reviews,  from  the  standpoint  of  usage,  of 
the  most  important  publications  ;  and  news  notes  including  recent 
events  of  interest  and  forthcoming  educational  meetings  at  which 
papers  on  the  teaching  of  geography  will  be  presented.  All  geo- 
graphical publications  are  noted  as  soon  as  received,  so  that 
teachers  can  keep  in  touch  with  the  latest  literature.  Each  num- 
ber also  contains  an  editorial  on  some  important  and  pertinent 
phase  of  geography  teaching. 

A  special  feature  is  the  reprinting,  in  part  or  as  a  whole,  of 
articles  of  teaching  value  that  appear  in  the  many  reports  of  the 
United  States  Government  and  are  not  readily  accessible  to 
teachers.  Numerous  illustrations,  diagrams,  and  maps  are  in- 
serted, and  wherever  possible,  diagrams  are  used  that  can  be 
readily  transferred  to  the  blackboard  or  made  into  lantern  slides 
by  the  teacher. 

/ufr  a  partial  list  of  articles  that  have  appeared  and  will  appear  during 
the  school  year  of  iqoj-iqixf.  see  next  page. 


Read 
This 


H^re  fs  a  h'si  t^f  arittivs  i/iai  art  ut&n  f&  appear  m  THE 
JO  URN  A  L  OF  GEOGRA  PH  i :  IViU  tkest  kelp  yon  m  ikt 
geQgrnphhitl  xvork  of  your  einss  / 

The  Functioas  of  Geography  in  the  Elementsnr  SchooL 

Geography  in  the  United  States. 

The  Delta  of  the  MissUsippi  River. 

A  Noteworthy  Cave  in  the  Coastal  Piain  of  Georgia. 

Weather  Lore^ 

The  Scope  and  Content  of  Geog^raphy.     Two  articles. 

Map  Drawing. 

Studying  the  Sun,  Moon^  and  Stars. 

Transportation,     A  series  of  iirtides. 

River  Study. 

Geographical  Education. 

The  Geography  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase*    A  serios  of 

ten  articius. 
Practical  Exercises  in  Physiography. 
The  Geography  and  History  of  Chattanooga  and  Vicinity. 
Geography  in  the  Civil  War. 
The  Conduct  of  EiECursions   in   Elementary  Geography 

Work. 
The  Growth  of  Wheat  in  the  United  States. 
The  Geography  of  the  Fall  Line. 
Geographic  Influences  of  Government* 
Anthropogeography. 
Mathematical  Geography,     A  scries. 

Geographical  Course  of  Study  in  the  Following  Normal 
Schools : 

Terre  Haute,  Indiana. 

Los  Angeles^  California. 

DswegOj  New  York, 

Westfield,  Massachusetts. 

SiihA% yiN'  for  this  jiftattai,  dtttf  jr*'^    ihe   use ttf  these  ariidei.     Talk   Tktt 
Jjnntdf  of  tlt.i*t^^riSpUy  A*  y^^ttr  tfttckitif^  frtertds. 

THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

Ro^m  569,  16Q  Adams  Stfvtt,  Chicago*  flK 


neJOURNALof 
GEOGRAPHY 


Volume  III, 


SEPTEMBER,  1904 


Number  7 


3tn  iUnmivateb  tttonttilu  ntagaflne  toettateb  to  th^ 
tnetttarB,  ttjecottbar^ij  attlr  normal  0jci}ooi0 


Edited  by  RICHARD  E.  DODGE,  Professor  of  Geog| 
rapliy, Teachers  College,  Columbia  University^  New  Yorl 
City,  and  EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS.  Professor  o 
Geography^  State  Normal   School,  Winona,  Minnesota 


^0nU%tt&  for  §*vtemUcr 

The  First  American  Geography  .  CLIFTOH  JOHNSOIT    311 

The  School  Exctirsioa  and  the  School  Museum  as  Aids  in  the  Teachieg  of 

Geography .,.,.,,,     D.  C,  RIDGELEY     $22 


The  Human  Response  to  the  Physical  Environment 


J.  PAUL  GOODE     333 


Geographical  Notes  ^ 

"SenMibk'  Temperatures,'*  343  —  Pi^bUc  Sc-hor.i!*!  in  Russia,  i^a  --  Cost  of  Cun struct i cm  of 
the  Trans-Si buHttn  Railwuy,  348  —  Advisfibli;  Umissians  frnm  ibe  Klemiifltnry  Ctirrieu- 
lum,  149--  Currunt  ArtlclfJ^  un  Commerrd  iind  Industry,  j^i}  —  Kcitnnmit.'  Tmpartancc  of 
the  Coff4.'e  Industry.  351  —The  Climatt  of  ttie  Arffenlinc  KcpubliCi  553  —  Map  Drawltig 
in  Hiitory,  353  — Cotnmerdal  Jiii,t*in  in  h/tuj,  iS4. 

Editorial: 

The  EmphA«ts  of  DetAils  in  School  Ocogruphy.  j^. 


Tlie  IndiaD.'^  of  thy  Paintt'd 


ReTiewi: 

GeoUigy.    Chainbi^rUn  unJ  Saliiibur;%  WA.  L  i  j  J*.  Tr.K  556 
Deiier  t  Region.    J  a  nies,  j  jfi . 

Recent  Publicationfi ,,.,., -     3S7 

News  Note .     ,     . 358 

A  Iff /wry  a  t*it  personally  r^sp£fnsiMe  ftyf  ir/^iHumx  ixaJ  sfatemeftts  {•x/ri'ssri/  in  fltt' JOU^\AL 


«1.50 

year 


Ci/7'7{7'    ,>F  PL'f^'lJCATiOX 

ryfce  JOURNAI.  q/ GEOGRAPHY 

i^oom  56q^  ife  Adams  St>,  QhUn^D,  Illifiait 

M»b  l«   i»(r!   Ri  *  l^^rtIP.  111.   u  M-xFiil^ltttf  mattTT.  ^wHic  jl.re  ^f  f^iMwn^  ..f  Ww*'h  >.  11711 


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The  JOURNAL  of 
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PUBLISHED  MONTHLV,  EXCEPT  JULY  AND  AUGUST 

An  ittttstratwd  Magasinw  DtVoted  to  thw  Interwsts  of  Teachers  of  Ceographp  in 
Etementarp,  Secondarp,  and  ^format  Schools 

Successor  to  the  Journal  of  ScJwol  CeojErraphy,  Vol.  V.,  and  the  Bulletin  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  Gcog^raphyy  Vol.  II. 

EDITORS 

RICHARD  E.  DODGE, 

Professor  of  Geography^  Teachers  Collegey  Columbia  University^  New  York  City, 

EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS 

Professor  of  Geography^  State  Normal  School ^  Winona^  Minnesota, 

ASSOC] ATE  EDITORS 

CYRUS  C.  ADAMS Geogrraphical  Editor^  N.  Y,  Sun 

OTIS  W.  CALDWELL  .  Professor  of  Botany,  State  Normal  School,  Charles  ton.  III 
JAMES  F.  CHAMBERLAIK,  Prof  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  LosAng^les^  Cal. 
HENRY  C.  COWLES  .  .  .  Associate  in  Botany,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago^  111, 
W^ILLIAM  M.  DAVIS.  Professor  of  Geology,  Jlarz'arct  University,  Cambridgre,  Mass, 
N.  M.  FENNEMAN  .  .  Professor  of  Geology,  Uniiwrsity  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis, 
J.  PAUL  GOODIC,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geography,  University  ofChicagCj  Chicago,  JIL 
GEORGE  B.  HOLLISTER,  Hydrographer,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. 
M.  S.  W.  JKFFKRi^OK,  Professor  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Ypsilanti,Mich. 
EMORY  R.  JOHNSOX,  Asst.  Prof  of  Transportation  and  Commerce,  Univ.  of  Penna, 
EDW.  D.  JONES,  Asst.  Prof  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Univ.  of  Mich.,  Ann  Arbor 
VERNON  L.  KELLOGG,  Prof.  ofEntotnology,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto,  CaL 

CHARLES  F.  KING Master  of  Dearborn  School,  Boston,  Mass, 

S.  J.  Maclean,  Asst.  Prof  of  Economics,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto,  Cal, 
FOREST  RAY  MOULTON,  Assistant  Professor  of  Astronomy,  University  of  Chicago 

JACQL'ES  W.  REDWAY Author,  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y, 

ELLEN  C.  SEMPLE Writer  in  Anthropogeography,  Louisville,  Ky, 

FREDERICK  STARR,  Associate  Prof  of  Anthropology,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 
RALPH  S.  TARR,  Professor  of  Physical  Geography,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y, 
SPENCER  TROTTER      ......    Professor  of  Biology,  Srvarthmore  College,  Pa, 

ROBERT  DkC.  ward   .    .  Assistant  Professor  of  Climatology,  Harvard  University 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  FOR  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  CANADA 
A.  J.  HI^RBERTSON,  Lecturer  in  Regional  Geography,  Oxford  University,  England 
JOHN  A.  DRESSER Prince  Albert  School,  St.  Henry  de  Montreal^  Quebec 

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Vol.  III.  SEPTEMBER,  1904  No.  7 

XII 

THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY* 

BY    CLIFTON    JOHNSON 

IN  colonial  days  geography  was  spoken  of  as  **a  diversion  for  a 
wint<5r's  evening/'  and  acquaintance  with  it  was  considered  an 
accomplishment  rather  than  a  necessity.  Some  rudimentar}'' 
instruction  in  the  science  was  occasionally  given  at  the  more  advanced 
schools,  but  the  topic  was  not  taken  up  in  the  elementary  schools 
until  after  the  Revolution.  A  knowledge  of  it  was  first  made  a  condi- 
tion for  entering  Harvard  in  1815,  and  a  dozen  years  more  elapsed 
before  Massachusetts  named  it  among  the  required  studies  in  the 
public  schools.  To  begin  with,  it  was  not  introduced  as  a  separate 
study,  but  the  books  were  used  as  readers.  The  same  was  true  of  the 
early  school  histories.  However,  geography  presently  won  a  place 
of  its  own  and  kept  it  in  spite  of  the  protests  that  the  scholars'  atten- 
tion was  thereby  being  taken  away  from  **  cyphering.'' 

The  pioneer  of  American  authors  of  school  geographies  was 
Jedidiah  Morse.  On  the  title  page  of  most  editions  of  his  books  his 
name  was  appended  with  *'D.  D.  Minister  of  the  Congregation  in 
Charlestown,  Massachusetts."  He  was  born  in  1761,  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1783,  and  the  year  following  published  at  New  Haven  his  first 
geography.  Later  he  put  forth  several  other  geographies,  large  and 
small,  became  a  compiler  of  gazetteers,  wrote  various  important  his- 
torical and  religious  works,  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  served  as  pastor  of 
the  First  Church  in  Charlestown.  He  won  fame  not  only  in  his  own 
country  but  was  recognized  abroad  as  a  man  of  distinguished  attain- 
ments, and  a  number  of  his  books  were  translated  into  French  and 
German.     His  Geography  Made  Easy,  a  small  leather-bound  12mo 

•  Reprinted  by  permission  from  Old^Time  Schools  and  SchooUBooks,  published 
by  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York. 


^  J  2  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

of  about  400  pages,  was  for  many  years  by  far  the  most  popular  text- 
book dealing  with  this  sul:)ject.     My  copy,  dated   1800,  is  dedicated 

TO  THE 

Young  Masters  and  Misses 
Throughout  the  L'nited  States 

Two  maps  of  double-page  size  are  the  only  illustrations — one  a  map 
of  the  world,  the  other  of  North  America. 

The  earlier  pages  treat  of  the  ''Doctrine  of  the  Sphere.  Of  Astro- 
nomical Geography    Of  Olobes  and  their  Tse/'  etc.     But  soon  we 


■yHDIDIAH  MORSE 

come  to  the  Histortj  oj  the  Disrorcrj/  of  Amerini,  and  then  to  a  General 
Description  of  Afmrico.  In  the  latter  chapter  is  much  that  is  inter- 
esting and  pictures(juo.  It  includes,  as  do  all  the  early  geographies, 
a  good  many  imaginative  travellers'  tales  j)icked  uj)  from  newspapers 
and  other  chance  sources  without  any  pains  being  taken  to  verify 
thcMu  or  to  inrjuin^  as  to  the  relia))ility  of  their  authors.  In  fact,  it 
sonu^times  seems  as  if  the  moie  fal)ulous  the  story  the  better  its  chance 
lo  be  recorded  in  th(^  school  text-l)ooks.  We  get  very  entertaining 
glimpses  of  th(^  Hmitations  of  geographical  knowledge  at  the  time  in 
the  following  extracts  from  Morse: 


THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY 


313 


GEOGRAPHY  MADE  EASY. 


-4  Heading  from  the  edition  of  iSoo 

The  AndeSj  in  South  America,  stretch  along  the  Pacific  Ocean 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  height 
of  Chimborazo,  the  most  elevated  point  in  this  vast  chain  of  moun- 
tains, is  20,280  feet,  above  5000  feet  higher  than  any  other  mountain 
in  the  known  world. 

North  America  has  no  remarkably  high  mountains.  The  most 
considerable  are  those  known  under  the  general  name  of  the  Allegany 
Maunimns.  These  stretch  along  in  many  broken  ridges  under  dif- 
ferent names  from  Hudson's  River  to  Georgia.  The  Andes  and  the 
Allegany  Mountains  are  probably  the  same  range  interrupted  by  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Who  were  the  first  people  of  America?  And  whence  did  they 
come?  The  Abbe  Clavigero  gives  his  opinion  in  the  following  con- 
clusions:— 

'*The  Americans  desce!ide<l  from  different  nations,  or  from  different 
families  dispersed  after  the  confusion  of  tongues.  No  person  will 
doubt  the  tnith  of  this,  who  has  any  knowledge  of  the  nudtitude 
and  great  diversity  of  the  American  languages.  In  Mexico  alone 
thirty-five  have  already  been  discovered." 

But  how  did  the  inhabitants  and  animals  originally  pass  to  America? 

The  quadrupeds  and  reptiles  of  the  new  world  f)assed  there  by 
land.  This  fact  is  manifest  from  the  improbability  and  inconsistency 
of  all  other  opinions. 

This  necessarily  supf)oses  an  ancient  union  between  the  equinoxial 
countries  of  America  and  those  of  Africa,  and  a  connexion  of  the 
northern  countries  of  America  with  Europe  on  the  E.  and  Asia  on  the 
W.  The  beasts  of  cold  climes  passed  over  the  northern  isthmuses, 
which  probably  connected  Europe,  America,  and  Asia :  and  the  animals 
and  reptiles  peculiar  to  hot  countries  passed  over  the  isthmus  that 
probably  connected  S.  America  with  Africa.  N'arious  reasons  induce 
us  to  believe  that  there  was  formerly  a  tract  of  land  which  imited 
the  most  eastern  part  of  Brazil  to  tlie  most  western  part  of  Africa; 
and  that  all  the  space  of  land  may  have  been  sunk  by  violent  earth- 
quakes, leaving  only  some  traces  of  it  in  that  chain  of  islands  of  which 


314  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 


Cape  de  Verd  Ascension,  and  St.  Matthew's  Island  make  a  part.  In 
like  manner,  it  is  probable,  the  northwestern  part  of  America  was 
imited  to  the  northeastern  part  of  Asia,  and  the  northeastern  parts 
of  America  to  the  northwestern  parts  of  Europe,  by  Greenland,  Ice- 
land, etc. 

QUADRUPEDE  ANIMALS  vnihhi  the  United  States: 

Mammoth.  This  name  has  been  given  to  an  unknown  animal, 
whose  bones  are  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  the  old  and  new 
world.  From  the  form  of  their  teeth,  they  are  supposed  to  have 
been  carniverous.  Like  the  elephant  they  were  armed  with  tusks 
of  ivory;  but  they  obviously  differed  from  the  elephant  in  size;  their 
bones  prove  them  to  have  been  0  or  6  times  as  large. 

A  late  governor  of  N'irginia,  having  asked  some  delegates  of  the 
Dela wares  what  they  knew  respecting  this  animal;  the  chief  speaker 
informed  him  that  it  was  a  tradition  handed  down  from  their  fathers, 
"That  in  ancient  times  a  herd  of  them  came  to  the  Big-bone  licks, 
and  began  an  universal  destruction  of  the  bears,  deer,  elks,  buffaloes, 
and  other  animals  which  had  been  created  for  the  use  of  the  Indians: 
that  the  Great  Man,  above,  looking  down,  and  seeing  this,  was  so 
enraged  that  he  seized  his  lightning,  descended  to  the  earth,  seated 
himself  upon  a  neighboring  mountain,  on  a  rock,  on  which  his  seat 
and  the  print  of  his  feet  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  hurled  his  bolts  among 
them  till  the  whole  were  slaughtered,  except  the  big  bull,  who,  pre- 
senting his  forehead  to  the  shafts,  shook  them  off  as  they  fell;  but  at 
length,  missing  one,  it  wounded  him  in  the  .side;  whereupon,  spring- 
ing round,  he  bounded  over  the  Ohio,  the  Wabash,  the  Illinois,  and 
finally  over  the  great  lakes,  where  he  is  living  at  this  day." 

Sapajon,  Sagoiv.  There  are  various  species  of  animals  said  to 
inhabit  the  country  on  the  lower  part  of  the  Mississippi,  called  Sapa- 
jons  and  Sagoins.  The  former  are  capable  of  supporting  themselves 
by  their  tails;  the  latter  are  not.  They  have  a  general  resemblance 
to  monkeys,  but  are  not  sufficiently  known  to  be  particularly  described. 

The  sapajon  and  sagoin  are  not  as  mythical  as  might  be  fancied 
from  what  the  book  says  of  them.  They  l)oth  belong  to  the  monkey 
tribe,  but  dwell  in  South  America  instead  of  on  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi.    Another  curious  item  is  this:  — 

Grey  scjuirrels  sometimes  migrate  in  considerable  numbers.  If 
in  their  course  they  meet  with  a  river,  eacli  of  them  takes  a  shingle, 
piece  of  bark,  or  the  Hke,  and  carries  it  to  the  water;  thus  ecjuipped 
they  embark,  and  erect  their  tails  to  the  gentle  breeze,  which  soon 
wafts  them  over  in  safety;  but  a  sudden  flaw  of  wind  sometimes  pro- 
duces a  destructive  shipwreck. 

Fifty  "<piadrupe(le"  animals  are  described  in  all,  and  then  we 
have  a  section  devoted  to  "Jiirds."  Next  "Amphibious  Reptiles" 
are  considered,  after  that  '^ Serpents,"  and  finally  "Fishes.''  Here 
are  .sample  ])aragraphs: — 


igo4  THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY  3I5 

The  Wakon  Bird,  which  probably  is  of  the  same  species  with  the 
Bird  of  Paradise,  receives  its  name  from  the  ideas  the  Indians  have 
of  its  superior  excellence;  the  Wakon  Bird  being  in  their  language 
the  Bird  of  the  Great  Spirit.  Its  tail  is  composed  of  four  or  five 
feathers,  wliich  are  three  times  as  long  as  its  body,  and  which  are 
beautifully  shaded  with  green  and  purple.  It  carries  this  fine  length 
of  plumage  in  the  same  manner  as  the  peacock  does  his,  but  it  is  not 
known  whether,  like  him,  it  ever  raises  it  to  an  erect  position. 

The  Whitsaw  is  of  the  cuckow  kind,  being  a  solitar}'  bird,  and 
scarcely  ever  seen.  In  the  summer  months  it  is  heard  in  the  groves, 
where  it  makes  a  noise  like  the  filing  of  a  saw. 

Of  the  Frog  kind  arc  many  species.  Pond  frog,  green  fountain 
frog,  tree  frog,  bull  frog.  Besides  these  are  the  dusky  J3rown,  spotted 
frog  of  Carolina;  their  voice  resembles  the  grunting  of  swine.  The 
bell  frog,  so  called,  because  their  voice  is  fancied  to  be  exactly  like 
that  of  a  loud  cow  bell.  A  beautiful  green  frog  whose  noise  is  like 
the  barking  of  little  dogs,  or  the  yelping  of  puppies.  A  less  green 
frog,  whose  notes  resemble  those  of  young  chickens.  Little  gray 
speckled  frog,  who  make  a  noise  like  the  striking  of  two  pebbles  to- 
gether under  the. surface  of  the  water.  There  is  yet  an  extremely 
diminutive  species  of  frogs,  called  by  some.  Savanna  crickets,  whose 
notes  are  not  unlike  the  chattering  of  young  birds  or  crickets.  They 
are  found  in  great  multitudes  after  plentiful  rains. 

The  Alligator  is  a  very  large,  ugly,  terrible  creature,  of  prodigious 
strength,  activity,  and  swiftness  in  the  water.  They  are  from  12  to 
23  feet  in  length;  their  bodies  are  as  large  as  that  of  a  horse.  The 
head  of  a  full-grown  alligator  is  about  three  feet  long,  and  the  mouth 
opens  nearly  the  same  length.  The  upper  jaw  only,  moves,  and  this 
they  raise  so  as  to  form  a  right  angle  with  the  lower  one.  They  open 
their  mouths  while  they  lie  basking  in  the  sun,  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
and  creeks,  and  when  filled  with  flies,  musketoes  and  other  insects, 
they  suddenly  let  fall  their  upper  jaw  with  surprising  noise,  and  thus 
secure  their  prey. 

The  Rattle  Snake  may  be  ranked  among  the  largest  serpents  in 
America.  If  pursued  and  overtaken,  they  instantly  throw  themselves 
into  the  spiral  coil;  their  whole  body  swells  through  rage,  their  eyes 
are  red  as  burning  coals,  and  their  brandishing  forked  tongues,  of 
the  colour  of  the  hottest  flame,  menaces  a  horrid  death. 

The  Joint  Snake,  if  we  may  credit  Carver's  account  of  it.  is  a  great 
curiosity.  Its  skin  is  as  hard  as  parchment,  and  as  smooth  as  glass. 
It  is  beautifully  streaked  with  black  and  white.  It  is  so  stiff,  and 
has  so  few  joints,  and  those  so  unyielding,  that  it  can  hardly  bend 
itself  into  the  form  of  a  hooj).  When  it  is  struck,  it  breaks  like  a  pipe- 
stem;  and  you  may,  with  a  whip,  break  it  from  the  tail  to  the  bowels 
into  pieces  not  an  inch  long,  and  not  produce  the  least  tincture  of 
blood. 

Other  snakes  mentioned  are  the  **  Water  Viper,  with  a  sharp  thorn 
tail,  Hog  nose  Snake,  Coach  Whip  Snake,  which  the  Indians  imagine 


3  1 6  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 

is  able  to  cut  a  man  in  two  with  a  jerk  of  its  tail.  Ribbon  Snake,  Glass 
Snake,  and  Two-headed  Snake/' 

In  the  list  of  fishes  are  noted  the  ''Skip  jack,  Minow-,  Shiner, 
Dab,  Hard  Head  and  Mummychog/'  Of  the  Lamprey  it  is  affirmed 
thate 

After  the  spawning  season  is  over,  and  the  young  fry  have  gone 
down  to  the  sea,  the  old  fishes  attach  themselves  to  the  roots  and 
limbs  of  trees,  which  have  fallen  or  run  into  the  water,  and  there 
perish.  A  mortification  begins  at  the  tail,  and  proceeds  upwards  to 
the  vital  part.  Fish  of  this  kind  have  been  found  at  Plymouth,  in 
New^  Hampshire,  in  different  stages  of  putrification. 

When  the  general  characteristics  of  the  United  States  have  been 
dealt  with.  New  England  is  taken  up.  and  we  are  informed  that  in 
this  portion  of  the  republic — 

Learning  is  more  generally  diffused  than  in  any  other  part  of  the 
globe;  arising  from  the  excellent  establishment  of  schools  in  almost 
everj'  tow^nship  and  smaller  district. 

A  very  valuable  source  of  information  to  the  people  is  the  News- 
papers, of  which  not  less  than  thirty  thousand  are  printed  everj'  week, 
in  New  England. 

Apples  are  common,  and  cider  constitutes  the  principal  drink  of 
the  inhabitants. 

Eacli  state  is  described  in  detail,  inoluding  such  topics  as  **  Religion, 
Military  Strength,  Literature,  Curiosities,  Constitution,  and  Histor>'.'' 
Hridges  are  constantly  referred  to — even  those  over  the  smaller  rivers. 
We  learn,  for  instance,  that  across  the  Piscatacjua  in  New  Hampshire  ' 
a  few  miles  above  Portsmouth  "has  been  erected  the  most  respectable 
bridge  in  the  I'nited  States,  2G00  feet  in  length,"  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
seventy  thousand  dollars,  hi  Massachusetts  ten  bridges  are  listed 
that  "merit  notice,'^  and,  it  is  added.  "These  bridges  are  all  supported 
by  a  toll." 

Harvard  rnivc^rsity,  the  book  says,  "consists  of  four  elegant 
edifices,"  and  we  are  told  that  "In  Williamstown  is  another  literary 
institution  started  in  1790,  partly  by  lottery  and  partly  l)y  the  liberal 
donation  of  gentlemen  of  the  town."  P»oston  had  seven  schools  sup- 
ported wholly  at  the  public  expense,  "and  in  them  the  children  of 
vrcrj/  class  of  citizens  freely  associate."  Three  of  these  were  *' Eng- 
lish grammar  schools  in  which  the  children  of  both  sexes,  from  seven 
to  fourtecMi  years  of  ag(*  are  instructed  in  spelling,  accenting,  and 
reading  the  English  language  with  propriety;  also  in  English  grammar 
and  coni])osition  together  with  the  rudiments  of  geography."  In 
thr(»(»  schools  "the  same  children  are  taught  writing  and  arithmetic. 


/ 


}CH  THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY  3^7 

?he  schools  are  attended  alternately,  and  each  of  them  is  furnished 
rith  an  Usher  or  Assistant.  The  masters  of  these  schools  have  each 
,  salary  of  666  2-8  dollars  per  annum  payable  quarterly/'  Lastly 
here  was  the  '* Latin  grammar  school'*  to  which  '*none  are  admitted 
ill  ten  years  of  age/' 

The  inhabitants  of  Boston  at  this  time  numbered  24.937.  As 
isual  in  speaking  of  important  places  a  list  is  given  of  the  ^'pubhc 
mildings."  There  were  *'18  houses  for  public  worship,  the  state 
louse,  court  house,  gaol,  Faneuil  Hall,  a  theatre,  an  alms  house, 
,nd  powder  magazine."  The  principal  manufactures  of  the  town 
ir'ere  **rum,  beer,  paper  hangings,  loaf  sugar,  cordage,  sail  cloth, 
permaceti  and  tallow  candles,  and  glass." 

The  final  states  to  be  c()nsidere<l  in  the  New  England  section  acp 
'Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,"  and  Connecticut, 
^erhaps  the  most  interesting  bit  in  this  portion  is  the  statement  that 
o  Hartford,  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation  on  the  Connecticut  River, 
V8is  brought  in  boats  the  produce  of  the  country  for  two  hundred 
niles  above.  Railroads  were  as  yet  undreamed  of.  and  right  through 
he  book'  navigable  streams  and  canals  are  treated  as  of  far  more 
mportance  than  they  would  be  at  present. 

Morse  in  his  first  edition  devoted  a  paragraph  to  the  ''Connecticut 
nhabitants."  Whether  he  abandoned  it  because  it  gave  offence,  I 
lo  not  know.     It   says: — 

The  people  of  this  state  are  generally  industrious  sagacious  hus- 
)andmen ;  generous  and  hospitable  to  strangers,  and  good  neighbours, 
iut  they  are  characterized  for  being  intemperately  fond  of  law  suits 
ind  little  petty  arbitrations.  The  ladies  are  modest,  handsome,  and 
igreeable,  fond  of  imitating  new  and  extravagant  fashions,  neat  and 
;hearful,  and  possessed  of  a  large  share  of  delicacy,  tenderness  and 
lensibility.  The  above  character  may  with  justice  be  given  to  the 
adies  of  the  four  New- England  Stjites. 

Now  we  come  to  ''The  Skcond  (Jr-and  Division  of  ///r  United 
States."  It  comprised  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  and  ''Territory  N.  W.  of  the  Ohio."  Special  attention 
8  paid  to  the  climate  of  this  tract,  which  the  book  says  has 

>ut  one  steady  trait,  and  that  is,  it  is  uniformly  variable.  The  changes 
)f  weather  are  great,  and  fretiuently  sudden.  On  the  whole,  it  appears 
:hat  the  climate  is  a  compound  of  most  of  the  climates  of  the  world, 
it  has  the  moisture  of  Ireland  in  spring;  the  heat  of  Africa  in  summer; 
:he  temperature  of  Italy  in  June;  the  sky  of  Egypt  in  autumn;  the 
mow  and  cold  of  Norway  in  winter;  the  tempests  (in  a  certain  degree) 


o 


1 8  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 


of  the  West  Indies,  in  every  season;  and  the  variable  winds  and 
weather  of  Great  Britain,  in  every  month  in  the  year. 

From  this  account  of  the  climate,  it  is  easy  to  ascertain  what 
degrees  of  health,  and  what  diseases  prevail.  As  the  inhabitants 
have  the  climate,  so  they  have  the  accute  diseases  of  all  the  countries 
that  have  been  mentioned. 

Concerning  New  York  City,  the  book  says: — 

A  want  of  good  water  has  been  a  great  inconvenience  to  the  citizens; 
there  being  but  few  wells  in  the  city.  Most  of  the  people  are  supplied 
every  day  with  fresh  water  conveyed  to  their  doors  in  casks,  from  a 
pump  at  the  head  of  Queen-street,  which  receives  it  from  a  spring 
almost  a  mile  from  the  centre  of  the  city.  This  well  is  about  20  feet 
deep,  and  4  feet  diameter.  The  average  (quantity  drawn  daily  from 
tins  remarka})le  well,  is  110  hogsheads  of  130  gallons  each.  In  some 
hot  summer  days,  216  hogsheads  have  been  drawn  from  it,  and  what 
is  very  singular,  there  is  never  more  or  less  than  about  three  feet  of 
water  in  the  well.  The  water  is  sold  commonly  at  three  pence  a  hogs- 
head at  the  pump.  The  Manhattan  Company  was  incorjjorated  in 
1798,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  good  water  into  the  city,  and  their 
works  are  now  nearly  completed. 

New  York  then  had  a  population  of  sixty  thousand,  which  included 
about  three  thousand  slaves. 

In  describing  the  "Territory  X.  W.  of  the  Ohio"  a  list  is  given  of 
its  forts  *' established  for  the  ])r()te(*ti()n  of  the  frontiers/'  and  we 
are  told  that 

both  the  high  and  low  lands  j)roduce  vast  quantities  of  natural  grapes, 
of  which  the  settlers  universally  make  a  sufficiency,  for  their  own 
consumption,  of  rich  red  wine.  It  is  asserted  that  age  will  render 
this  wine  preferable  to  most  of  the  European  wines.  Cotton  is  the 
natural  ])n)(luction  of  this  coinitry,  and  it  grows  in  great  perfection. 

Helow  are  fragments  of  inforniation  about  the  Southern  States, 
'^Thv  TiiiKD  anti  much  the  InrtjcM  (iuand  Division  of  the  United 
Statks." 

The  city  <^f  \VAsniN<;T<)N  stands  at  the  junction  of  the  rivers 
Patomak  and  the  Eastern  Hranch.  The  situation  of  this  metropolis 
is  upon  the  great  post  road,  ecpii-distant  from  the  northern  and 
soutliern  extremities  of  the  Tnion.  The  jniblic  offices  were  removed 
to  this  city  in  the  summer  of  ISOO,  and  here  in  future  Congress  will 
hr)l(l  their  sessions. 

In  the  fhit  country  near  the  sea-coast  of  North  Carolina,  the  inhab- 
itants, (lining  the  summer  and  autumn,  are  subject  to  intermittent 
fevers,  which  often  prove  fatal.  The  countenances  of  the  inhabitants 
(luring  these  seasons,  have  i^enerally  a  pale  yellowish  cast,  occasioned 
by  the  prevalence  of  bilious  symptoms. 


I904  THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY  3  I  9 

A  few  years  since,  Tennessee  abounded  with  large  herds  of  wild 
cattle,  improperly  called  Buffaloes;  but  the  improvident  or  ill-disposed 
among  the  first  settlers,  have  destroyed  multitudes  of  them,  out  of 
mere  wantonness.  They  are  still  to  bo  found  on  some  of  the  south 
branches  of  Cumberland  river.  Elk  or  moose  are  seen  in  many  places, 
chiefly  among  the  mountains.  The  deer  are  become  comparatively 
scarce;  so  that  no  person  makes  a  business  of  hunting  them  for  their 
skins  only.     Enough  of  bears  and  wolves  yet  remain. 

In  Maryland,  N'irginia,  and  North-Carolina  the  inhabitants  are 
excessively  fond  of  the  diversion  of  horse  racing.  Every  spring  and 
fall  they  have  stated  races  for  three  or  four  days,  which  collect  the 
» porting  gentlemen  from  every  part  of  the  country  from  100  to  200 
iniles.  Every  poor  peasant  has  an  horse  or  two  and  all  the  family  in 
ruins,  with  scarcely  any  covering  or  provisions;  while  the  nag,  with 
t:.  wo  or  three  Negroes  rubbing  him,  is  pampered  with  luxuries  to  the 
extreme  of  high  living. 

This  last  item  is  from  the  edition  of  1784.  1  make  one  more  quota- 
tiion  from  that  edition  under  the  heading,  ''Spanish  Dominions  in 
oN.  America,'' — that  is,  Florida  and  Mexico, — and  then  resume  con- 
sideration of  the  later  book. 

In  California,  there  falls  in  the  morning  a  great  quantity  of  dew, 
"vvhich,  settling  on  the  rose-leaves  becomes  hard  like  manna,  having 
i^ll  the  sweetness  of  refined  sugar,  without  its  whiteness. 

The  greatest  curiosity  in  the  city  of  Mexico,  is  their  floating  gar- 
^iens.     When  the  Mexicans,  about  the  year  1325,  were  subdued  by 
^he  Colhuan  and  Tepanecan  nations,  and  confined  to  the  small  islands 
<:>f  the  lake,  having  no  land  to  cultivate,  they  were  taught  by  necessity 
\^o  form  movable  gardens,  which   floated    on  the  lake.      Their  con- 
struction is  very  simple.     They  take  willows  and  the  roots  of  marsh 
iDlants,  and  other  materials  which  are  light,  and  twist  them  together, 
si,nd  so  firmly  unite  them  as  to  form  a  sort  of  platform,  which  is  capable 
of  supporting  the  earth  of  the  garden.     Upon  this  foundation  they 
lay  bushes  and  over  them  spread  the  mud  which  they  draw  up  from 
the  bottom  of  the  lake.     Their  figure  is  ([uadrangular;  their  length 
and  breadth  various,  but  generally  about  8  rods  long  and  3  wide; 
and  their  elevation  from  the  surface  of  the  water  is  less  than  a  foot. 
These  were  the  first  fiekls  that  the  Mexicans  owned,  after  the  founda- 
tion of  Mexico;  there  they  first  cultivated  the  maize,  great  pepper 
and  other  plants  necessary  for  their  support.     From  the  industry  of 
the  people  these   fields  soon   became   numerous.     At   present   they 
cultivate  flowers  and  every  sort  of  garden  herbs  upon  them.     In  the 
largest  gardens  there  is  commonly  a  fit  tie  tree  and  a  little  hut,  to 
shelter  the  cultivator,  and  defend  him  from  the  rain  or  the  sun.     When 
the  owner  of  a  garden  wishes  to  change  his  situation,  to  get  out  of  a 
bad  neighborhood,  or  to  come  near  to  his  family    he  gets  into  his 
little  boat,  and  by  his  own  strength  alone,  if  the  garden  is  small,  or 
with  the  assistance  of  others  if  it  be  large,  conducts  it  wherever  he 

n1P5lAPS 


320  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 


Among  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  South  America  that  are  de- 
scribed is  "Juan  Fernandes  300  miles  west  of  Chili,"  famous  for  its 
connection  with  Defoe^s  Robinson  Crusoe.  The  book  tells  how 
Alexander  Selkirk  dwelt  there  and  how  he  was  finally  rescued,  con- 
cluding with: — 

During  his  abode  on  this  island  he  had  killed  500  goats,  which  he 
caught  by  running  them  down ;  and  he  marked  as  many  more  on  the 
ear,  which  he  let  go.  Some  of  these  were  caught  30  years  after,  their 
venerable  aspect  and  majestic  beards  discovering  strong  symptoms 
of   antiquity. 

Selkirk  upon  his  return  to  England,  was  advised  to  publish  an 
account  of  his  life  and  adventures.  He  is  said  to  have  put  his  paf)ers 
into  the  hands  of  Daniel  Defoe,  to  prepare  them  for  publication. 
But  that  writer,  by  the  help  of  those  papers,  and  a  lively  fancy  trans- 
formed Alexander  Selkirk  into  Robinson  (^rusoe,  and  returned  Sel- 
kirk his  papers  again;  so  that  the  latter  derived  no  advantage  from 
them. 

Part  I  of  the  geography  closes  with  '*New  Discoveries,*'  which  it 
declares  ''have  been  numerous  and  important. '*     Here  is  one: — 

The  Northern  Archipelago.]  This  consists  of  several  groups  of 
islands  situated  between  the  eastern  coast  of  Kamtschatka  and  the 
western  coast  of  America. 

The  most  perfect  eciuality  reigns  among  these  islanders.  They 
feed  their  children  when  very  young,  with  the  coarsest  flesh,  and 
for  the  most  part  raw.  If  an  infant  cries,  the  mother  immediately 
carries  it  to  the  sea  side,  and.  whether  it  be  sunmier  or  winter,  holds 
it  naked  in  the  water  \nitil  it  is  (juiet.  This  custom  is  so  far  from 
doing  the  children  any  harm  that  it  hardens  them  against  the  cold, 
'  and  they  go  barefooted  tlirough  the  winter  \\ith()Ut  the  least  incon- 
venience. The  least  affliction  prompts  them  to  suicide;  the  appre- 
hension of  even  an  uncertain  evil,  often  leads  them  to  despair;  and 
they  put  an  end  to  their  days  with  great  apparent  in.sensibility. 

A  little  farther  on  we  find  this  about  the  people  of  the  Friendly 
Islands: — 

Their  great  men  are  fond  of  a  singular  kind  of  luxury,  which  is, 
to  have  women  sit  beside  them  all  night,  and  beat  on  different  parts 
of  their  body  until  they  go  to  sleep;  after  which,  they  relax  a  little 
of  their  lal)our,  unless  tliey  appear  likely  to  wake;  in  which  case  they 
redouble  their  exertions,  until  ihev  are  again  fast  asleep. 

Part  IT  is  devoted  to  the  eastern  hemisphere.  I  quote  two  para- 
graphs about  Lapland:--- 

The  enij)loynient  of  the  women  consists  in  making  nets  for  the 
fishery,  in  drying  fish  and   meat,  in  milking  the  reindeer,  in  making 


y 


,904  THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY  32  I 

cheese,  and  in  tanning  hides;  but  it  is  understood  to  be  the  business 
of  the  men  to  look  after  the  kitchen,  in  which,  it  is  said,  the  women 
never  interfere. 

When  a  Laplander  intends  to  marry  a  female,  he,  or  his  friends, 
court  her  father  with  brandy;  when  with  some  difficulty  he  gains 
admittance  to  his  fair  one,  he  offers  her  a  beaver's  tcmgue,  or  some 
other  eatable,  which  she  rejects  before  company,  but  accepts  of  in 
private. 

The  father  evidently  enjoyed  his  part  of  the  courting  and  was 
loath  to  end  his  free  supply  of  licpior.  "This  prolongs  the  courtship 
sometimes  for  three  years,"  says  the  book. 

I  expected  when  1  turned  to  the  pages  devoted  to  Asia  that  1 
would  find  rats  named  as  an  article  of  Chinese  diet,  but  the  rat  myth 
seems  to  have  been  of  later  growth.  None  of  the  geographies  refer 
to  it  until  Peter  Parley  in  1«S30  shows  a  picture  of  a  pedler  '* selling 
rats  and  puppies  for  pies."  In  spite  of  this  lack  Morse's  information 
about  the  Chinese  is  by  no  means  uninteresting,  as  will  be  seen  by  the 
cullings  w'hich  follow: — 

The  Chinese  have  particular  ideas  of  beauty.  They  pluck  up  the 
hairs  of  the  lower  part  of  their  faces  by  the  roots  with  tweezers, 
leaving  a  few  straggling  ones  by  way  of  beard.  Their  complexion 
towards  the  north,  is  fair,  towards  the  south,  swarthy;  and  the  fatter 
a  man  is  they  think  him  the  handsomer. 

Language.]  The  Chinese  language  contains  only  330  words,  all 
of  one  syllable:  but  then  each  word  is  pronounced  with  such  various 
modulations,  and  each  with  a  different  meaning,  that  it  becomes 
more  copious  than  could  be  easily  imagined,  and  enables  them  to 
express  themselves  very  well,  on  the  common  occasions  of  life. 

The  Chinese  pretend,  as  a  nation,  to  an  anticjuity  beyond  all 
measure  of  credibility;  and  their  annals  have  been  carried  beyond 
the  period  to  which  the  scripture  chronology  assigns  the  creation  of 
the  world.  Poan  Kou  is  said  by  them  to  have  been  the  first  man; 
and  the  interval  of  time  betwixt  him  and  the  death  of  the  celebrated 
Confucius,  which  was  in  the  vear  before  Christ,  479,  has  been  reckoned 
from  276,000  to  96,961.740  years. 

The  descriptions  of  Africa  in  Morse's  book  lack  definiteness,  except 
as  regards  Egypt  and  the  north  coast.  The  rest  of  the  continent, 
"from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,"  is  handled 
in  a  single  lump.  Of  the  inland  countries  Abyssinia  receives  most 
attention,  and  we  are  told  that  — 

The  religion  of  the  Abyssinians  is  a  mixture  of  Christianity, 
Judaism,  and  Paganism;  the  two  latter  of  which  are  by  far  the  most 
predominant.  There  are  here  more  churches  than  in  any  other 
country,  and  though  it  is  very  mountainous,  and  consequently  the 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 


view  much  obstructed,  it  is  very  seldom  you  see  less  than  5  or  6 
churches.  Ever>'  great  man  when  he  dies,  thinks  he  has  atoned  for 
all  his  wickedness,  if  he  leaves  a  fund  to  build  a  church,  or  has  one 
built  in  his  life-time. 

The  churches  are  full  of  pictures  slovenly  painted  on  parchment, 
and  nailed  upon  the  walls.  There  is  no  choice  in  their  saints,  they 
are  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  those  that  might  be 
dispensed  with  from  both.  There  is  St.  Pontius  Pilate  and  his  wife; 
there  is  St.  Baalam  and  his  ass;  Sampson  and  his  jaw  bone,  and  .so 
of  the  rest. 

It  makes  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  centur>'  seem  very  bar- 
baric when  we  read  a  few  pages  farther  on  that — 

In  the  Guinea  or  western  coast,  the  English  exchange  their  woolen 
and  linen  manufactures,  their  hard  ware  and  spirituous  liquors,  for 
the  persons  of  the  natives.  Among  the  Negroes,  a  man's  wealth 
consists  in  the  number  of  his  family,  whom  he  sells  like  so  many  cattle, 
and  often  at  an  inferior  price. 

One  page  near  the  close  of  the  volume  estimates  the  number  of 
inhabitants  in  the  world  and  forecasts  the  probable  population  of 
the  United  States  a  century  later.  It  supposes  that  the  number  will 
double  every  twenty  years,  and  that  therefore  in  1904  we  should  be 
a  nation  of  160  millions. 

In  this  forecast  and  in  some  other  respects  our  author  fails  to  hit 
the  mark,  but  whatever  the  book's  shortcomings,  it  was  not  dull,  and 
it  did  admirable  s(»rvice  in  introducing  an  important  study  into  the 
old-time   schools. 

(To  be  folloircd  by  '^ Ldtcr  G(0(fraphics^'  bj/  the  sa7nc  axUhor.) 


THE  SCHOOL  EXCURSION  AND  THE  SCHOOL 

MUSEUM  AS  AIDS  IN  THE  TEACHING 

OF  GEOGRAPHY* 

BY    D.    i\    RIDGELEY 
Profeaaor  of  Geography,  Illinois  State  Normal  University,  Normal,  III. 

IT  is  my  purpose  to  consider  the  advisability  of  using  some  of  the 
helps  in  the  presentation  of  the  subject  of  geography  which  will 
require  the  teacher  and  pupil  to  go  beyond  the  confines  of  the 
schoolroom  to  obtain  them.  These  helps  are  not  intended  to  supplant 
the  tinie-lioiiored  text-hooks  and  wall  maps,  but  to  put  new  and  fuller 
meaning  into  them,  to  make  the  book  and  the  map  the  servant,  not  the 
master  of  teacher  and  pupil. 

*  Ueprinted,  by  permission,  from  Normal  School  Quarterly,  July,  1904. 


/ 


*904         THE  SCHOOL  EXCURSION  AND  THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM        32  ^ 

Geography  is  one  of  the  foremost  subjects  in  the  curricuhim  in 
the  study  of  concrete  material.  Its  subject-matter  is  objective.  It 
considers  the  earth  in  its  relation  to  man.  It  includes  a  study  of  the 
practical  things  of  everyday  life  at  home  and  abroad. 

To  give  to  the  pupil  the  necessary  first-hand  knowledge  in  the  study 
of  geography  requires  that  the  pupil  and  the  thing  to  be  studied  be 
brought  together  face  to  face  and  at  short  range.  This  can  be  done 
in  one  of  two  ways:  by  taking  the  pupil  to  the  thing,  or  by  bringing 
t  lie  thing  to  the  pupil.  The  first  is  the  most  effective  way  of  studying 
t  lie  various  topics  of  home  geography  and  leads  to  the  intelligent  and 
frequent  use  of  the  school  excursion.  The  second  is  the  most  effective 
A.%-'ay  of  giving  first-hand  knowledii:e  concerning  the  geography  of 
^•^gions  beyond  the  home  locality  and  leads  to  the  building  and  con- 
stant use  of  the  school  museum. 

I  wish  to  speak  of  each  of  these  aids  in  the  teaching  of  geography 
xr^ot  from  the  theoretical  standpoint,  but  as  1  have  made  use  of  them 
i  11  classroom  practice.  AFy  experience  with  the  school  excursion  has 
V:>een  with  classes  from  the  third  year  through  the  remaining  years  of 
"tihe  grammar  school  in  a  public  school  of  a  thousand  pupils  in  the  city 
^^f  Chicago  and  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  Training  School  of  Normal, 
^Iso  in  the  high  schools  of  Chicago  and  in  two  of  the  state  normal 
Schools  of  Illinois.  Classes  have  ranged  in  numbers  from  half  a  dozen 
"^o  eighty.  My  use  of  the  school  museum  has  extended  over  the  same 
x^ange  of  the  curriculum  with  the  addition  of  the  first  and  second  grades. 

THK    SCHOOL    KXCURSION 

The  school  excursion  is  an  expedition  made  by  tiie  i)U|)ils  of  a  class 
\inder  the  immediate  direction  of  the  teacher  for  the  study  of  some 
particular  topic  in  the  school  work.  The  pupils  are  responsible  to  the 
teacher  for  attention,  interest,  and  good  behavior  to  the  same  extent 
as  in  a  class  exfercise  in  the  schoolroom. 

Successful  school  excursions  depend  upon  the  hearty  cooperation 
of  school  officials,  princijnil,  teacher,  pupils,  and  parents.  All  must 
believe  that  it  is  a  good  thing  and  work  harmoniously  and  earnestly 
to  make  it  as  successful  as  other  school  exercises.  The  school  board 
and  8Uf)erintendent  nuist  recognize  the  value  of  such  work:  they  and 
the  principal  must  willingly  permit  the  use  of  school  time  to  the  extent 
of  a  half  day  at  most  for  the  work.  The  teacher  must  be  as  enthusi- 
astic in  this  work  as  in  any  other  if  she  expects  to  reap  educational 
results.  She  must  have  studied  the  field  of  investigation  previous  to 
the  time  of  the  class  exercise  and  carefully  planned  the  steps  of  the 


324  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Septembe 


lesson.  To  fail  to  <lo  so  moans  great  loss  in  the  net  results  of  the  lesson  - 
The  pupils  must  feel  that  an  outdoor  lesson  is  of  as  great  importaneeE'' 
and  value  as  any  other  school  exercise.  Its  importance  is  evident  tr  :■ 
the  puj)ils  when  it  is  clearly  brought  before  them  that  the  board  oE^ 
education,  superintendent,  and  princi|)al  have  permitted  school  time^ 
to  l)e  used  for  the  lesson. 

Much  l)etter  spirit  is  manifest  and  nuich  better  results  obtained 
when  attendance  of  each  pupil  on  any  particular  excursion,  esjjerialh*^ 
if  at  considerable  distaiu'e  from  school,  is  left  to  the  voluntary'  decisioit, 
of  the  parent.  The  excursi<ui  is  not  as  effective  as  it  should  be  if  Xh^ 
discussion  of  n^sults  in  class  does  not  nuike  every  one  who  did  not  go 
wish  that  he  ha<l  gone. 

In  Chicago  the  rules  of  the  board  of  education  re(|uire  that  no  excur- 
sion l)e  undertaken  without  the  consent  of  the  superintendent  or  dis- 
trict su]>erintendent  of  schools,  and  that  no  pu])il  shall  be  permitted 
to  go  on  any  (>xcin'sion  without  the  written  consent  of  the  parent  or 
guardian. 

Many  of  the  teaching  force  of  the  Chicago  schools  read  this  rule  of 
the  board  and  say  that  then*  are  too  many  restrictions  and  too  much 
red  ta|)e  to  do  anything  in  the  line  of  excursions.  I  was  inclined  to 
the  same  o|>inion  until  1  learned  by  trial  that  each  requirement  instead 
of  being  a  hindrance  was  a  very  decided  help  in  arranging  for  and 
carrying  out  each  excursion. 

If  the  i)Upils  said  t<»  tiieir  parents  tliat  Mr.  C'ooley.  our  superintend- 
ent, nr  Mr.  ban<\  onr  district  superintendent,  had  grante<l  permission 
to  hnveaii  outdoor  lesson  in  geography,  it  imuK  (Uately  lent  dignity  to 
the  event.  It  was  not  so  likely  t(^  be  con^idcTed  a  plan  of  the  teacher 
and  |)U]>il<  to  iiave  a  |ncnic. 

The  written  consent  of  tiie  |)areni  saves  the  teacher  from  any 
criticisin  of  having  taken  tiie  i)Ui)i]  off  on  a  usc^Iess  trip  which  did  not 
in  any  way  meet  with  tlie  ]>arent's  ai)proval.  In  order  to  save  trouble 
to  the  parents,  the  pui>il<  carrfully  copied  a  letter  of  request  j)laced  on 
the  blackboanl  by  the  t earlier,  carri(Ml  it  home  and  were  remarkably 
>nccf>-i"ul  in  obtaininir  ^iirnature  ancl  ne«M»<sary  car  fare. 

(  Mie  liuii'lr-.-d  an<l  ninety-tive  pupils  out  of  a  mendjership  of  200 
in  fourth  :ind  fifth  yrar  work  W(^n'  taken  in  sections  of  twenty-five  to 
fifty  to  Thr  Des  Piainc^s  River,  seven  miles  away.  The  five  renuuninar 
]HH)il>  wen-  ill  Mr  had  work  at  hr)ni(' imniciliately  after  school.  All  of  the 
forty-riiriiT  pnj)iK  nf  rlir -fvrnih  year,  save  one  who  had  nuide  the  trip 
])revioiivly.  w.MU  10  the- sitH'kyard>  and  ."^wift's  Packing  House.  Ninety 
per  cent  or  more  (»f  i^ach  class  in  th(^  iiigh  school  went  on  the  excursions. 


1904  THE  SCHOOL  EXCURSION  AND  THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM  325 


I  feel  that  all  excursions  taken  in  connection  with  the  various 
classes  from  the  third  year  through  the  normal  school  have  been  more 
effective  as  lessons  in  geography  than  the  same  time  spent  in  class- 
room instruction.  Each  excursion  furnishes  the  best  possible  material 
for  class-room  instruction  for  several  days  or  a  week  after  the  trip. 
The  region  visited  need  not  be  peculiar  or  striking  to  the  ordinary 
observer.  The  almost  featureless  region  of  Chicago  and  vicinity  is 
i^ch  in  topographic  forms  in  miniature.     So  is  almost  every  locality. 

I  will  now  indicate  some  of  the  particular  trips  taken  by  classes  of 
various  grades  and  the  scope  of  the  work  considered  in  some  of  these 
classes. 

In  excursions  of  the  third  year,  classes  were  taken  to  examine  the 
laying  of  the  cement  walks  about  the  school  building.  They  observed 
"the  material  and  its  use,  also  the  work  of  different  men  engaged. 

In  another  instance  wliilo  studying  the  building  of  homes  third-year 
pupils  made  trips  to  a  house  in  process  of  construction,  examined  the 
:ffoundation  of  brick  and  mortar,  learned  that  mortar  is  made  of  sand 
»nd  lime,  examined  the  studding,  weather-boarding,  rafters,  roof, 
arrangement  of  rooms  as  indicated  by  stu(hling,  and  went  to  the  gravel 
pit  to  see  how  sand  is  screened  and  removed  from  the  pit.  P]n  route 
"they  noted  a  valley  with  its  divides,  slopes,  and  stream. 

While  standing  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley  by  the  stream  this 
ciuestion  was  asked:  ''How  many  slo])es  has  this  valley?''  About 
half  of  the  class  said.  ''Three*':  the  others,  '*Two."  One  who  said 
"Three"  was  asked  to  explain.  She  said,  "It  has  two  slopes  this 
way,"  bringing  her  hands  together  to  indicate  the  side  slopes,  "and 
it  must  slope  that  way,''  pointing  down  stream,  "or  the  water  could 
not  run  off."  All  others  grasi)ed  the  point  made  by  their  little  teacher 
within  a  minute.  In  the  presence  of  the  reality  faulty  thinking 
righted  itself. 

An  excursion  to  the  brick  mills  was  also  made  by  pupils  of  the  third 

J^ear.     The  process  of  brickmaking  from  the  beginning  was  observed. 

^ot  only  were  the  brick  mills  studied,  but  their  association  with  the 

Coal  mine  and  gas  works  was  thought  out  and  stated  by  the  pupils. 

1*hey  saw  (1)  that  the  brick  mill  is  located  where  it  is,  so  that  it  can 

^a.sily  get  the  clay  which  has  been  brought  from  the  mine  for  making 

^lie  brick  and  the  coal  for  burning  them;  (2)  that  the  gas  works  are 

'^.^ar  the  coal  mine  to  save  cost  of  transporting  coal;  and  (3)  that  the 

^oke  made  by  manufacturing  the  gas  is  used  in  the  early  stages  of  burn- 

*^t^g  the  brick  in  the  kilns.     A  better  illustration  of  associated  industries 

"^^v-ould  be  hard  to  find. 

2 


326  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

Fourth-year  pupils  in  Chicago  were  taken  on  various  trips,  among 
others  to  the  Des  Plaines  River,  the  Drainage  Canal,  and  through  the 
business  district  to  visit  a  big  store,  the  Art  Institute,  Public  Librarj'. 
site  of  old  Fort  Dearborn,  Water  Street  and  other  places  of  interest. 
In  the  upper  grades  excursions  were  made  to  river,  canal,  stone 
quarry,  and  stockyards. 

In  the  high  school,  excursions  were  made  especially  for  the  study 
of  physical  geography,  and  included  visits  to  several  localities  for  land 
forms,  the  Weather  Bureau  station  for  study  of  meteorological  instru- 
ments and  their  use.  and  the  Public  Library  for  its  architecture  and 
the  various  kinds  of  building  stones  used  in  its  construction. 

A  single  trip  to  the  Hawthorne  stone  quarry  and  the  Drainage 
('anal  near  by  brought  out  many  points  very  strikingly ;  among  them 
the  following:  rock  strata,  relation  of  Hmestone  to  coral  and  other 
animals,  relation  of  Niagara  Hmestone  to  the  ('hicago  region,  relation 
of  mantle  rock  to  bed  rock,  dip  and  strike  of  rock  strata,  underground 
water,  making  of  soil  by  weathering,  bed  rock  scored  and  striated  by 
glacial  action,  character  of  glacial  soil,  development  of  miniature 
valleys  in  clay  banks  at  the  margin  of  the  quarry  showing  growth  of 
valleys  headward,  tril)utaries,  lakes,  waterfalls,  deltas,  flood-plains, 
river  t(»rraces,  struggle  of  streams  for  territory,  and  other  ])hases  of 
stream  action.  At  the  Drainage  Canal  the  groat  embankments  on 
each  side  are  of  glacial  drift  thrown  out  of  the  canal.  Here  could  be 
seen,  in  miniature,  mountain  ranges,  mountain  peaks  made  by  erosion, 
mountain  valleys  and  j)asses,  alluvial  cones  and  their  relation  to  moun- 
tain valleys.  The  pupils  obtained  a  conception  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  Drainage  Canal  and  an  understanding  of  its  purposes  and  its  geo- 
grapliic  location. 

In  the  Normal  Sciiool  chu^ses  at  Normal  we  have  visited  Mackinaw 
Dells  for  stream  work.  Sugar  Creek  and  its  branches  for  stream  wn)rk, 
drainage  basin  and  divides,  the  brick  niills  for  a  study  of  different  kinds 
of  rock  and  the  use  of  clay  rock  taken  from  the  mines  near  by.  and 
Miller  Park  for  a  study  of  a  dam  and  a  reservoir. 

1  )uring  the  summer  sessicm  of  1903  in  the  Normal  School  at  DeKalb, 
Illinois,  the  classes  visited  a  creamery  to  see  butter-making  and  pas- 
teurizing of  milk;  (lurler's  dairy  farm  to  learn  how  milk  could  be  so 
carefully  handled  as  to  ituike  it  unnecessary  to  sterilize  it.  at  the  .same 
time  making  it  so  valuable  that  it  sells  in  Chicago  for  twice  as  much 
per  cjuan  as  ordinary  milk. 

The  longest  trip  n\i\(\r,  by  the  students  at  DcJvalb  was  one  of  twenty 
hours  to  Chicago.     The  party  nund)ered  fifty.     The  special  purpose 


1904  THE  SCHOOL  KXCURSIOX  AND  THE  SCHOOL  MUSKVM  ^2, 


was  a  \4sit  to  the  stockj-ards  ami  Swift's  Packing  Houso.  All  olst* 
was  incidental.  The  students  asked  that  they  l>e  taken  to  as  many 
places  as  possible  so  that  they  might  know  how  to  n^ach  them  for  fur- 
ther study  when  in  the  city  alone.  To  indicate  the  extent  to  which 
their  request  was  complied  with  I  will  give  a  brief  itinerary  of  the  day's 
journey. 

We  left  DeKalb  early  on  a  Saturday  morning  in  a  special  car  attachotl 
to  the  regular  train.  The  ride  of  two  hours  was  spent  in  a  study  of  the 
topography  of  that  region  from  the  car  windows.  The  succession  of 
till  plains,  belts  of  morainic  hills,  and  stream  valleys  merging  into  the 
Chicago  Lake  Plain  to  the  east  were  objects  of  especial  geographic? 
interest.  A  walk  of  several  blocks  along  South  Water  Street  busy  wit  h 
its  early  Saturday  trade  gave  us  a  vivid  idea  of  the  labor  involved  in 
provisioning  a  great  city. 

A  ride  of  forty  minutes  on  the  Ilalsted  Street  car  took  us  past 
the  court  house  and  the  new  post-office  building,  across  the  South 
Branch  of  the  Chicago  River  with  its  many  shij)s,  along  a  !H»twork  (jf 
railroad  tracks,  and  landed  us  at  the  entrance  to  the*  Union  Stockyards. 
We  were  met  at  the  entrance  to  Swift's  Packing  House  by  iUnn* 
guides  furnished  by  the  firm  for  our  party.  We  spent  two  hours  in 
visiting  the  various  departments  of  the  packing  house.  We  saw  the 
dressing  of  hogs  and  cattle,  and  the  great  cookers  containing  thouMands 
of  dressed  hogs  and  beeves.  We  saw  the  careful  iriHfM'ction,  seh'clion, 
stamping,  and  wrapping  of  Swift's  premium  hams  and  l)acon.  We 
saw  the  sausage  chopped  and  stuffed  by  machinery,  \\w  canned  meats 
deftly  wrapped,  labeled,  and  packed  rearly  for  shipment.  We  visited 
the  rooms  where  great  vats  were  filled  with  various  mixturen  t<»  be 
boiled,  cooled,  and  cut  into  cakes  oi  soap.  The  butterine  factory  was 
*  marvel  of  care  and  cleanliness  to  those  who  had  supfMmiHJ  it 
othen^'ise. 

After  dinner  our  next  ride  brought  us  to  .bu'kMori   Park  and  th<* 
^ield  Columbian  Museum.     A  little  more  than  an  hour  intvc  the  mem 
l>ers  of  the  party  an  opportunity  to  vivit  the  lake  ^hore  and  to  make  a 
hurried  sur\'ey  of  the  exhibit  of  the  nm^-emn,     A  ride  of  ei|(hl.  inil«*s 
^>rought  us  to  the  Art  In.*titute  and  thirty  minuteM  were  nljowed  for 
^"alking  through  it.«  galleries.     A   \valk  throuj^h  the  various*  depart 
*^cnts  of  the  Public  Library  jrave  inten-wtinj/  ghrnfire-*  of  thi.*.  luttif 
^ificent  structure. 

It  was  now  five-thirty  and  all  v.^n-  hNfi^'ry  Aft^-r  hineh  anoth'-r 
*^cle  brought  us  to  Lincoln  Park  ^tt*l  ve  t#;#,k  a  h«irrie/|  s-.»uvey  of  the 
^c>olof^cal  garden,  driv^-r,.  and  -tatM^-rt. 


328  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

I  have  had  no  more  enjoyable  experience  in  excursion  work  than- 
with  a  class  of  teachers  in  active  service  in  the  city  of  Chicago  during: 
the  si)ring  of  1903.  I  was  invited  to  meet  a  group  of  teachers  for  a 
lesson  in  geography  once  a  week  after  school.  At  one  of  these  meetings 
I  asked  whether  any  would  Hke  to  go  on  Saturday  excursions.  A 
number  wished  to  do  so  and  an  invitation  to  meet  on  a  certain  street 
crossing  on  the  following  Saturday  brought  out  a  dozen  teachers  to 
visit  the  stockyards.  Two  weeks  later  twenty-seven  visited  the 
Weather  Bureau  station  in  the  Auditorium  tower.  Professor  Cox 
took  us  into  his  inner  room  and  showed  us  how  he  makes  weather. 

In  May  twenty-five  teachers  went  forty  miles  to  visit  Dunham's 
Horse  Farm — two  thousand  seven  hundred  acres  and  five  hundred 
horses.  We  were  met  at  the  station,  driven  to  the  farmhouse,  and 
entertained  at  dinner.  This  was  followed  by  as  fine  an  exhibition  of 
horses  as  the  original  of  Rosa  Bonheur's  famous  Horse  Fair.  We  were 
then  driven  over  the  two  thousand  seven  hundred  acre  farm  with  its 
fine  grounds,  woods,  deer  park,  great  fields  of  corn,  oats,  and  hay, 
making  our  final  stop  at  the  railway  station.  All  this  was  due  to  the 
courtesy  and  generosity  of  the  owners  of  the  farm. 

One  Saturday  in  June  sixty  teachers  made  a  trip  along  the  Drainage 
Canal  by  special  electric  car  to  Romeo,  four  miles  on  canal  by  boat, 
visited  the  controlling  works  at  Lockport,  took  dinner  at  Joliet,  visited 
the  Des  Phiines  River  to  get  relation  of  dam  to  power  house,  saw  how 
the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  crosses  the  river,  examined  the  lock 
in  the  canal  by  which  boats  pass  the  dam,  and  visited  a  stone  quarr}'. 

The  number  of  pupils,  students,  and  teachers  taken  on  these  trips 
wouM  reach  several  tliousand.  Xo  accident  or  unfortunate  event 
occurred  to  detract  from  tlie  value  of  any  of  the  excursions.  The 
testimony  of  i)U|>ils,  students,  and  teachers  has  been  strongly  in  favor 
of  such  a  method  of  instruction.  It  is  the  common  method  of  the  Ger- 
man schoolmaster  in  teaching  ge()gra})hy,  and  can,  I  believe,  be  made 
of  great  use  in  our  own  schools  of  country,  town,  and  city. 

The  following  brief  list  suggests  some  of  tlie  possible  school  excur- 
sions: school  yard  an«l  madsith*  after  a  rain,  creek  or  river  with  its 
basin  aiul  divides,  |)ond  or  lake.  clitT,  hills,  grove  or  woods,  wheat  field, 
corn  tiehl.  grist-mill,  grain  elevator,  market  gardens,  saw-mill,  lumber 
yard.  })Ianing  mill,  brick-yanl.  park,  courthouse,  tower  of  schoolhouse, 
gravt^l  pit,  slom*  (|u:irry.  blacksmith  shop,  carpenter  shop,  tin  shop, 
fruit  >torr,  (Icpartnieiit  <{on\  foundry,  coal  mine,  telegraph  office, 
t^iectric  Ii«':Iit  works,  water  works,  gas  works,  dairJ^  commission  houses. 


i9«V         THE  SCHOOL  EXCURSION  AND  THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM        329 


THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM 

While  lessons  concerning  the  local  j)hysical  features,  local  indus- 
tries and  home  products  can  be  treated  first  hand  by  means  of  the 
excursion,  it  is  not  possible  to  study  by  the  same  means  the  rubber 
industry  of  the  Amazon  basin,  the  cocoanut  of  the  islands  of  the  sea, 
the  cork  oak  of  Spain,  the  cotton  fields  of  the  South,  the  manufactories 
of  New  England,  and  a  long  list  of  the  topics  which  lie  within  the  field 
of  geography. 

If  the  pupil  is  to  obtain  first-hand  knowledge  about  things  foreign 
to  his  own  neighborhood,  the  thing  must  be  brought  to  the  pupil. 
This  can  be  accomplished  by  means  of  the  school  museum. 

I  shall  consider  the  school  museum  as  I  have  considered  the  school 
excursion,  from  the  standpoint  of  its  actual  use  in  the  schoolroom. 
This  brings  me  to  speak  of  the  organization  and  work  of  the  Chicago 
X^ureau  of  Geography,  which  at  the  opening  of  the  school  year  in 
^^eptember,  1903,  was  furnishing  sixty  schools  with  small  traveling 
x:inuseums,  each  carried  in  a  single  box,  usually  an  egg-crate  box,  con- 
^«.ining  specimens,  pictures,  and  printed  articles  concerning  some  one 
X^articular  topic  in  the  course  of  study  in  geography. 

The  Bureau  of  Geography  was  organized  by  forty  principals  of  the 
^^hicago  schools  for  the  purpose  of  collecting,  installing,  and  circulat- 
i  xig  illustrative  material  among  the  schools.     Each  school  represented 
t:>aid  an  annual  fee  of  $10,  which  was  later  reduced  to   $5.     This 
ixioney  has  been  spent  almost  entirely  for  material  with  which  to  install 
^he  collections.     The  raw  material  has  been  donated  largely  by  the 
I*"ield  Columbian  Museum,  wholesale  firms,  and  large  business  houses 
i  n  Chicago  and  elsewhere.     The  labor  of  arranging  the  collections  has 
l^een  mainly  volunteer  work.     Mr.  Richard  Waterman,  who  first  out- 
lined the  plan  of  the  Bureau,  has  done  most  of  the  work  in  the  prepara- 
t^ion  of  the  material  for  the  collections. 

In  September,  1903,  the  Bureau  had  110  traveling  museums,  rc])- 
T^esenting  forty-five  different  subjects.  Some  of  the?  most  valued 
museums  have  been  duplicated  Sf)  that  all  si^hools  may  have  the  use  of 
one  during  the  year. 

Each  museum  or  collection  consists  of  three  things: 
1.  A  series  of  specimens  as  nearly  r«;mpleto  as  could  be  obtained 
to  show  the  product  in  its  various  stages  of  manufacture  from  raw 
material  to  finished  i)r()duct.  lOacli  specimen  is  carefully  installed, 
numbered,  labeled,  and  catalogued.  Whenever  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  specimen  permits,  it  is  placed  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  of  standanl 
size  and  corked.     These  bottles  are  placed  in  a  strong  pasteboard  box 


530 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 


made  to  order,  and  partitioned  into  twelve  compartments,  each  of 
which  holds  a  bottle.  If  the  specimen  is  larger  it  is  placed  in  a  paste- 
board box  without  partitions. 

2.  Pictures  on  strong  cardboard,  ten  inches  by  twelve  inches. 
The  pictures  representing  a  single  topic  are  placed  in  a  pasteboard  box 
made  to  hold  cards  of  this  size.     They  accompany  the  specimens. 

3.  Printed  articles  which  will  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
specimens.  These  may  be  books,  parts  of  books  divided  and  bound 
with  manila  sheets  into  pamphlets,  government  reports  on  a  particular 
subject,  selected  material  from  government  re[)orts  copied  by  type- 
writer and  bound  in  manila  covers,  magazine  articles  separated  and 
bound,  text-books  and  geographical  readers  cut  up  and  arranged  by 
topics  and  the  material  on  each  topic  bound  separately.  All  the 
printed  matter  on  the  same  subject  is  brought  together  and  placed  in 
a  strong  pasteboard  box  of  convenient  size. 

These  boxes  of  specimens,  pictures  and  printed  articles,  accom- 
panied by  a  complete  typewritten  catalogue  of  the  collections,  are 
placed  inside  a  wooden  box,  the  ''egg  crate/*  and  carried  from  school 
to  school  during  the  year.  A  school  may  keep  a  collection  for  one  or 
two  weeks.  At  the  end  of  this  time  the  collection  is  exchanged  for 
another. 

Two  objections  are  strongly  urged  by  some  principals  and  teachers 
against  the  use  of  the  same  collections  by  many  different  schools.  In 
the  first  place  it  is  not  possible  to  iiave  each  collection  at  the  time  when 
the  topic  is  being  treated  in  the  regular  (u)urse  of  study.  In  the  second 
place,  it  is  urged  that  it  would  be  better  for  each  school  to  build  its  own 
museum.  1  believe  that  tliose  who  offer  these  objections  to  the  travel- 
ing school  nuisenni  would  not  do  so  after  using  thirty  or  forty  of  its 
collections  during  a  single  year. 

If  the  collection  is  studied  before  the  topic  has  been  reached  in  the 
regular  course  of  study,  consider  how  valuable  it  is  for  the  cla;$s  to  have 
obtained  the  first-hand  knowledge  that  comes  from  a  study  of  things 
at  short  range  as  the  basis  of  tlie  interpretation  of  the  text  when  the 
topic  is]'treated  more  fully  later  in  the  year.  If  the  collection  chances 
along  while^^working  on  the  to|)ic,  well  and  good.  The  study  of  school- 
book  and  museum  go  hand  in  hand,  each  to  reinforce  the  knowledge 
and  inten^retation  of  the  other.  If  the  topic  has  been  previously 
studied,  what  couM  afford  so  good  a  review  as  an  examination  of  one 
of  th(\se  collections? 

To  illustrate:  A  collection  consists  of  raw  cotton,  ginned  cotton, 
cotton  in  various  stages  of  spinning,  cotton  fabrics  (ginghams,  calicoes, 


X004  THE  SCHOOL  EXCURSION  AND  THE  SCHOOL  MUSEUM  33  I 

finer  cotton  cloth,  canvas),  whole  cotton-soecl,  crushed  cotton-seecl, 
eotton-seed  oil,  and  cotton-soed  cake.  These  specimens  are  accom- 
panied by  numerous  pictures  of  the  cotton  plantation,  cotton  shippinfu 
and  manufacture,  in  addition  to  much  reading  matter  not  only  for  the 
t  eacher,  but  within  the  ability  of  the  pupils. 

If  such  material  is  used  for  a  single  class  period  weeks  before  cotton 
is  studied  in  the  course,  the  time  is  well  spent  as  a  preparation  for 
future  study.  If  such  a  collection  can  be  examined  months  after  the 
elass  have  studied  cotton  and  passed  examinations  on  the  same,  how 
<iuickly  will  some  vague  and  indefinite  idea  come  out  clearly  and  dis- 
tinctly, ever  to  be  remembered  with  a  joy  unknown  to  the  pupil  who 
gleans  ideas  for  the  purpose  of  making  practical  use  of  them  on  exami- 
nation day  only! 

The  financial  means  and  the  labor  necessary  to  build  and  maintain 
SL  satisfactory  museum  an*  not  at  the  command  of  each  school, 
^laterial  to  be  used  by  a  system  of  schools  can  be  much  more  readily 
obtained  by  re(|uest  than  for  a  single  school.  As  soon  as  the  authori- 
ties of  the  Field  Columbian  Museum  and  tlie  heads  of  large  business 
liouses  understood  that  the  material  desired  is  to  be  made  available 
to  thousands  of  pupils  they  respond  most  heartily  and  generously. 
TThey  could  not  do  so  for  250  individual  schools  belonging  to  the  same 
system.  Cooperation  is  as  valuable  in  the  building  and  use  of  the 
school  museum  as  in  other  lines  of  human  activity. 

It  is  important  that  this  nuiterial  be  properly  used.  These  collec- 
tions may  be  exhibited  to  the  class  by  the  principal  of  the  school,  by 
the  teacher,  or  by  pupils  of  the  upper  grades.  The  one  giving  the 
lesson  must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  collection,  and  should  have 
the  exercise  carefully  planned  in  order  to  make  the  presentation  effec- 
tive. 

I  recall  an  exercise  of  this  kind  in  which  a  seventh-year  teacher 
selected  three  bo3's  to  describe  the  cork  collection.  They  prepared 
their  parts  well.  They  liked  to  do  the  talking  because  they  had  some- 
thing to  say.  The  lesson  was  appropriate  to  the  work  of  the  sixth  and 
seventh  years.  The  teachers  an<l  pupils  of  lower  grailes  learned  that 
the  boys  were  giving  an  interesting  and  instructive  exhibition  of  cork 
and  its  manufactured  products,  and  recjuested  that  it  be  given  in  other 
classes.  The  collection  was  carried  to  every  room  in  the  building, 
about  800  children  receiving  the  instruction.  I  saw  the  boys  giving 
the  exercise  in  a  second -year  room.  Each  told  in  clear  and  simple 
language  his  part  of  the  history  of  cork.  Then  each  one  took  a  num- 
ber of  the  specimens  and  passing  along  the  aisle  showed  and  explained 


332  THB  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 

them  to  interested  groups  of  children.  On  the  following  day  there  was 
laid  on  my  desk  a  written  exercise  from  these  second-year  children  on 
the  subject  of  cork.  They  gave  in  their  own  way  more  information 
about  cork  than  would  usually  be  given  in  a  sixth-year  class  wholly 
dependent  on  books  for  their  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

The  traveling  school  nuiseum  has,  I  believe,  done  more  to  give  the 
teachers  and  pupils  of  Chicago  good  working  material  than  can  pos- 
sibly be  given  by  an  equal  expenditure  for  books.  The  work  has  been 
of  such  benefit  to  the  schools  using  the  collections  that  recentl}',  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  superintendent  of  schools,  the  board  of  educa- 
tion has  assumed  the  financial  responsibility  for  the  extension  of  the 
work  to  all  the  schools.  The  work  is  now  under  the  supervision  of  the 
head  of  the  department  of  geography  in  the  Chicago  Normal  School 
and  an  assistant  has  been  employed  to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the 
building,  circulation,  and  care  of  the  collections. 

Work  along  similar  lines  may  be  done  by  cooperation  among  the 
teachers  of  a  city,  county,  township,  or  village.  A  movement  of  this 
kind  has  been  inaugurated  by  the  teachers  of  St.  Clair  County,  Illinois. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  St.  Clair  County  Teachers*  Association  in  February, 
1904,  a  committee  who  had  given  the  matter  careful  consideration 
recommended  to  the  association  that  the  teachers  of  the  county  under- 
take to  develop  a  Circulating  (ieographical  Museum  for  use  among  the 
country,  village,  and  city  schools  of  the  county.  The  recommenda- 
tion was  favorably  received  and  on  motion  of  the  county  superintend- 
ent the  sum  of  .?">()  was  voted  fn^m  funds  of  the  association  to  start  the 
work.  Nearly  all  of  this  money  will  ])e  used  in  buying  boxes,  bottles, 
picture  mounting-cards,  and  other  supplies  necessary-  for  properly 
installing  tlie  collections.  Kacli  school  of  the  county  has  been  asked 
to  contribute  a  snuill  sum  of  money  annually  for  the  extension  of  the 
work.  The  work  of  arranging  the  colh^ctions  for  use  in  the  class  room 
is  being  done  by  the  teachers  of  the*  county  who  volunteer  their  serv- 
ices, and  by  a  student  from  St.  Clair  Coiinty  in  the  Illinois  State  Normal 
I'niversity.  This  student  works  under  the  direction  of  the  writer. 
He  gives  three  hours  daily  to  the  work  and  is  paid  a  small  sum  for  his 
services. 

Tli(^  following  list  is  given  as  suggestive  of  possible  collections: 
Wheat,  corn,  rice,  nuts,  spices,  cocoanuts,  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  sugar, 
by-products  of  the  ])acking  house,  cotton,  llax,  manila  hemp,  rubber, 
tanning  materials,  leather,  wool,  silk,  sponge,  furs,  woods,  pai>er,  cork, 
iron.  coj>|)er.  gold,  silver,  coal  and  coke,  petroleum,  asphalt.  Collec- 
tions may  also  l)e  made*  to  illustratt*  a  single  country  or  region;  e,  ^., 


X9«H  THE  HUMAN  RESPONSE  TO  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT  333 


Mexico,  Central  America,  Peru,  Hawaii,  India,  South  Africa,  and  the 
Philippines. 

Correspondence  concerning  ways  and  means  of  introducing  the 
excursion  and  the  museum  more  largely  into  the  regular  work  of  the 
school  is  invited. 

If  desired  we  will  build  a  sample  traveling  museum  for  the  cost  of 
material  and  labor.  Such  a  collection  will  serve  as  a  test  of  its  value, 
be  suggestive  of  method  of  arrangement,  and  aid  in  determining 
whether  to  develop  the  museum  on  a  larger  scale. 


THE  HUMAN  RESPONSE  TO  THE   PHYSICAL 
ENVIRONMENT* 

BY  J.    PAUL  GOODE 
Aaaiatani  Profeasor  of  Geography  in  the  University  of  Chicago 

WE  think  of  man  as  living  in  an  en\aronment,  the  elements  of 
which  are  largely  the  subject-matter  of  physical  geography; 
and  we  are  coming  to  realize  that  the  true  and  complete 
geography  is  a  study,  not  of  physiography  and  the  climate  merely, 
but  of  the  interaction  between  man  and  the  physical  part  of  his 
environment. 

The  term  "environment"  is  so  loosely  usod,  and  is  made  to  include 
so  much,  that  we  nmst  do  some  careful  defining,  to  be  sure  of  our 
ground,  before  taking  up  a  discussion  of  our  subject.  Tlie  general 
conception  of  environment  is  the  not-mr  which  acts  and  reacts  upon 
me.  But  this  whole  universe  of  forces  and  influences  outside  of  myself 
is  made  up  in  part  of  the  material  world  and  its  forces  and  in  part 
of  the  spiritual  world  and  its  creations,  which  are  rjuite  as  vital  in 
determining  my  career  as  are  many  of  the  material  considerations. 

So  our  environment  is  to  be  analyzed  in  a  dual  way,  as  ( 1)  physical 
and  (2)  social,  or  sociological,  as  Herbert  Spencer  had  it.  Over  a 
century"  ago  Monteh«(iuieu.  in  his  Spirit  of  the  J.nws,  was  fairly  con- 
vinced of  this  analysis,  though  he  wrote  before  there  was  a  science  of 
geology,  or  physiograj)hy,  or  meteorology  to  furnish  data  or  establisli 
laws.  And  again  about  fifty  years  later  Buckle,  in  his  Ifistorjf  of 
Civilization,  made  a  wonderful  statement  of  the  significance*  of  the 

♦  Read  before  t ho  Central  Association  of  Science  and  Mathematics  Teachers, 
Chicago,  >i'oveml)er  27,  1903,  and  reprinted  by  permission  from  The  Elementary 
School  Teacher,  Jamiar>',  1904. 


234  '^^^  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

purely  physical  elements  in  our  social  evolution,  so  good  a  presenta- 
tion as  to  have  been  scarcely  ecjualed  since.  And  even  in  his  time 
the  modern  science  of  geology  was  scarcely  out  of  its  swaddling- 
clothes,  and  the  sciences  of  meteorology  and  geography  were  not 
yet   born. 

Now  that  the  tributary  fields  have  been  well  worked,  observations 
by  millions  made  and  recorded,  and  laws  enunciated,  we  are  able  to 
arrive  at  a  more  complete  and  satisfactory  analysis  of  our  envin)n- 
ment  and  make  ourselves  ready  to  recognize  the  effect  of  the  fun- 
damental physical  elements. 

Let  me  take  up  each  of  the  phases  of  our  environment  and  see  its 
content  and  its  bearing. 

The  physical  cnn'ronmi^it  has  as  its  elements: 

1 .  Climatic  conditions — as  hot  or  cold,  ari<l  or  humid. 

2.  Land  relief,  or  topography. 

(a)  l^arriers — as  mountain,  or  desert,  or  water. 

(6)     Character  of  surface* — whether  fiat  plain,  or  dissected  plateau, 
or  mountainous. 

3.  Soil — of  increasing  significance  as  time  goes  by. 

4.  Materials  and  forces  available  in  a  given  region. 

((/)     Inorganic — as  metals  and  minerals. 

(b)  Organic — plant  and  aninuil  resources. 

5.  C()m})etition    in    th(»    realm — whether    human    or   by   the   lower 

animals. 
Th(»  soridl  cnrirofnncnt  has  for  its  soiirces  and  influences: 
1 .    I^vchic  elements. 

The  consciousness  of  kind  ((liddings),  giving  rise  to  sympathy 
and    c(M>peration    in    every    stage    of    evolution   from    the 
lowest  animal  to  the  highest  conventions  of  modern  society. 
Thr  law  of  imitation  (Tarde)  is  cjuite  as  sweeping  in  its  applica- 
tion. 
'J.    Kcononiic  Halations. 

The  pursuit  of  wealth  the  keynote  of  social  impulse — Karl  Marx. 

and  later  exploited  by  Dr.  Patten.     Herbert  Spencer  works 

al(»!ig  tile  same  lines  in  liis  interpretation  of  our  society  as 

a  progress  fn)ni  militarism  to  industrialism. 

Trourrss  uinirr  thesi*  influences  is  at   first  unconscious — as  truly 

cosiiiic  as  ihr  .Mfla|)t.Mtioii  of  a  plant  to  a  new  environment.     And  in 

nil   our  social   organization,  even  in   the  liighest   phases,   the  purely 

cosniir,  or  unconscious.   res})onse  to   the  forces  in  the  environment 

\h  (»lTe<-tivr  in  larger  measure  than  most  people  would  willingly  admit. 


i9(H  THE  HUMAN  RESPONSE  TO  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT  335 

We  have  but  to  look  about  us  and  see  the  measure  of  heedless  un- 
thought  with  which  we  have  exterminated  certain  noble  animal 
species,  as  the  bison  and  the  seal;  or  see  the  ravenous  haste  with 
which  we  have  wasted  a  continent's  resource  of  forest,  and  the  utterly 
reckless  way  in  which  we  are  ravishing  the  stored  sunshine  of  past 
ages  in  our  coal  resource,  to  see  that  in  very  large  measure  we  are  as 
senseless  and  unconscious  as  the  beasts  of  the  field. 

But  though  at  first  our  evolution  has  been  unconscious,  and  wholly 
the  result  of  a  chance  geographic  environment,  sooner  or  later  evolu- 
tion becomes  conscious  and  self-directed,  and  our  noblest  ideal  for 
society  is  that  it  should  become  so  in  constantly  larger  measure. 
I-iCSter  F.  Ward  in  his  Dynamic  Sociology,  V.  H.  (■liddings  in  his  Prin- 
ciplea  of  Sociology,  and  Jienjamin  Kidd  in  his  Social  EvohiUon,  all 
make  much  of  this  idea. 

All  these  elements  of  environment  express  themselves  in  social 
institutions  and  conventions,  which  analyze  themselves  into  a  half- 
score  of  categories: 

1 .  The  organization  of  the  family  and  the  status  of  woman. 

2.  The  idea  of  ownership  in  property. 

3.  Domestication  of  animals. 

4.  Agriculture. 

5.  Dress  and   adornment. 

6.  Shelter — leading  to  styles  of  architecture. 

7.  The  use  of  metals. 

8.  The  industrial  arts — as  in  pottery,  basketry,  weaving,  and  the 

long  list  of  mechanical  inventions. 

9.  Forms  of  government — as  military  and  industrial  or  economic. 
10.   Social  forms  and  customs;  beliefs;  as  superstitions,  religions. 

All  these  social  conventions  are  in  a  large  measure  psychic,  but 
all  are  secondary,  or  even  tertiary.  They  are  developed  after  they 
are  initiated.  All  analyses  of  them  come  back  to  initiation.  And 
the  last  analysis  arrives  at  a  purely  psychological  reaction — a  nervous 
response  to  an  external  stimulus;  that  is,  to  living  tissue,  acting  on 
a  physical  environment.  And  so  conditions  favoring  or  inhibiting 
origins  in  all  these  lines  are  found  in  the  ^Meal''  (borrowing  a  term 
from  whist)  of  the  elements  in  the  physical  environment.  The 
game  that  may  be  played,  whether  aggressive  and  brilliant  or 
passive  and  inert,  depends  very  largely  upon  the  cards  held.  And 
in  the  distribution  of  the  elements  of  the  physical  environment,  and 
the  emphasis  laid  on  each,  every  realm  and  age  deals  out  a  different 
combination. 


-^5  'T^E  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 

The  origins  of  social  institutions,  just  as  truly  as  the  origins  of 
changes  in  the  living  body  of  the  plant  or  animal,  are  found  in  the 
conditions  imposed  by  the  physical  environment,  and  progress  depends 
upon  a  siirphis.  This  thought  is  most  significant  and  far-reaching, 
and  has  been  excellently  presented  by  Dr.  Simon  N.  Patten  in  his 
latest  work,  Heredity  and  Soeml  Progress.  The  principle  of  the  surplus 
must  be  kept  in  mind  at  every  step  in  an  analysis  of  the  influence  of 
the  physical  environment.  It  is  operative  in  the  most  primal  phase 
of  living  tissue,  and  it  applies  at  every  stage  in  evohition  up  to  the 
highest  and  most  spiritual  social  institution.  It  will  not  be  out  of 
l)lace  to  state  briefly  some  of  its  principles: 

1.  A  surplus  of  tissue  in  the  cell  gives  opportunity  for  the  occu- 
pation of  more  space.  Hence  a  breaking  up  into  multicellular  struc- 
ture and  the  diflferentiation  of  outer  from  inner  tissue,  and  by  an  exten- 
sion along  this  line  of  development,  giving- rise,  in  due  time,  to  organs. 

2.  In  the  same  way  a  sur[)lus  of  energy  in  the  individual  man 
gives  us  the  genius  in  one  ])hase  of  development,  and  the  liberal  and 
iconoclast  in  another. 

3.  A  surplus  of  energy  in  a  social  class  impels  to  conquest,  giving 
added  powxr  and  leisure  to  the  conqueror,  making  culture  possible.* 

I  may  add  that  a  surplus  of  wants  go  hand  in  hand  with  a  surplus 
of  wealth  and  leisure,  to  make  progress  continuous.  Contentment 
is  a  mild  name  for  decay.  A  })rotestant  is  a  man  with  a  conviction, 
plus  a  good  })ackbone  and  a  stiff  upper  lip.  For  such  a  man  laws 
are  made — to  be  broken.  Initiative  corners  from  such  men,  and 
progress  consists  often  in  getting  out  of  the  rut. 

The  physical  environment,  then,  is  important  in  giving  the  con- 
ditions for  initlMtivo  and  in  furnishing  the  opportunity  for  a  surplus; 
hence  making  for  or  against  ])rogress. 

Tile  highest  j)oint  of  view  in  geograpiiy  is  this  very  study  of  the 
physical  environment  in  its  influence  on  man's  development,  as  fur- 
nishing the  conditions  in  res})()nse  to  which  changes  may  or  must  occur 
(1)  in  the  physical  organism  of  man  and  (2)  in  his  social  organization. 

l^ut  changes  in  man's  Imdy  are  almost  immeasurably  slow.  Xot- 
witlistanding  the  fact  that  oiu*  anthrojM»i(l  ancestors  began  to  abandon 
quadrupedal  locomotion,  it  may  be,  over  four  million  years  ago.  we 
are  not  yet  wholly  adapted  in  our  bodies  to  an  upright  posture,  as 
Brinton  and  others  have  shown.  And  the  anatomists  and  physiolo- 
gists enumerate  107  vestigial  organs  in  our  bodies — organs  which  are 
more  or  less  useless  now.  l:)ut  whicii  functioned  once,  some  of  them 

*  Scf  Vkhlkn,  Thatry  of  the  F.cisure  Clans. 


«904  THE  HUMAN  RESPONSE  TO  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT  337 

dating  back  to  an  ancestor  far  less  advanced  than  the  Pithecanthropus 
etrectus  of  l)u  Bois.  We  are  familiar  in  our  everyday  life  with  many 
of  these  relics,  such  as  the  nictitating  membrane  of  the  eye  and  the 
^vermiform  appendix.  It  seems,  as  David  Starr  Jordan  so  wittily 
remarks,  that  the  human  body  can  never  quite  forget  its  past,  but 
xTiiist  carry  around  in  itself  perpetually  the  record  of  every  stage  in 
its  physical  evolution. 

Our  bodily  response  to  the  physical  environment,  then,  is  in  many 
^vays  almost  immeasurably  slow.     We  may  not  yet  name  definitely 
"the  combinations  in  physical  environment  which  give  us  color  of  skin, 
liead  form,  peculiarities  of  hair  structure,  or  cast  of  features.     Yet 
^ve  may  definit<»ly  say  what  conditions  stunt  the  stature  and  inhibit 
taction.     The  intelligent  farmer  or  breeder  is  well  assured  of  the  prin- 
<?iples  along  these  lines,  and  the  giant  Norman  Percheron  horses  are 
^he  demonstration  of  the  law  of  surplus  in  the  physical  environment; 
«nd  just  as  truly  the  stunted  pony  of  Shetland  and  the  cayuse  of 
3Iontana  answer  for  the  lack  of  surplus.     Professor  Rij)ley,  in  his 
-Racial  Geography  of  Europe^  makes  a  beautiful  application  of  these 
principles  in  the  discussion  of  the  influences  of  the  thin  soil  and  the 
lard  conditions  in  the  Auvergne.     The  response  is  found  direct  in 
"the  stunted,  backward  population,  the  miserable  relic  of  a  people 
pushed  to  the  wall,  in  ages  past,  by  more  powerful  tribes  that  came 
and  evicted   them   from   the  rich   and   favored   lower  lands.     And, 
again,  that  hard  conditions  dwarf  stature  may  be  shown  in  the  study 
of  the  Jews.     Down-trodden,  persecuted,  and  narrowed  in  opportuni- 
ties all  over  Europe,  they  have  found  in  free  and  enlightened  England 
an  opportunity  to  take  advantage  of  a  surplus;  and  in  the  rich  end 
of  London,  in^the  few  generations  they  have  been  there,  their  average 
stature  has  been  increased  over  an  inch  and  a  half.     Edwin  Mark- 
ham's  biting  poem  on  **The  Man  with  the  Hoe"  focuses  our  attention 
on  the  power  of  hard  conditions  to  stunt  and  warp  both  body  and 
mind. 

Now,  while  the  rate  of  change  in  man's  body  is  for  the  most  ])art 
so  slow  that,  under  the  merely  cosmic  response  to  the  physical  environ- 
ment, we  must  look  for  results  to  the  effect  of  hundreds  or  thousands 
of  years  of  its  influence,  on  the  other  hand,  changes  in  man\s  social 
organization  are  taking  place  under  our  very  eyes.  And  though  some 
of  the  social  institutions  are  of  as  slow  growth  as  many  of  the  changes 
in  man's  body,  yet  tlie  conditions  of  social  organization  are  often 
found  vitally  fixed  in  the  vn^eynble  of  the  elements  of  the  physical 
environment  of  a  particular  region.     A  people  mo\dng  from  a  given 


338  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 

region  in  which  a  good  measure  of  adaptation  to  the  physical  environ- 
ment has  been  attained  may  find  itself  under  the  necessity  of  changing 
radically  many  of  the  social  conventions  to  which  it  was  accustomed, 
in  order  to  survive.  Of  this  we  have  record  in  almost  numberless 
cases  where  frontiers  have  been  passed  by  members  of  an  old  and 
static  social  order. 

Such  social  adjustments,  then,  are  relatively  rapid,  and  there 
tends  to  be  established  a  somewhat  definite  social  order  in  a  given 
type  of  geographic  realm,  which  imposes  itself  upon  almost  any  human 
stock  which  conies  to  occupy  the  region.  Out  of  a  dozen  such  types 
of  geographic  regions  which  might  be  studied,  let  us  choose  one  and 
run  rapidly  over  it,  indicating  briefly,  as  we  may,  the  ways  in  which 
the  physical  environment  reacts  upon  man,  to  limit,  direct,  and  give 
character  to  his  social  status.  In  such  a  study  of  a  type  region  the 
problem  is  to  see  how  the  elements  of  the  physical  environment  deter- 
mine social  origins  and  shape  their  development.  Let  us  take  as  a 
type  region  the  arid  area,  and  show  the  persistence  of  its  influence 
in  all  the  phases  of  social  organization. 

THK    ARID    AREA 

1 .  The  FainiUj  and  the  Status  of  Woman. — An  arid  plain  in  primitive 
socictv  invites  the  chase.  The  animals  of  the  realm  are,  in  the  first 
instance,  of  necessity  herbivores.  The  scant  grass  and  browse  of 
such  a  plain  calls  for  nimble  deer,  fleet  of  foot  and  ranging  widely. 
To  follow  such  a  food  supply,  the  family  of  the  hunter  must  be  ready 
to  move  raj)idly  and  on  short  notice.  This  need  reduces  the  famil}' 
to  its  lowest  terms — father,  mother,  child — and  makes  nomads  of 
them  of  necessity.  This  life  makes  man  the  breadwinner,  and  woman 
becomes  a  slave  and  chattel.  Among  the  Amerind  we  have  this 
shown  in  the  Sioux,  Apache,  and  other  tribes  of  the  great  plains. 

In  such  a  region,  if  the  animals  iiro  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  more 
useful  living  than  tl(»ad.  we  come  naturally  to — 

2.  The  Domestication  of  Animals.-  With  flocks  and  herds  the  food 
supply  is  less  precarious,  and  the  capacity  of  the  region  is  greater. 
The  family  unit  becomes  larger.  Sons  and  grandsons  may  stay  in 
the  family  group.  This  provides  a  larger  measure  of  social  culture; 
but  the  family  is  still  under  the  whip  of  uncertain  forage  and  of  migra- 
tions to  pastures  new.  So  social  relations  remain  the  same.  We 
have  the  patriarch,  and  women  are  still  inferior. 

\^.  Agrlculturr. — With  game  scarce,  the  food  supply  is  sought  in 
plant  life,  and  progress  goes  hand  in  han<l  with  a  domestication  of 


I904  THE  HUMAN  RESPONSE  TO  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT  339 


plants.     This  locates  the  family   along   a  river   where  wat^r   makes 

agriculture  possible.     In  such  a  case  women  are,  as  a  rule,  the  leaders, 

and  become  breadwinners  eciually  \rith  the  men,  or  even  superior 

to  them.     This  means  independence  and  power,  and  sooner  or  later 

social  equality.     With  animals  domesticated  for  draft,  and  milk  as 

well,  or  meat,  the  food  supply  is  made  immensely  more  ample  and 

more  secure,  and  the  home  becomes  static.     The  population  becomes 

denser,  and  social  customs,  laws,  and  regulations  become  necessary. 

Here  is  the  give-and-take  of  man  to  man  which  rubs  off  rough  corners 

a,nd  brings  in  time  refinement  and  culture.     In  America  the  Pueblos 

illustrate  these  influences.     In  Kgypt,  Assyria,  India,  and  China  the 

earliest  steps  in  civilization  passed  through  these  phases  of  develop- 

rxient  ages  ago. 

4.  The  Idea  of  Ownership  of  Property. — ( )n  the  arid  plain  individual 
lz>roperty  in  land  is  unknown.  It  is  so  the  world  around.  The  own- 
ership in  the  Russian  steppe  region,  and  many  other  similar  regions 
in  Asia,  resides  in  the  village  or  the  community.  Our  plains  tribes 
tiave  the  very  greatest  difficulty  in  acquiring  a  notion  of  ownership 
X  n  the  land.  It  is  as  foreign  to  them  as  the  ownership  of  air  or  sun- 
^ahine  to  us.  But  where  soil  was  from  the  start  the  source  of  bread, 
1  And  is  owned  and  the  thought  is  easy.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
^Drivate  ownership  of  land  is  one  of  the  foundation  stones  of  our  par- 
"t^icular  phase  of  civilization. 

5.  Dress  and  Personal  Adornment. — The  sub-arid   plain   and  the 

"l^Dursuit  of  the  deer  restrict  the  material  of  dress  almost  wholly  to  skins. 

""-This  is  in  itself  a  strong  demand  for  simplicity  of  dress,  and  holds  the 

^:lress  ideal  rather  strictly  to  the  law  of  utility.     With  the  advent  of 

^a  pastoral  life,  particularly  with  the  possession  of    sheep,  goat«,  or 

^samels,    the    availability    of    wool    invites    weaving,    thus     adding 

extensively  to  the  variety  and  quality  of  the  materials  for  dress. 

This  is  in  itself  a  large  invitation  for  advance  in  the  arts  of  civilization. 

"When  agriculture  comes  in  such  a  region,  plant  fibers  increase  tlie 
"variety  and  the  invitation  for  develo[)ment.     If  the  region  is  cold, 
«it  least  for  a  good  part  of  the  year,  this  is  a  condition  which  holds  an 
"iron  hand  on  the  character  of  dress,  and  does  not  permit  a  wide  depart- 
\ire  from  the  fundamental  law  of  utility.     The  trousers  and  the  close- 
'fitting  garment  owe  their  origin  to  such  a  physical  condition.     If  the 
region  is  hot  much  of  the  year,  the  need  of  clothing  is  by  so  much 
Teduced,  and  the  institution  of  [dress  is  more  largely  based  on  the  pur- 
pose of  adornment.     The  flowing  robe,  the  skirt,  and  the  shawl  have 
their  origin  here. 


340  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  September 

In  our  western  civilization  we  have  inherited  from  both  these 
sources.  The  conservative  and  leisure  classes  retain  the  display  gar- 
ments, and  the  workers  keep  style  in  dress  much  more  close  to  the 
needs  of  the  case.  The  court,  the^church,  and  female  society  still  carry 
the  garb  of  leisure  and  of  low-latitude  arid  lands,  even  into  geographic 
environments  where  the  retention  of  the  style  is  a  serious  handicap 
and  the  occasion  of  much  suffering.  Here  is  a  case  of  maladjustment 
to  physical  environment  that  flaunts  itself  in  the  face  of  the  law  of 
the  survival  of  the  fittest — a  case  where  a  social  surplus  is  frittered 
away  in  useless  friction  with  the  physical  environment,  and  energy 
is  lost  which  might,  if  applied  wisely,  lift  society  and  further  civiliza- 
tion. 

6.  Shelter — Architecture. — The  need  of  rapid  transit  in  following 
the  deer  reacts  strongly  upon  the  size  and  quality  of  the  residence. 
Necessity  requires  a  small  shelter,  and  of  Hght  material,  which  can 
be  quickly  taken  down  and  moved,  and  as  quickly  set  up  as  need 
arises.  The  materials  convenient  for  such  purposes  are  poles  and 
skins.  So  the  tepee  is  a  perfectly  natural  response  to  the  conditions. 
All  our  tribes  on  the  great  plains  had  made  almost  a  perfect  adjust- 
ment along  these  hues  when  Europeans  came.  In  the  pastoral  phase, 
woven  stuff  adds  to  variety  of  building  materials,  hence  of  the 
capacity  of  the  abode,  and  so  invites  progress.  The  Tatar  and  Kurd 
have  solved  this  problem. 

When  agriculture  is  established,  the  need  for  moving  the  abode 
does  not  arise.  The  dwelling  becomes  static,  and  so  may  be  made 
of  a  larger  variety  of  materials.  The  size  is  not  limited  nor  the  weight, 
so  wood  may  enter  more  largely  into  construction,  and  as  in  arid  lands 
even  wood  may  not  be  plenty,  sods  or  stones  or  baked  clay  become  the 
building  materials.  So  a  massive  construction  is  established  because 
of  the  nature  of  the  most  convenient  materials.  The  sun's  heat  is 
the  discomfort  most  necessary  to  counteract;  hence  the  walls  grow 
thick.  There  is  little  rain  to  be  shed;  so  the  roofs  become  flat,  and 
a  type  of  architecture  is  evolved.  The  Pueblos  show  us  a  primitive 
phase,  the  Kgj^ptians  a  well-differentiated  style,  and  the  Greeks  a 
style  which  is  perfection.  But  each  one  of  them  carries  in  every  linea- 
ment the  record  of  a  climatic  condition  of  origin.  Contrast  these 
styles  of  architecture  of  the  arid  lands  with  the  Gothic,  which  is  an 
evolution  of  the  tcpoe  adapted  to  a  humid  clime. 

7.  (\sc  of  Metals. — The  presence  or  absence  of  metals  in  a  realm 
has  a  powerful  bearing  on  the  social  and  economic  possibilities  of  a 
|)eople.     The  race  very  probably  came  to  the  use  of  the  metals  through 


I904  THE  HUMAN  RESPONSE  TO  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT  34  I 

finding  native  copper.     Tliere  was  a  copper  age,  which  grew  grad- 
ually into  a  bronze  age,  and  much  later,  w4th  the  accumulation  of 
wisdom  in  metallurgy,  iron  came  into  use.     But  no  people  could 
come  into  the  use  of  metal  without  having  the  metals  to  call  on. 
They  could  have  developed  never  so  wisely  in  all  lines,  but  without 
copper  or  iron  they  would  have  so  serious  a  handicap  as  to  make  a  high 
grade  of  culture  out  of  the  cjuestion.     There  are  many  coral  isles  in  the 
I^acific  with  (juitc  as  high  a  culture  as  we  could  ask  without  the  pos- 
session of  the  metals.     Even  after   a  high  civilization  is  established 
"tlie  presence  of  coal  and  iron  confers  so  powerful  an  advantage  as  to 
make  their  possessors  great,  willy  nilly.     Our  Pueblos  had  the  handi- 
cap of  having  no  metals — a  very  serious  bar  against  progress. 

8.  Industrial  Arts  and  Mechanical  Invention. — Here  again  we  are 
f  CDFced  to  see  that  the  nature  of  the  materials  at  hand  shapes  the  pos- 
sibilities in  the  way  of  progress  in  the  long  list  of  inventions.  The 
origin  of  pottery  seems  closely  connected  with  a  life  in  arid  conditions. 
Abater  is  a  prime  necessity.  It  must  be  kept  on  hand.  The  skins 
ol  animals  are  convenient,  but  they  are  short-lived,  and  there  are 
other  obvious  disadvantages.  A  basket  lined  with  clay  will  hold 
'^V'ater,  and  such  a  dish  burned  is  pottery.  In  any  case  the  inven- 
tions which  may  be  made  depend  upon  the  particular  combination 
of  the  elements  of  the  physical  environments.  The  savage  in  Eng- 
X^nd  would  make  his  bow  of  a  single  jnece  of  yew.  The  Eskimo, 
X  coking  yew,  must  use  his  wit,  and  get  a  compoiuid  bow  of  bone  and 
^inew — a  work  of  high  art. 

9.  Forms  of  Government. — The  form  of  government  grows  out  of 
"tlie  family  organization  and  the  way  in  which  the  daily  bread  is  won. 
C~3n  the  arid  plain  the  strong  hunter  or  the  powerful  warrior  is  chief. 
The  w^hole  life  is  one  of  the  chase  and  the  conquest  of  a  weaker  foe. 
Tt  is  not  a  long  step  from  the  hunting  of  the  buffalo  to  the  hunting  of 
«tn  enemy  in  the  adjoining  tribe.    The  arid  realm  breeds  warriors  and 
I'obbers — and  might  is  right.     In  a  pastoral  society  the  family  is  the 
state,  in  origin,  and  the  father  is  the  head  of  the  government.     Con- 
clitions  are  only  slightly  changed.     Women  are  slaves  and  inferiors, 
and  any  evolution  in  government  from  such  a  foundation  will  end  in 
the  establishment  of  a  hierarchy  of  rank,  with  the  strongest  in  the 
highest  places.     It  is  not  different  in  any  way  from  the  rule  of  the 
barnyard  among  horned  cattle.     It  is  not  a  question  of  wisdom  or 
right,  but  a  question  of  brawn.     Such  a  basis  leads  to  the  establish- 
ment of  aristocracy,  which,  long  planted  and  gone  to  seed,  gives  us 
the  caste  system  in  India.     The  cidnn" nation  of  all  such  government 


OA2  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

is  the  absolute  monarchy,  which  is,  in  every  instance,  in  last  analysis, 
a  military  despotism. 

Agriculture  and  the  industrial  arts  tend  to  equality  among  work- 
ers, male  and  female.  The  tendency  is  to  make  the  wise  man  the 
leader.  The  whole  trend  of  such  a  foundation  is  toward  democracy. 
Our  western  civilization  is  in  constant  swing  between  these  two  great 
tendencies,  the  one  of  which  we  inherit  from  the  arid  Orient,  the  other 
from  the  agricultural  lands  of  western  Europe.  And  again,  the 
Pueblos  show  us  a  primitive  form  of  government,  with  the  agricul- 
tural influence  uppermost. 

10.  Religion — Social  Customs, —  The  military  organization  domi- 
nates in  religious  establishment.  In  a  military  society  the  religious 
ideals  are  cast  in  the  same  mold.  There  is  the  same  hierarchy,  and 
every  individual  is  given  his  station,  with  emphasis  on  obedience  to 
the  higher  power.  The  supreme  deity  is  the  great  war  leader — the 
God  of  Hosts.  We  borrow  this  phase  of  our  religion  from  the  arid 
plains  of  the  Orient.  Even  our  hell  and  heaven  are  creations  from 
the  experiences  born  of  a  life  in  the  hot  desert  and  the  delightful  oasis. 

But  the  practice  of  agriculture  focuses  the  attention,  not  on  a 
mighty  conqueror,  but  upon  the  clouds.  The  crops  depend  upon  the 
sun  and  the  rain,  and  life  and  happiness  depend  upon  the  crops. 
Interest  is  focused  on  the  return  of  the  sun  and  the  coming  of  the 
rain  or  the  flood.  This  l)uil(ls  up  a  very  diff'erent  religion,  which 
looks  for  the  powers  above  us,  in  the  sun  and  in  the  sky,  and  leads 
easily  to  the  conce})tioii  of  the  luiknown  god  who  rules  the  winds  and 
brings  the  rains,  and  who  lives  in  the  sky.  And  these  are  elements 
found  in  the  religion  of  every  agricultural  j)eople  settled  in  arid  lands: 
Pueblo,  Inca.  Persian.  Aralnan.  Hei)rew. 

KKSr.MK 

Human  development,  physical  and  social,  is.  at  the  start,  uncon- 
scious, a  direct  response  to  the  conditions  of  the  physical  environment 
— a  cosmic  process.  Hut  the  psychic,  social  element  enters,  and  the 
exjx^ience  of  the  race  is  gradually  caj)itaUzed  in  the  form  of  social 
institutions  and  conventions.  These  become  forces  competent  to 
shape  further  progress,  ])ut  they  are  clearly  secondary,  depending 
for  initiation  and  for  direction  uj)on  the  conditions  of  the  physical 
environment.  Progress  in  social  evolution  is  a  record  of  a  changing 
ratio  between  the  influence  of  the  physical  environment  and  this 
growing  social  environment.  This  changing  ratio  shows  a  growing 
independence  of  the  physical  environment  on  the  part  of  man,  even 


> 


1904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  343 

a  domination  over  it.  It  may  be  represented  graphically  by  a  paral- 
lelogram, the  length  of  which,  AB,  stands  for  the  lapse  of  ages 
occupied  by  human  evolution,  and  this  may  be  four  or  five  million 

B' 


J 

Social 
environment 

Physical 
environment 

^ 

B 

^^'ears,  if  we  may    dare  try  to  convert  geological  ages  to  years.     The 

^Vertical  ordinates  AA\  BB\  represent  in  the  terminal  epochs  the 

JSum  total  of  the  forces  in  our  environment,  both  physical  and  social, 

^^nd  may  be  most  easily  thought  of  in  percentage,  up  to  100,  at  the 

"fcop  line.     With  the  Homo  alalus  the  social  environment  was  at  a 

x-ninimum,   almost   zero;  the   physical   environment  essentially   100 

X3er  cent.     On  the  invention  of  language  (o)  a  sudden  access  of  social 

^^Dower  makes  a  large  conquest  over  the  physical  control.     With  the 

<:^iscovery  of  fire  (6)  another  conquest  over  nature  changes  the  ratio, 

:»*educing  the  control  of  the  physical  environment.     Agriculture  (c), 

<i3omestication  of  beasts  of  burden  (f/),  and  every  useful  discovery 

•<z:>r  invention,  mechanical  or  social,  have  changed  the  ratio,  giving  us 

-^^dded   dominion   over   the   elements   of   our   physical   environment. 

I^But  we  can  never  reduce  this  environment  to  zero.     Jie  we  never  so 

^^vise  and  ingenious,  we  shall  always  be  directed,  and  the  course  of 

-^iijur  evohition  will  be  conditioned  by  its  elements.     These  forces  may 

TtDc  unseen,  but  they  are  nevertheless  potent,  and  they  are  eternal. 


GEOGRAPHICAL   NOTES 

''Sensible  Temperatures."—  On   hot  summer  days  people  in    our 

I  arge  cities  constantly  complain  that  the  temperatures  recorded  at  the 

1  ocal  Weather  Bureau  stations  are  much  too  low,  and  hence  do  not 

^**eally  represent  the  heat  which  people  feel.     In  cold  winter  weather 

"there  is  a  similar  objection,  to  the  effect  that  the  *^ official"  tempera- 

"tLures  are  too  high.     This  complaint  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  public 

generally  does  not  yet  understand  that  **air  temperature, ''  as  recorded 

\yy  a  standard  thermometer,  at  some  distance  above  the  ground,  in  a 

shelter,  protected  from  rain  and  sunshine  and  radiation  from  surroimd- 

ing  objects,  does  not  and  caiuiot  indicate  the  temperature  that  we 


344  '^^^  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

actually  feel.  The  latter,  which  has  been  called  ''sensible  tempera- 
ture," and  which,  for  want  of  a  better  term,  we  shall  also  thus  designate, 
depends  upon  a  great  variety  of  factors  which  either  do  not  enter  into 
the  so-called  ''air  temperature"  at  all,  or  else  are  of  secondary  impor- 
tance. For  example,  other  meteorological  conditions,  such  as  the 
humidity  of  the  air,  the  wind,  the  exposure  to  direct  insolation  and  to 
reflected  heat,  and  other  more  or  less  accidental  physical  conditions, 
such  as  the  state  of  the  human  body,  whether  in  good  health  or  bad; 
the  clothing,  both  as  to  kind  and  as  to  amount  f  the  kind  and  the  con- 
ditions of  occupation;  the  nourishment  of  the  body;  even  the  mental 
condition  of  the  individual — these  and  other  factors  enter  into  the 
account. 

The  human  body  is  not  like  a  thermometer  in  having  no  tempera- 
ture of  its  own.  It  is  a  heat  engine,  which  has  a  high  internal  tempera- 
ture to  keep  up.  This  temperature  is  maintained  by  a  slow  internal 
combustion,  in  which  the  food  plays  the  part  of  the  fuel  in  the  steam 
engine,  and  heat  is  constantly  being  lost  from  the  skin  as  well  as  from 
the  lungs,  in  the  process  of  respiration  and  in  warming  the  food  taken 
into  the  stomach.  Helmholtz  believed  that  over  three-quarters  of  the 
total  loss  takes  place  from  the  skin,  and  about  20  per  cent  from  the 
lungs.  The  loss  from  the  lungs  varies  with  the  temperature  and  with 
the  relative  humidity  of  the  air;  the  higher  the  temperature  and  the 
relative  humidity,  the  loss  is  the  loss.  The  loss  of  water  from  the 
lungs  is  not  directly  noticeable.  Wo  estimate  the  moisture  of  the 
atmosphere  oliiofiy  by  the  loss  of  water  from  the  skin,  which  amounts 
to  about  twice  as  much  as  that  from  the  lungs. 

The  loss  of  hoat  from  tho  oxtorual  surface  of  the  body,  as  has  been 
clearly  sot  forth  i)y  \'an  I^c^hlxM*  (of  whoso  discussion  the  next  few 
paragraphs  aro  ]ar«i:oly  a  summary),  is  accom])lishod  by  means  of  three 
familiar  physical  prorossos — coiiduction,  radiation,  evaporation.  The 
amount  of  hoat  lost  by  condnotiou  iloponds  on  tho  difTerence  of  tem- 
perature l)ot\vooii  tin*  body  and  tho  surrounding  air,  and  upon  the  con- 
ductivity of  tho  air.  Other  thinirs  boing  equal,  the  colder  the  air  the 
groator  tho  cooling  by  conduction  ;  tho  warmer  tho  air,  the  less.  Hence 
conduction  may  \)v  oxpoctcMl  to  bo  at  a  maximum  in  winter.  Secondly, 
when  tlioro  is  a  wind,  moro  hoat  is  lost  by  conduction.  Every  one 
knows  that  sovoro  cold  which  may  !)(»  easily  endured  when  the  air  is 
calm  may  bocomo  unhoaral)lo  when  thoro  is  oven  a  slight  movement 
of  tho  air.  The  s])ringing  u])  of  a  broozo  on  a  bright,  cold  winter  day 
may  change  tho  t(»m])oratur(^  which  wo  fool  from  an  agreeable  one  to 
one  which   is  docidodly  chilly,   although   tho  ordinary  thermometer 


1904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  345 

shows  no  change  at  all.     The  difference  between  calm  cold  and  windy 
cold  is  very  strikingly  brought  out  in  the  reports    from  arctic  and 
antarctic  exploring  expeditions.     Temperatures  of  20°,  30°,  even  40°, 
below  zero  are  described  as  being  comfortable  when  there  is  no  wind. 
Nansen,  for  example,  says  on  one  occasion,  *' The  temperature  to-day 
is   42^  Fahr.   below   zero,    but   there  is  no  wind,  and  we  have  not 
had  such  pleasant  weather  for  walking  for  a  long  time;  it  feels  almost 
mild  when  the  air  is  still.*'     Similar  statements  may  be  found  in 
-abundance  in  the  writings  of  other  arctic  explorers,  it  being  frequently 
Jnoted  that  the  heavy  clothing  was  too  warm  at  these  very  low  tem- 
peratures.    In  the  polar  regions,  then,  the  feeling  of  cold  and  the  read- 
ing  of  the  thermometer  are  not  in  any  closer  agreement  than  they  are 
1-i.ere.     Naturally,  high  temperatures  are  more  comfortable  with  some 
Asvind.     Thirdly,  the  moisture  of  the  air  is  an  important  consideration 
in  this  matter,  for  damp  air  is  a  better  conductor  than  dry  air.     Hence, 
in  winter,  damp  cold  is  so  much  harder  to  bear  than  dry  cold.     Hence, 
^•he  damp  northeast  winds  on  the  New  England  coast  in  winter  often 
^^el  colder  than  dry  northwest  winds  which  have  a  lower  temperature, 
4a.lthough  the  velocity  may  be  the  same  in  the  two  cases.     Obviously, 
tiowever,  evaporation  enters  in  to  complicate  this  (|uestion  of  conduc- 
"tion  somewhat. 

The  amount  of  heat  lost  by  the  body  through  radiation  depends  on 

^the  temperature  and  the  radiating  powers  of  surrounding  objects,  such 

^^s  walls,  pavements,  vegetation,  furniture,  etc.     It  is  conceivable  that 

<z>ne  should  be  so  placed  that  the  temperature  of  all  surrounding  objects, 

^c^nd  of  the  air  as  well,  should  be  just  the  same  as  the  body  temperature. 

In  such  a  case  the  body  would  lose  nothing  by  radiation.     Nor  would 

it  lose  anything  by  conduction.     The  only  loss  would  be  by  evapora- 

t::.ion,  unless  the  air  were  saturated,  in  which  case  the  conditions  would 

be  unbearable  for  any  length  of  time.     When  radiation  is  checked,  as 

by  the  presence  of  many  persons  crowded  together,  or  by  the  proximity 

of  hot  walls,  pavements,  etc.,  the  body  may  suffer  serious  consequences, 

as  in  the  case  of  prostration  by  the  heat  and  sunstroke,  which,  as  is 

well  known,  usually  attack  people  who  are  exposed  under  rather 

special  conditions,  as,  e.  g.,  laborers  on  sewers  and  railways,  masons 

and  painters  close  to  the  walls  of  buildings,  etc.     When  troops  are  on 

the  march  it  has  been  shown  that  the  men  who  suffer  most  are  in  the 

middle  of  the  column,  where  they  can  lose  least  heat  by  radiation. 

It  is  difficult  to  consider  the  adjustment  of  the  body  to  the  tem- 
perature conditions  of  the  air  without  taking  account  of  evaporation, 
which  is  of  very  great  importance,  and  is  almost  always  in  operation 


346  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  The  human  body  in  health  has  not  a  dry 
surface,  like  the  dry-bulb  thermometer,  but  is  more  or  less  moist 
because  of  the  exudation  of  perspiration  through  the  pores  of  the  skin. 
When  this  moisture  evaporates,  the  skin  cools  through  the  loss  of  heat 
which  is  required  in  the  process  of  evaporation.  Cramer  has  shown 
that  the  amount  of  water  lost  through  perspiration  during  a  hot  sum- 
mer day,  if  a  man  is  kept  at  hard  work,  may  reach  between  7  per  cent 
and  8  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  his  body.  Other  things  being  equal, 
there  is  more  evaporation  the  warmer,  the  drier,  and  the  less  quiet  the 
air.  The  hotter  the  air,  the  greater  its  capacity  for  water  vapor;  the 
drier  the  air,  the  more  water  can  still  be  evaporated  into  it ;  the  more 
wind,  the  greater  the  opportunity  for  evaporation  into  the  fresh  supply 
of  air  which  is  constantly  brought  to  the  body.  If  the  air  be  com- 
pletely saturated  at  the  body  temperature,  there  can  be  no  evapora- 
tion; but  if  the  air  be  saturated  below  the  body  temperature,  the  body 
warms  the  air  nearest  it;  in  so  doing  the  capacity  of  the  air  for  water 
vapor  is  increased,  and  evaporation  may  then  begin  again.  Even  if 
the  temperature  of  the  air  be  98.6,  unless  the  air  be  saturated,  the  body 
can  cool  by  evaporation.  It  has  been  shown  that  when  the  air  is  very 
dry,  human  beings  can  endure  extraordinarily  high  temperature,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  man  who  stayed  twenty  minutes  in  dry  air  at  212°.  Hot 
air  in  motion  is  much  cooler  than  hot  dry  air  at  rest,  and  hot  moist  air  is 
oppressive  because  there  is  little  ()i)portunity  for  evaporation.  Accord- 
ing to  Blanford,  the  moist  heat  felt  during  a  voyage  across  the  Red 
Sea  in  August  or  Sei)tember,  with  an  air  temperature  of  90°,  is  much 
more  oppressive  than  is  the  heat  in  the  up{)er  provinces  of  India  during 
the  blowing  of  the  "hot  winds."  which  are  dry,  when  the  temperature 
is  112°  to  11S°.  The  excessive  dryness  of  these  winds  is  made  use  of 
to  keep  the  air  of  dwellings  cooler  by  means  of  wet  ''tatties''  hung  over 
doors  and  windows.  The  more  moist  the  air  and  the  nearer  its  tem- 
perature to  that  of  the  body,  the  less  difference  does  wind  make.  Dry 
air  is  in  many  respects  an  advantage  at  all  seasons;  in  winter  because 
it  makes  the  loss  of  heat  by  conduction  less,  and  in  summer  because 
it  increases  the  loss  of  heat  by  evaporation. 

Evidently.,  too,  conduction  enters  into  this  question,  for  when  the 
air  is  moist,  evaporation  is  lessened,  but  conduction  (unless  the  air  be 
at  the  body  tem])erature)  increases.  On  the  whole,  conduction  is 
at  a  niaxinunii  in  winter  and  evaporation  in  summer.  The  very  dry 
air  of  our  furnace-heated  houses  in  winter  must  be  kept  at  a  high 
teni])erature  if  we  wish  to  l)e  conifortai)le  in  it.  We  lessen  the  loss  of 
heat  from  the  Ixxly  by  conduction  when  we  raise  the  temperature,  but 


S904  (^.EOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  34/ 

the  loss  by  evaporation  must  be  very  great,  because  of  the  dryness  of 
the  air.  If  our  houses  were  provided  with  a  more  moist  heat  we  could 
be  comfortable  indoors  with  considerably  lower  temperature,  because 
evaporation  would  be  so  much  decreased.  This  has  been  experiment- 
ally determined  by  Dr.  Henry  J.  Barnes  of  Boston,  who  found  that 
when  the  air  in  his  office  had  a  relative  humidity  of  27  per  cent  the 
temperature  had  to  be  70°  or  71°,  but  when,  by  means  of  a  '^  humidi- 
fier,'' which  evaporated  four  and  one-half  quarts  of  water  daily,  he 
had  brought  the  air  to  a  relative  humidity  of  53  per  cent,  a  tempera- 
ture of  65°  was  comfortable.  The  temperatures  in  our  houses  are 
comfortable  at  about  70°  because  the  air  is  calm.  If  the  air  were  in 
motion  we  should  be  uncomfortably  cool,  because  of  the  increased 
evaporation. 

The  temperature  which  we  feel  does  not  depend  solely  on  the  tem- 
perature, the  moisture,  and  the  movement    of  the  air.     It  is  also 
influenced  by  the  physical  condition  in  which  the  body  finds  itself,  for 
the  body  is  not  a  passive  object.     When  in  health  it  adjusts  itself  to 
surrounding  conditions  by  its  own  action.     At  low    temperatures  it 
seeks  to  check  the  loss  of  heat  from  its  surface  by  contracting  the  pores, 
keeping  the  skin  dry,  and  diminishing  the  amount  of  heat  near  the 
surface  of  the  body.     At  high  temperatures,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
pores  are  opened,  perspiration  is  a])undant,  and  the  skin  is  cooled  by 
evaporation.     Furthermore,  the  relations  of  the  body  to  the  meteoro- 
logical conditions  of  the  atni()S})here  are  affected  to  a  very  marked 
degree  by  the  clothing.     Many  interesting  experimental  studies  have 
shown  that  the  differences  between  the  temperature  on  the  surface  of 
the  clothing   and   the   air   temperature   decrease  with  an   increasing 
number  of  articles  of  clothing  between  the  skin  and  the  outside  air. 
The  successive  air  strata  between  the  different  layers  of  clothing  serve 
to  modify  the  effect  of  the  temperature  and   humidity  of  the  air. 
Thus,  clothing  whose  thickness,  weight,  and  texture  may  be  varied  at 
will,  keeps  the  body  from  losing  heat  too  rapidly  to  the  surrounding 
air.     Rubner  has  found  that  the  temperature  on  the  skin  uf  a  man 
dressed  in  the  usual  number  of  articles  of  winter  clothing  was  about 
the  same  when  the  air  temj^erature  was  50°  and  when  it  was  79°.     In 
this  connection  the  behavior  of  different  kinds  of  clothing  materials 
in  relation  to  moisture  is  naturalh'  of  considerable  importance.      Kvi- 
dently,  also,  the  questions  whether  the  individual  is  taking  exercise, 
how  violent  the  exercise,  and  under  what  conditions  with  reference  to 
surrounding  objects,  are  all  to  be  considered  as  C(^ntrolling  factors,  for, 
obviously,  on  a  cold  day,  two  persons  will  experience  very  different 


348  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

temperatures  if  one  of  them  is  sitting  still  and  the  other  is  digging  a 
trench. 

The  factor  of  exposure  to  radiation,  whether  directly  from  the  sun, 
or  from  the  sky,  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or  other  objects,  also  enters 
into  the  problem.  Unlike  a  thermometer,  which  is  in  a  shelter,  pro- 
tected from  direct  and  reflected  radiation  so  far  as  possible,  human 
beings  when  out  of  doors  are  exposed  to  these  radiations,  and  their 
feeling  of  heat  is  affected  thereby.  It  has  long  been  known  that  the 
energy  of  direct  insolation  is  of  great  importance  as  a  climatic  factor, 
independently  of  the  temperature  of  the  air.  In  times  of  calm  the  air 
temperature  may  even  be  quite  unimportant.  Thus,  on  calm,  clear, 
winter  days,  for  example,  if  one  sits  in  the  sun,  he  may  feel  warm  and 
comfortable  while  the  air  temperature  is  really  very  low.  It  is  this 
climatic  factor  of  direct  solar  radiation  which  is  of  great  value  in  giving 
certain  high  mountain  stations,  in  the  Alps  and  elsewhere,  their  repu- 
tation as  winter  resorts.  At  Davos  Platz,  for  example,  and,  simi- 
larly, in  some  of  our  own  health  resorts  in  Colorado,  invalids  may  sit 
out  in  the  sun  and  be  comfortable  on  the  coldest  winter  days.  Reflected 
heat,  as  from  water,  or  from  a  desert  surface,  or  from  a  white  wall, 
also  affects  one's  feelings  of  heat  or  cold. — Bulletin,  Avierican  Geo- 
graphical Society  J  March,  1904. 

Public  Schools  in  Russia. —  According  to  the  latest  statistics  there 
are  84,544  public  schools  in  the  Empire  of  Russia,  out  of  which  num- 
ber 40,131  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  .Ministry  of  Public  Educa- 
tion, 42,588  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  Synod,  and  the  remain- 
der under  other  departments.  Of  the  pupils,  73,167  were  adults, 
3,291,694  boys,  and  1,203,902  girls.  The  teachers  number  172,000. 
The  maintenance  of  all  these  schools  costs  more  than  $25,000,000. 
The  average  school  tax  for  city  schools  is  $9.50,  and  for  village  schools 
$5  per  pupil. — Consulni^  Reports,  March,  1904. 

Cost  of  Construction  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway. —  The  construc- 
tion of  the  great  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  comprising  a  length  of  9,042 
versts  (5,995  miles),  has  cost  940,259,401  rubles  ($484,554,415),  or  an 
average  of  103,987  rubles  ($53,553)  per  verst  ($81,326.84  per  mile). 
The  loss  endured  through  the  disorders  in  China  is  estimated  at  10.- 
000,000  rubles  ($5,150,000).  The  .Ministry  of  Ways  and  Means  of 
Communication  has  found  it  necessary  to  enlarge  the  rolling  stock  of 
the  fourth-class  service  to  7,000  cars,  to  be  used  for  transportation  of 
laborers,  emigrants,  and  recruits. — Consular  Reports y  March,  1904. 


1904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  349 

Advisable  Omissions  from  the  Elementary  Curriculum. —  In  geog- 
raphy the  following  subject-matter  might  well  go: 

All  explanation  of  the  cause  of  seasons,  except  the  mere  fact*of  the 
changing  direction  of  the  sun's  rays.  There  is  no  social  demand  for 
such  matter  (except  possibly  teachers*  examinations),  and  it  is  beyond 
the  grammar  school  pupil's  comprehension,  calling  into  use  our  second 
standard. 

The  caiLse  of  the  tides ^  leaving  the  fact  only. 

Quite  probably  one  of  our  two  treatments  of  AsiOy  Africa^  AuMraliay 
and  South  America.     French  and  German  children  study  their  native 
country  verj^  thoroughly,   and   P^urope   fairly   well.     They  attempt 
comparatively  little  with  the  remainder  of  the  world.     We  would  be 
Unwilling  to  adopt  their  plan.     But  why  could  we  not  have  one  good 
treatment  of  these  four  continents — with  more  interesting  detail  than 
We  ordinarily  present  in  either  our  small  or  our  large  geography — and 
"fclien  expect  the  supplementary  reading  to  continue  this  geographical 
Icnowledge?     It  should  be  remembered  that  while  we  have  a  large 
amount  of  supplementary  reading,  its    content  is  not  usually  pre- 
scribed.    But  it  should  be.     This  plan  might  save  one  year  of  geogra- 
X^hy  work. — F.  M.  McMurry  in  ''School  and  Home  Education/^  May, 
X^04. 

C^urrent  Articles  on  Commerce  and  Industry: 

JUNE 
Abyssinia,  Consular  Rep. 
Asiatic  Trade  of  our  Pacific  States,  Century. 
Banana:     Land  where  it  is  King  (lllus.),  World  To-Day. 
Cossacks:     Russians  Unique  Troopers  (lllus.).  Rev.  of  Revs.- 
Gophers:     The  Master  Plowman  of  the  West  (lllus.),  Century. 
Japan  during  the  War  (lllus.),  World  To-Day. 
Milk,  The  Making  of  Clean  (lllus.),  Country  Life. 
Mississippi  River  in  War  (lllus.).  World  To-Day. 
Russia,  Industrial  Life  in,  World^s  Work. 
Russia,  Petroleum  Industry  of.  Consular  Rep. 
Standard  Oil  Co.,  McClure's  Mag. 
Trust,  How  it  Meets  Competition  (lllus.).  System. 
Turbine:     A  New  Era  of  Steam  (lllus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 

JULY 
Advertising,  Adventures  in,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  July  16. 
Canada's  Commercial  and  Industrial  Expansion  (lllus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 


350  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

Cereal  Foods,  Preparation  of,  Set.  Am.,  July  9. 

Ceylon  Tea,  Cornm.  Bull,  and  N.  W.  Trade,  July  9. 

Conanierce,  Foreign,  of  the  U.  S.,  Mo.  Summary  of  Comm.  and  Fin. 

Cotton-Picking  Machines  Needed,  Sci.  Am.y  July  30. 

Cowboy,  The  Truth  About  the  (Illus.),  World  To-Day, 

Furniture,  Better,  Increasing,  World's  Work. 

Greek  Currants,  Comm.  Bull,  and  N.  W.  Trade,  July  9. 

Laces  of  France,  Hist,  of  Manufacture  of,  Comm.  Bull,  and  N,  W. 

Trade,  July  23. 
Manchuria  (Illus.),   Century. 

Merchant  Princes  of  Old  New  York,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  July  30. 
Panama,  Solving  the  Health  Problem  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs, 
Russia  of  To-Day  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 
Sheep-Ranching  in  the  Northwest  (Illus.),  Country  Life. 
South  Africa  After  the  War  (Illus.),  Sat.  Evening  Post,  July  9,  23. 
Transportation:    Reciprocal  Demurrage,  Miss.  Valley  Lumberman, 

July  29. 

AUGUST 

Adulteration  of  Foods,  Comm.  Bull,  and  N.  W.  Trade,  Aug.  6. 
British  Business  Methods,  Weakness  of,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Aug. 

6,   27. 
Cheese  Making  in  the  Mohawk  Valley  (Illus.),  Country  Life. 
Cocoanuts,  Copra  and  Cocoanut  Oil,  Crop  Reporter. 
Colorado,  Industrial  Conditions  in,  TJw  Mfgr.,  Aug.  15. 
Cork  Makinir,  Paint,  Oil,  and  Drug  Rcr.,  Aug.  3. 
(ireat  Lakes,  Traffic  on  (Illus.),   World  To-Day. 
Herring  Weirs  of  the  Maine  Coast  (Illus.),  Country  Life. 
Hop  ricking  in  Central  New  York  (Illus.),  Country  Life. 
Japan,  Agriculture  in,  Xat'l  Geog.  Mag. 
Lighting,  History  of  Artificial,  Sci.  Am.,  Aug.  27. 
Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  (Special  Number),  World's  Work. 
Luxury,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Aug.  20. 

Merchant  Princes  of  Old  New  ^'ork.  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Aug.  20. 
Newfoundland  and  its  Fisheries  (Illus.),  World  To-Day. 
Peru:     Its  Resources,  etc..  .V(//7  Gcog.  Mag. 
Reindeer  Industry  in  Alaska  (Illus.),  *SV/.  Am.,  Aug.  20. 
Sheep-Herder  versus  Cow-Puncher  (Illus.),   World  To-Day. 
South  Africa  after  the  War  (Illus.),  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Aug.' 27. 
Turpentine,  American,  Paint,  Oil,  and  Drug  Rev.,  Aug.  24. 


1904 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  35  I 


SEPTExMBER 
Coffee  and  Coffee  Culture  (Illus.),  ScL  Am,,  Sept.  17. 
Cooperation,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Sept.  10. 
Cooperation  of  Employees  in  the  Management  of  a  Business  (Illus.), 

Bookkeeper. 
Cowboy  of  To-Day  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 
German  Supremacy  in  the  Chemical  Industry,   Paint,  Oil,  and 

Drug  Rev.,  Sept.  7. 
Hawaii,  Forests  of,  Miss.  Valley  Lumberman,  Sept.  9. 
Holland,  How  the  Dutch  have  Taken  (Illus.),  Rev.  of  Revs. 
Ireland,  The  New  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 
Iron  Mines  that  Give  us  Leadership  (Illus.),  World's  Work. 
Japan,  Fisheries  of,  Nafl  Geog.  Mag. 

Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition  (Special  Number),  World  To-Day. 
Luxury:     Food  and  Drink,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Sept.  17. 

Dress,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Sept.   3. 
Merchant:     Stephen  Girard,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Sept.  24. 
Mexico,  Winter  Expedition  into  (Illus.),  Nat'l  Geog.  Mag. 
Plants,  Hunters  of  New  (Illus.),  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Sept.  3. 
Rice  Industry  of  the  V.  S.,  Comm.  Bull,  and  N.  W.  Trade,  Sept.  3. 
South,  The  Newer,  in  A^ijriculture,  Sat.  Evening  Post,  Sept.  24. 
Steel  Manufacture,  Developments  in,  The  Mjgr.,  Sept.  15. 
Standard  Oil  Co.:     The  Price  of  Oil,  McClure's  Mag. 
Union  Stock  Yards  of  Chieap;o  (Illus.),  System. 
Wall  Paper,  The  Manufacture  of  (Illus.),  Sei.  Am.,  Sept.  24. 

E.  D.J. 

Economic  Importance  of  the  Coffee  Industry. —  The  following  article 
appeared  in  El  Ca fetal.  New  York,  August,  1903: 

The  cultivation  of  coffee  is  a  branch  of  tropical  agriculture  of  greater 
importance  and  extent  than  the  general  public  and  the  planters  them- 
selves can  imagine.  From  the  results  of  a  careful  compilation  of  statis- 
tics recently  collated  and  published  from  various  governmental  and 
private  sources  for  the  period  from  1900  to  1902,  the  following  data  are 
calculated : 

The  total  number  of  coffee  plantations  in  the  world,  large  and 
small,  but  which  can  })roporly  be  classified  as  such  in  the  full  meaning 
of  the  word,  reaches  49,000,  distrii)uted  among  the  three  coffee-producing 
continents — America,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

Their  total  annual  production  of  coffee  amounts  to  more  than 
21,500,000  bags,  of  an  average  weight  of  134  pounds  each,  or  2,881,- 
000,000  pounds. 


352  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

This  production  represents  a  total  value  of  more  than  $255,000,000 
annually  contributed  by  the  coffee  industry  to  the  world's  trade  and 
commerce.  Such  a  grand  total  is  realized  by  the  annual  net  product 
of  more  than  1,800,000,000  coffee  trees  in  full  bearing. 

The  land  used  for  coffee  growing,  exclusive  of  the  area  used  for  the 
production  of  other  fruit  in  connection  with  coffee,  exceeds  3,600,000 
acres.  The  value  of  the  property,  including  buildings,  machinery,  and 
other  utensils,  is  more  than  $1,350,000,000,  based  on  the  low  values 
that  have  prevailed  from  1900  to  1902. 

The  average  total  number  of  persons  engaged  during  the  year  in 
planting,  tending,  harvesting,  curing,  and  handling  the  crop,  including 
office  force,  reaches  2,220,000  men,  women,  and  children. 

The  total  amount  paid  annually  in  wages  and  salaries  to  laborers 
and  the  office  force,  exclusive  of  interest  on  capital,  taxes,  etc.,  exceeds 
$135,000,000. 

Upon  these  data  the  following  interesting  average  calculations  are 
based: 

The  average  area  of  each  plantation  exclusively  devoted  to  cultiva- 
tion of  coffee  is  73^  acres. 

The  number  of  coffee  trees  in  full  bearing  is  36,735  for  each  planta- 
tion. 

The  average  yield  of  raw  coffee  (en  ore)  is  1|  pounds  per  tree. 

The  average  number  of  trees  planted  per  acre  is  500. 

The  average  production  of  each  plantation  is  58,796  pounds  of  coffee. 

The  production  per  acre  is  800J  pounds. 

The  average  number  of  per  year  laborers  and  other  persons  employed 
on  each  plantation  is  45,  or  one  for  every  If  acres  under  cultivation, 
or  one  person  for  818  coffee  trees,  equivalent  to  one  person  for  each 
1,309^  pounds  of  coffee  prochiced  and  prepared. 

The  average  annual  salary  paid  to  each  employee  is  $61.36. 

The  average  cost  of  labor  in  the  cultivation,  production,  and  prepara- 
tion of  coffee  is  4.7  cents  per  pound. 

The  average  value  of  each  coffee  plantation,  including  the  value  of 
buildings,  machinery,  and  other  utensils,  is  $27,551,  or  $375  per  acre. 

The  average  return  for  each  plantation  through  the  sale  of  its 
entire  product  of  coffee  is  $5,204,  or  at  the  rate  of  8  |J  cents  per  pound 
of  coffee. — Consular  Reports,  January,  1904. 

The  Climate  of  the  Argentine  Republic. — The  Republic  may 
be  divided  into  three  general  climatic  provinces,  on  the  basis  of  the 
temperature   and   rainfall,   the   Littoral,  the  Mediterranean,   and    the 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  353 


Andine,  the  axes  of  greatest  elongation  being  north  and  south,  and 
each  of  these  three  main  divisions  being  subdivisible  into  northern, 
central,  and  southern  sections,  whose  differences  depend  chiefly  on 
latitude  and  altitude.     With  the  great  extent  of  the  Argentine,  embrac- 
ing as  it  does  33  degrees  of  latitude,  the  differences  between  north  and 
south  are  necessarily  very  great;    but  there  are  also  extraordinary 
changes  in  temperature  and  rainfall  in  going  from  east  to  west  across  the 
country,  narrow  as  it  is.     Thus,  taking  the  zone  of  a  degree  and  a  half 
of  latitude,  which  lies  north  of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn,  we  find,  on  the 
eastern  frontier,  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  73.4°.     Crossing  the 
isotherms  at  right  angles,  a  temperature  of  less  than  57.2°  is  found  at 
"the  western  limits.     As  to  rainfall,  in  this  same  distance  of  about  500 
miles  "the  aspect  of  the  country  changes  from  the  lowlands  of  the 
Chaco,  covered  with  a  tropical  vegetation,  to  the   arid  tablelands  of 
Salta  and  Jujuy,  which  in  turn  merge  into  the  Cordilleras,  with  their 
liighest  peaks  under  the  mantle  of  perpetual  snow.'' 

The  famous  Argentine  **zonda''  is  described  as  being  so  dry  that 
people  sprinkle  their  floors  and  walls  to  cool  the  air  while  it  blows.  A 
section  is  devoted  to  the  temperature  of  evaporation,  which  has  been 
called  "sensible  temperature,''  and  we  have  never  seen  a  publication 
which  contained  tables  and  charts  of  sensible  temperatures,  by  months, 
lor  a  number  of  stations.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  feature  on  any  of 
the  charts  in  the  volume  is  the  rapid  decrease  of  pressure  south  of  the 
45th  parallel,  shown  on  the  isobaric  maps,  the  successive  isobars  running 
across  the  countr>%  almost  due  east  and  west,  close  together.  This  is 
the  natural  consequence  of  the  southward  extension  of  South  America 
into  the  region  of  permanent  low  pressure  in  the  Antarctic.  The 
highest  relative  humidity  is  found  in  the  north  and  in  the  extreme 
south.  In  the  Andine  provinces  it  frequently  hapj)ens  that  the  relative 
humidity  does  not  exceed  2  or  3  per  cent.  In  fact,  according  to  the 
ordinar\^  psychrometer  tables,  some  observations  in  this  district  give 
a  relative  humidity  of  0  per  cent.  As  this  is  impossible,  it  is  clear  the 
reduction  formuhe  are  not  applicable  to  such  cases  of  extreme  dryness. 

Map  Drawing  in  History. — Geography  should  never  be  neglected 
in  teaching  history.  Too  often  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  pupil 
knows  the  geography  of  the  places.  If  you  are  teaching  history  with- 
out map  drawing  try  your  pupils  and  see  if  they  are  not  thinking  of 
something  far  away,  they  know  not  where.  Ask  them  the  relation 
of  one  point  to  another  and  you  will  find  that  they  know  but  little 
about  it.     This  is  one  of  the  reasons  that  pupils  forget  their  history. 


254  ^^^  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

They  have  nothing  but  memory.  If  they  have  something  to  relate 
the  incident  to  it  is  not  hard  for  them  to  remember.  Test  your  pupils 
on  the  grants  of  the  London  and  Plymouth  Companies.  See  if  they 
know  anything  about  the  location. 

Map  drawing  assists  in  the  arrangement  of  the  thought  material. 
If  maps  are  made  of  the  campaigns  of  the  wars,  and  careful  drill  is 
given,  there  will  be  no  trouble  in  having  the  pupils  remember  the  order 
of  the  events.  They  will  remember  them  by  the  location  of  the  places 
on  the  map.  If  pupils  are  taught  "Washington's  Retreat  Through 
New  Jersey"  step  by  step  they  will  always  remember  it.  One  step 
will  suggest  another. 

Some  object  to  this  because  the  pupils  cannot  draw.  If  they  can- 
not draw  they  should  learn.  Or,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  use  outline  maps 
in  this  case.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  history  and  not  on  draw- 
ing. It  is  often  said  that  pu|)ils  must  see  before  they  know,  and  this 
is  most  generally  true.  To  get  this  fixed  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
eyes  they  must  do  more  than  look  at  a  map :  they  must  get  it  fixed  on 
their  minds,  and  to  do  this  there  is  no  better  way  than  to  have  them 
reproduce  the  relations  of  the  places  on  an  outline  map. — The  Intelli' 
gence,  March  15,  1904. 

"Commercial  Japan  in  1904,"  a  monograph  just  issued  by  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  shows  that  the  trade  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Japan  in  recent  years  have  grown  with  greater  rapidity 
than  between  Japan  and  any  other  nation.  Japan  sends  us  mainly 
what  is  not  grown  in  this  country — raw  silk,  tea,  rice,  matting,  bam- 
boo, and  lac(|uero(l  ware,  etc.-  -while  we  in  return  ship  her  annually 
great  quantities  of  raw  cotton,  oil.  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  bread- 
stulTs  and  provisions,  tobacco.  sci(MitiHc  instruments,  etc. 


EDITORIAL 

THE  EMPHASIS  OF  DETAILS  IN  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 

EFFICIKXT  work  in  school  geography  cannot  be  measured  in 
^  pages  ot'  a  text -book  memorized,  in  names  of  capes  or  towns 
glibly  recited  and  accurately  located  on  a  map  or  an  atlas,  for 
pn])ils  and  adults  may  l)e  tlioroughly  conversant  with  more  geographi- 
cal fads  than  are  necrssary  in  everyday  life  and  yet  know  little  about 
geography.  Ah  hough  hx-ation  work  is  an  important  phase  of  geog- 
raphy leaciiing  and  has  been  somewhat  neglected   in   recent   years. 


EDITORIAL  355 


geography  consists  of  something  more  than  location  and  is  no  longer 
<iescribed  as  merely  the  science  of  distribution. 

Pupils  must  gain  from  their  geography  study  enough  knowledge 
of  places  and  of  the  distribution  of  geographical  features  to  enable 
them  to  understand  the  affairs  of  ordinary  everyday  life.  It  is  far 
more  important,  however,  that  they  should  gain  a  knowledge  of  the 
reasons  for  geographical  phenomena  than  that  they  should  merely 
have  an  extensive  information  about  the  distribution  of  phenomena, 
a  large  part  of  which  is  valueless  information  because  of  little  personal 
use  and  because  it  has  been  gained  at  the  expense  of  larger,  broader, 
and  more  useful  principles  which  can  be  applied  daily  in  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  world's  work  and  life. 

Teachers  are  therefore  everywhere  confronted  with  the  serious 
problem  of  selecting  from  the  great  nuiss  of  possible  details  the  small 
selected  group  of  the  greatest  value  in  making  geography  real,  helpful, 
and  disciplinary. 

To  teach  the  general  features  of  a  s])ecial  topic  like  a  continent  or 
the  wind  systems  of  the  world  without  illustrating  by  details,  is  to 
leave  the  impressions  gained  incomplete  and  with  confused  outlines. 
To  give  too  many  details  is  to  surround  the  salient  points  with  a  mist 
of  illustrations  and  instances  so  that  the  valuable  truths  are  lost 
sight  of. 

The  choosing  of  details  for  emphasis  is  much  like  focusing  a  field 
glass.  There  is  one  point  whore  everything  is  clear,  liefore  that 
point  is  reached  the  truth  desired  may  be  seen  emerging  from  a  misty 
environment.  To  pass  the  point  of  accurate  focus  is  to  see  the  truth 
fading  away  again  in  a  seeming  chaos  of  irrelevant  details. 

A  teacher  who  teaches  all  the  ocean  currents  or  all  the  technical 
steps  in  a  complicated  industrial  j)rocess  is  producing  confusion  and 
wasting  time  and  energy,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  an  equally  fatal 
error  may  be  made  by  neglecting  all  the  details. 

Only  experience  will  show  a  teacher  how  many  details  nuist  be 
included  in  reference  to  a  given  topic,  but  she  can  rest  assured  that 
t«xt-books  of  geography  usually  contain  many  more  facts  than  the 
children  should  be  called  upon  to  learn  and  that  to  teach  all  the  details 
of  a  given  subject  is  to  leave  many  valuable  larger  subjects  untouched. 
A  choice  must  be  made  and  it  shoidd  be  made  carefully  with  the 
thought  in  mind  that  information  about  a  little  of  eve^ry thing  may 
mean  no  real  knowledge  about  anything. 


2^6  THIC  JOURNAL  OF  GKOGRAPHY  September 


REVIEWS 

Geology.     By  Thomas  C.  Chamberlin  and  Rollin  D.  Salisbur\\     Volume  I,  Geoloj^c 

Processes  and  Their  liesults.     Pp.  S,  xx,  and  654;  plates,  24,  wth  471  figures  in 

the  text.     New  York:     Henr>'  Holt  &  Co.,  1904. 

Chamberlin  and  Salisbur>-'s  Geology  is  the  newest  addition  to  the  well-known 
American  Science  Series,  Advanced  Course,  and  will  take  rank  at  once  as  a  standard 
authority  in  the  science  of  geolo^'.  The  authors  are  both  eminent  teachers,  and  con- 
tributors of  the  highest  rank  in  geology  and  physiography. 

The  present  volume  treats  of  processes  of  earth  structure  and  sculpture.  The 
scope  of  treatment  is  indicated  by  the  chapter  headings:  astronomic  geology;  geog- 
nosy; the  atmosphere  as  a  geological  agent;  the  work  of  running  water;  the  work  of 
ground  water;  the  work  of  snow  and  ice;  the  work  of  the  ocean;  the  origin  and  descent 
of  rocks;  structural  geology;  the  movements  and  deformations  of  the  earth's  body; 
extrusive  processes  (vulcanism);  the  geologic  functions  of  life. 

Tlie  style  is  clear  and  direct.  In  the  preparation  of  the  work  it  was  the  purpose 
of  the  authors,  as  stated  in  the  preface,  '*  to  ])resent  an  outline  of  the  salient  features 
of  geolog>%  as  now  developed,  encumbered  as  little  as  possible  by  technicalities  and 
details  whose  bearing  on  the  general  theme  are  unimportant."  And  **where  prac- 
ticable, the  text  has  been  so  shaped  that  the  student  may  follow  the  steps  that  have 
led  to  the  present  conclusions.  To  this  end  there  has  b(»en  a  frankness  of  statement 
relative  to  the  Innitations  of  knowledge,  and  the  uncertainty  of  many  conclusions." 
This  is  a  ver\'  strong  feature,  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  text-book. 

In  the  realm  of  hyjK)theses  the  search  for  truth  is  made  more  sure,  if  ever\'  pos- 
sible hypothesis  which  will  tit  the  facts  be  framed  and  studied.  "Hypothetical  and 
unsolved  problems  have  been  treated,  so  far  as  practical)le,  on  the  multiple  basis; 
that  is,  alternative  hypotheses  and  alternative  interpretations  are  frequently  pre- 
sented where  knowledge  does  not  warrant  positive  conclusions.'' 

This  is  the  s[>irit  in  which  tlie  book  is  written,  and  as  we  turn  the  pages  we  can 
see  how  the  students'  liorizon  will  be  widened  mikI  cleared,  and  how  the  misty  places 
will  not  be  ignored  nor  passed  over  liglilly,  but  openly  acknowledged  and  the  pos- 
sible methods  of  interpretation  indicated. 

Tliis  voluint*  giAcs  the  best  brief  general  statement  in  any  language  of  wind  work 
in  erosion  and  (l(*po>ition;  the  work  of  runninji  water  and  the  life  histor}'  of  tlie  river 
valley:  tlie  work  of  ice;  cnistal  movement  and  deformation. 

The  [)i(tures  il/i(s(rnl(  the  text.  Many  of  them  are  reproduced  in  half-tone  from 
photoirrai)lis  direct,  and  the  quality  of  the  paper  and  the  prcsswork  are  such  as  to 
make  the  print  lianllv  inferior  to  the  oritrinal  The  twenty-four  plates  reproduce,  in 
color,  portions  of  tliirty-ii\e  of  the  I'.  S.  (J.  S.  topographic  ma])s  in  the  .scale  and 
quality  of  the  original-    a  very  valual)le  feature. 

So  many  are  the  strong  points  in  this  volume  that  it  will  be  invaluable  to  every 
teacher  t)f  the  eartli  sciences.  J.  P.  G. 

The  Indians  of  the  Painted  Desert  Region.      By  (i(X)rge  Wharton  James.     Size 

r.\xSA;    pp.  \.\i  I  2t)8;  (W)  full-page  plates  from  photographs.     1903.     Boston: 

Little.*  P.rown   *V    Co. 

In  thi^  book  of  gen(M'alitie>;  onc^  of  the  most  interesting  sections  of  the  Southwest 
has   been    ilexribeil. 

'J'lie  .Miitlior  has  (li\i(!ed  the  book  into  sixteen  chapters,  among  which  maj'  be 
nientioneil.  Tlie    PMJnted    Desert   Hegioii,  The    Ilopi    Villages  and   Their    Hi.story, 


I904  RECENT  PUBLICATION'S  357 

rhe  Religious  Life  of  the  Hopis,  The  Hopi  Snake  Dance,  The  Navajo  Jis  a  Blanket 
^Veaver,  The  Wallapais,  and  the  Social  and  Domestic  Life  of  the  Havasupais. 

Only  a  portion  of  the  (Ireat  Paint e<i  Desert  is  described,  the  effort  heing  rather 
oward  the  esthetic. 

The  home  life,  arts,  and  ceremonies  of  the  Hopis  and  Navajos  are  mentionetl 
n  a  geiienil  way.  Although  of  a  tlifferent  stock  the  lives  of  tlu»s<»  .setlentary  and 
lomadic  tribes  are  so  intertwined  from  contact  and  intennarriage  that  their  cere- 
iioniology  and  artistic  pnxl  net  ions  are  closely  associate:!.  The  author  hiis  drawn 
roin  reliable  scientific  sources  enough  material  to  round  out,  with  his  own  notes, 
everal  chapters  concerning  the.**e  tribe's.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  hi.s  personal 
•bserN'ations,  which  cover  a  i)eriotl  of  many  years,  were  not  always  veritietl,  as  the 
rrors  that  result  are  misleatling. 

Of  sptM-ial  interest  are  the  cha])ters  in  which  the  Wallapais  and  Havasupais  are 
lesmbed.  Even  in  scientific  publications  there  exists  a  dearth  of  material  relat- 
iig  to  these  little-known  tribes;  the  information  presented  is,  therefore,  an 
ceeptable  addition  to  our  current  literature. 

What  the  lxK>k  lacks  in  accuracy  is  made  up  in  interest.  The  mistakes  are 
>riiicipally  technical  and  of  a  scientific  nature. 

The  handling  of  the  photographic  plates  is  deploral)le.  Many  of  them  are 
iiserted  regardless  of  their  bearing  on  the  subject-matter  of  the  chapter  in  which 
hey  appear.  Aside  from  their  i)ositions  they  are  clean  cut  and  convincing  and 
K>rtray  with  a  vivid  clearne.ss  the  toiK)gra])hy  and  ethnography  of  the  desert. 

The  author  hixs  succeeiled  in  presenting  the  subject  in  an  attractive  and  in- 
tnictive  manner.  Mo.st  of  the  facts  can  be  foinid  in  an  elaborated  form  in 
<'ientific  publicatioiLs,  but  the  gencTaiizing  of  the  author  has  bnmght  the  region  well 
vithin  reach  of  the  student,  the  chapters  on  the  Wallapais  and  Havasupais  alone 
nuking  it  a  welcome  addition  to  the  school  library.  CI.  H.  P. 


RECENT  PUBLICATIONS 

^eographen-Kalender,  1904-1905.     Hv  Dr.  Hermann  Haack.     Pp.  2<J().     Gotha: 

Justus  Perthes,  19()4. 

An  indispensable  reference  volume  for  all  geographers.  This,  the  second  annual 
kolumc,  contains  a  sunnnary  of  geographical  progres.s  and  e.\i)loration  for  1903,  a 
ligest  of  the  literature  of  the  same  year,  an  amiouncement  of  the  deaths  among 
geographers  in  19(Ki,  a  valuable  list  of  the  g(H)gra])hical  societies  and  periodicals 
>f  the  world,  and  many  helpful  statistics.  Sixteen  maiw  are  ap|MMid(Ml  to  show 
the  geographical  changes  of  the  year  reviewc^l.  Shoulil  be  in  every  college  and 
normal  .school  library. 

k  Brief  History  of  Rocky  Mountain  Exploration,  with  Especial  Reference  to  the 
Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark.  Hv  Keuben  Gold  Thwaites.  P]).  27().  New 
York:    D.  Appleton  iV:  Co.,   1904. 

A  brief  and  interesting  .summary  of  western  exploration  by  an  authority.  Should 
be  added  to  the  bibliography  of  the  Louisiana  Purcha.se  publisluMl  in  the  June  nmri- 
i)er  of  the  Joitrxal.     TyiM)gni])hically  ]>leasing  and  well  indexetl. 

Carpenter's  Geographical  Reader ;  Australia,  Our  Colonies  and  Other  Islands  of 
the  Sea.  By  Frank  G.  Garj>enter.  I'p.  liHH.  New  York:  American  Hook  Com- 
pany, 1904.' 

A  catch-all  volume  including  brief  descriptions  of  tho.se  parts  of  the  world  not 
hitherto  included  in  Carpenter's  series  of  readers,  with  the  exception  of  Africa,  which 


^  -3  THK  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  September 

will  form  a  soparatp  volume.  Written  in  the  author's  charaeteristieally  interesting 
style  jmd  well  ilhi.strate<i.  Not  sufliciently  rich  to  ser\-e  adequately  as  a  reference 
volume  for  tlie  upixT  prades. 

New  Elementary  Agriculture  for  Rural  and  Graded  Schools.    By  Bessey,  Bruner, 
and  Swpzcv.     l*j).  194.     Linmln,  Svh.:    The  Tniversity  PuHlishing  Company , 
1904. 
.V  simjile  vohuno  coiitainiup  murh  of  iiitiTcst  to  ^r^de  teachers  of  freography. 

KspM'ially  to  he  commcndiil  for  its  clear  statements  in  reference  to  the  popular 

fal[jicit»s  of  the  n*hitions  hetwi'en  tlie  mcMHi  and  the  weather. 

North  America.  Hy  Israel  ('.  Uussell.  Pp.  4.*^).  New  York:  D.  Appleton  A:  Co.,  1904. 
\  vohinie  devotiMl  to  the  toiM)^raphy,  climate,  jreoiog>'.  and  life  j^eography  of 
North  America.     Well  written  luit  poorly  illustrated.     To  l>e  reviewed  later. 

NEWS  NOTE 

The  Cornell  Summer  School  of  Geography.— The  second  session 
of  the  Coriu'll  Suniiin*!'  School  of  (leo^'aphy  came  to  an  end  August 
isth.  In  all  i)articiilars  this  se.-<sion  was  an  advance  over  the  splen- 
ilid  work  of  last  summer.  Mon»  courses  of  instruction  were  given, 
a  much  larjrcM'  iiumher  of  t(»achcrs  attended,  and  even  greater  interest 
was  manifested.  No  school  has  ever  offered  such  a  variety  and 
scope  of  instruction  in  geography  as  the  Cornell  School  gave  this 
sumnuM".  Practically  every  pha.-^(»  of  geography  was  treated  in  the 
twcMity  diffenMil  courses.  The  faculty  consisted  of  very  nearly  the 
same  grouj)  of  men  as  last  summer — I'rofessors  R.  S.  Tarr,  Albert  P. 
Mrigham,  and  Charles  A.  .McMurry;  Instructors  F.  V.  Knierson, 
(ieorge  l>.  Ilul>l>ard.  H.  ('.  Butler.  Philip  Kmerson,  R.  II.  Whitbeck, 
auil  Traiik  Cariu'v.  Five  (»f  tliese  men  will  present  papers  before 
the  Intcnuuinnal  (MM)i:raj»liical  Cimgrcss  which  me(»ts  in  this  country 
in  Sc]>tiM!il>cr.  A<  lirrrtoforc.  much  <'mphasis  was  laid  upon  field 
sluilics.  ninn'  ihan  torty  ticld  trip<  hriuir  jriven.  These  rangeil  from 
nnr-linur  tiip^  in  Immr  trcograj>ljy  tn  tli(»  two-<lay  excursions  to  Wat- 
ki»is  (ilcii.   Nia.i::ara.  and  \\'ilkcsl)arn\   Pa. 

Dr.  (Icvcland  Ahl»c  ol  Wa<liinirlnn,  ih(»  eminent  meteorologist, 
was  prcMMit  tlio  cntin*  s»w-.i,in  jnid  <'nntnl)ute»l  liberally  to  the  enjoy- 
mrnt   and  pmtii   n\   \hr  "  ir«Mn;rapliy  crow«l,"  as  the  group  was  called. 

Tile  Tlnirsday  FviMiinii  Hi»uiid  Tabic  Conferences  which  j)roved  so 
v:ilu:il»l»'  la^t  ^utnnu-r  wrvr  cnntinucd  Miid  a«'centuated  this  summer. 
riu'>c  wcrr  vtM-iiaMr  clrariiiL:  Imu^cs  t^i  opinions  and  experience*!. 
I'it'ty  nr  >i\lv  iraclicrs  uailimMJ  about  the  r<)un<l  table  and  under  the 
Icadcisliip  i»l"  a  inrmluT  t»i"  ilir  t'aculty  discussed  a  series  of  topics  prc- 
\iou>lv  .Nclrricd  and  dl^trilMncij  in   mimengra]>hed  form. 

R.  H.   W. 


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RTMflNT'  fii 


'"''(  ''I'lON'     )],'"■.!;/  (-;V 


NEW  EDITION.  SEPTbMBER.   1904 


The  Dictionary  Cyclopedia 

40  Vols.*  Nearly  28»000  Pages*  and  7,000  lUustratiotis 


V&u    'h'i//  preffr   this   to    any 
oitier^  because: 

Ideal  in  Form  and   5ix« 

All  wbo  sec  Add  liAddb  It  are  de- 
%hted>  And  wonder  why  other  Cyclo- 
pedias anil  DietiorLaries  are  mad<^  ia 
tig,  c}uJBis7  volumes  needinc  *  "der- 
rick'* to  handle. 

It  meets  more  fullv  my  ideal  than 
anv  other.—;.  F,  Crook ER^  ExSupi. 
Pubitc  insiructmn^  N.  Y.  Stit/e. 

Latest  —  Largest 

It  is  one  of  the  latent  Cyclopedias  in 
the  field. 

It  ift  tbe  iargtst  American  Cyclope- 
dia hut  one.  wbicli  costs  about  four 
timeft  the  price  oi  thja. 

Meetj*  more  Nlly  my  idea  f>f  the 
tuerfeet  Cyclopedia  thmn  anv  work  I 
have  ever  examined— F*  ^.  FjtcM. 
ExStipt.  Public  IiistrM€iifi»^  Siait 
c/  Mictfi^an, 

Aa  Untbddged  DktioQiry 

It  ia  not  only  a  Cyclopedia  of  Knowl- 
edge, hut  Also  a  n  tfiiabridged  Bictionr- 
ary,  in  one  alphabet -the  only  work  of 
the  kind.  The  £ombi nation  adds  won- 
derfully to  its  usefulness. 

EveTF  tide  is  pronounced -biography, 
geography,  etc. -a  feature  liked  by  all 
and  pofi^ssed  by  no  other  Cyclopedk. 

in  all  fesptcts  answers  my  expec- 
tationaHconiprehen  si  v  e ,  ace  urate,  and 
oosapfcct— PROK.  Ua>%<?/  yai£. 

Best  Maps  tn  Best  Place 

Its  maps,  the  Largest,  best,  most  numerous,  are 
in  a  sepajrate  volume  t  making  jt  volumes  ),  full 
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scattered  among  the  f^gea  of  maaj  volumes,  a^ 
in  ollter  Cyclopedias. 

Big  Type 

Tt  fapdnted  in  large  type,  and  the  ^mall  volume^ 
enabling  you  to  brin£  it  readily  to  the  best  lifhC 
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Scholarship 

It  is  of  the  highest  scholarship,  as  aliundant  un- 
impeachable testimony  shows  —  the  result  of  many 
yeart'  kbor  of  an  army  of  trained  cyclopedista. 

Unique  Utility 

Its  unique  convenience  and  compreheiwivcDess 
cause  its  use  ten  times  to  once  of  any  other  Cytto- 
pcdU  Of  Dictionary  that  standi  by  it  —  tuch  is  the 
common  testimony. 

Althuugh  I  have  Hverat  I  always  refer  to 
you  fa    in    pfeferotlce.  — Al>RlAK     KKYPfOLDS, 

Pofisessjng  three  others  of  great  merit,  yours 
Is  referred  to  iiftener  than  any  other.  —Rev,  J. 
MilXBH,  Pi>s^/U,  A' J. 

Have  five  others  —  it  ia  yours  I  refer  to  often er 


AN  IDEAL  CYCLOPEDIA   IN  AN 
IDEAL  REVOLVING  BOOKCASE, 


thun  all  the  rent. 
/on^  ir.  1  ii. 


-Dr.  J.  T.  Cotton,  Vhaties- 


One-third  Price 

IH  co«t  is  only  one-fourth  to  one-half  that  of 
any  other  which  can  fairly  be  compared  with  it 

A  revolving  bookcace,  holding  50  to  1 50  yolumes, 
costs  onJy  $j.ao  to  $^3.00. 

Just  the  information  that  nlno  otit  of  ten  ppr^ 
Ko  n  s  1  t>t>k  f  o  r ,  I  p  re  f  e  r  f  1 1  o  J  oh  n*on '  s^  or  t  he  Br  i  - 
tannics.  -A.  D*  iJb:ii:cHV|  ^Mpi.  0/  ScMti^ls,  A^t" 

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Not  onlF  lower  in  cost*  but  sold  on  more  liberal 
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pedia. 

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r.  If  after  90  days*  use  you  do  not  And  itsatts* 
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antee of  good  faith  and  merit  without  parallel. 

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ftample  volume  in  cloth  or  m  half  Morocco,  gilt 
top  (or  *i.Qo  for  both  styles);  return  either  or 
both  and  we  will  refund  money. 


L 


Addr«aa  JOHN  B.  ALDEN,  Publisher,  84-85  Bibje  HauscNewYiirk 

4li»>   fki^  fi    iiiivii^li       though  larf^er  than  any  other  Anier- 

•Tp-^*^-'^'  *l'  llltflitll^    i^:aii   Cyt-Uipedia   uostinK   under 

lilHO.OO.  and  tietttT  than  any  <>thcr  at  any  price  suited  to  »fent?ral  use. 

]t«viiU'lne  Bo<ik*Caae,  S4«00,  frt^e  to  thoae  orderine;  thiij  month  and 

mentitming  JifurMni  &/  G^^rapky,     S«e  trial  oflfer  ahwve.      Full  particulars  free. 


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T'/^^JOURNAL'? 
GEOGRAPHY 

Volume  III.  OCTOBER,  1904  Number  8 


3^n  iUntktvateif  tnontifl^i  tnagaiine  hevoteh  to  the 

intevetkttk  of  teacitev»  x^f  geogvapU^  in  He- 

mentavii^  0ecotttfav\i^  anh  normal  0citool» 


Edited  by  RICHARD  E.  DODGE,  Professor  of  Geog- 
raphv,Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City;  and  EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS,  Professor  of 
Geography,  State  Normal   School,  Winona,  Minnesota 


^onttntB  fj(jr  (Dctobev 

i*A(;K 
C^eography  and  History  in  the  United  States    .    ALBERT  PERRY  BRIGHAM    359 

Emphasis  Upon  Anthropo-Geography  in  Schools 

ELLEN  CHURCHILL  SEMPLE    366 

tactical  Work  in  School  Geography R.  H.  WHITBECK    374 

Physical  Geography  in  High  Schools MARY  I.  PLATT     379 

Oeographical  Notes: 

State  Geojfraphy  —  Cause  and  Effect  — Search  Questions,  387  — The  (leoKraphical  Field 
in  Indiana,  389  -Cotton  Cultivation.  3^2  — The  Winter  of  1(^3-04  in  the  Great  Lakes 
Re{^ion,  393—  Bermuda,  393  —  Poultry  and  Eggs,  395. 

Editorial : 

Clubs  of  Geography  Teachers,  4.J0. 

Reviews: 

Commercial  Geography  of  the  World  Outside  the  British  Isles.  Herbertson  (R.  E.  D.), 
401— The  Land  of  Little  Rain.     Austin  (R.  E.  D.),  40J. 

Recent  Publications 402 

Authors  are  personally  responsible  for  opinions  and  statements  expressed  in  the  JOURNAL 


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The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

PUBLISHED  MONTHLY,  EXCEPT  JULY  AND  AUGUST 

An  Itlustrattd  Mogarine  DeVoted  to  the  Interests  of  Teachers  of  Geographp  in 
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Successor  to  the  Journai  of  School  Geo/^rap/ty,  Vol.  V.,  and  the  Bulletin  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  Geography^  Vol.  II. 


EDITORS 

RICHARD  E.  dodge: 

Professor  of  Geography^  Teachers  Coiiege^  Coiumbia  University^  New  York  City, 

EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS 

Professor  of  Geography^  State  y or  mat  School^  Winona^  Minnesota. 

ASSOCJATt:  J:  D  J  TORS 

CYRUS  C.  ADAMS Geographical  Editor,  X.  Y,  Sun 

OTiS  \V.  CALDWKLL  .  Professor  of  Botany,  State  formal  School^  Charleston^  JIL 
JAMES  F.  CHAMBERLAIN',  Prof  of  Geography,  State  Xortn  at  School,  Los  Angeles^  Cat. 
HENRY  C,  COWLES  .  .  .  Associate  in  Botany,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III, 
AVILLIAM  M.  DAVIS.  Profess.^r  of  Geology,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 
N.  M.  FENNEMAN  .  .  Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  li'isconsin,  Madison,  H^s. 
J.  PAUL  GOODE,  Assistant  IWfessor  of  Geography,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  IlL 
GEORC.E  B.  HOLLISTER,  IlyJrographer,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey',  Washington,  D.  C. 
M.  S.  \V.  }EFF\\K^O^,  Professor  of  Geography,  State  Xormal  School,  Ypsilanri,  MicJL 
EMORY  R.  JOHNSON,  Asst.  IVof  of  Transportation  and  Commerce,  Univ.  of  Penna, 
ED\V.  D.  JONi:S.  Assf.  Prof  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Univ.  of  Mich.,  Ann  Arbor 
VERNON  L.  KKLLOI.JC.,  JVef  .f/Sn.\mc/cgy,  UUnJ Stanf.^rdfr.Univ..  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

CHARLES  1\  K I Nli Master  e/ Dearborn  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

S.  J.  MvvLEAN.  ./-/.  /'nfo/'/:..t.\>'t:\s.  I.e.'.! nd  Stanford  fr.  Univ..  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 
FORKST  RAY  MiULTON,  ./.  ;..'j.;.'  JV.frss.^r  of  .htrono'ny.  University  of  Chicago 

JACOL  ES  W.  RKinVAY Au//ior,  Mount  Fernon,  X.  Y. 

EI.LKN  C.  SI:N[PLK ll'r:fc>  in  Anti:ropogeography,  Louis-ville,  Ky. 

FRKPEKICK  S  TAKR.  .  '.>s.\:j:e  /*'  //".  ."-''••''•'  ^  *.*•♦' "O",  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 
\<\\.V\\  S.    r  \KK.  .'■'/.-.../.  r/'\*\-.y.v.;;  '.V.-.-r .///;;.•,  Cor,:e/l  University,  Ithaca,  X.  Y. 

Sl'KNCKR    TKOrn^R -'f. -ess.  r  cf  BioL,ry,S:i'arthmore  College,  Pa. 

Kv^r.KRT  iv  v'    WARD    .    .  A  . is.'.::  f  }'^.'\    ..r  ^/  C.'.mjtclogy,  Ilarzard  University 

. : <s.  w. :' .' ;;  r.-^; .^\':-->'  /\\v   7.\.r.-i r  pr/taix  . tXD  caxada 

\  7  HV:R1<HK  IS*  >\*.  /_.-..•.•.•;  A.s-.  ..:.'  C'i\\r'jrhy.  Ox',  rd  Unizersity,  England 
.v^HN  A.  PRK><1:R A      ':  S.'U.J.S.'.  Ilenryde. Montreal,  Quebec 


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THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

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The  Journal  of  Geog^raphy  is  an  Illustrated  Monthly  Magrazine  devoted  to  the  interests 
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MACE^'S  SCHOOL 
HISTORY  0/  the 
UNITED  STATES 

FOR   GRAMMAR   GRADES 

BY    WrLLIAM    n.  MACE 

Professor  of  History  in  Syracuse  Univer- 
sity, Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Superior  to  others  because: 

Its  DRABSATIC  STYLE  seizes  upon  the 
child's  interest  in  what  is  live  and  human. 

Its  ARRANGEMENTS  IN  PERIODS 
keeps  clearly  in  the  pupil's  mind  the  rela- 
tion of  events  to  the  larger  movement  of 
which  they  are  a  part 

Its  ARTISTIC  APPEARANCE,  secured 
through  the  large  number  of  portraits, 
illustrations*  and  colored  plates  and  maps* 
catches  the  scholar's  attention  and  enlists 
his  sympathies  at  once. 

For  more  information  about  this  new 
history  write 

RAND,    McNALLY   &    CO. 


Dodge's  Geographies 

AN    CNTIRELY   NEW    SERIES    FOR   THE    GRAMMAR    GRADES 

By  RICHARD  ELWOOD  DODGE 

Processor  of  Geography  in  Tcaclurs  College,  Columbia  UnivrsUy,  New  York  City. 

DODGE \S  GEOGRAPHIES  are  based  on  a  definite  plan 
which  is  adhered  to  throughout  the  series— the  plan  of 
relating  geography  to  life,  showing  how  physical  environ- 
ment shapes  man's  industries,  trade,  and  ways  of  living.  The 
maps  used  in  this  series  have  been  prepared  expressly  for  these 
books  and  have  never  been  used  before.  They  represent  the  most 
accurate  work  of  this  kind  that  has  been  done  in  this  country. 

Dodge's  Elementary  Geography $0.65 

Begins  with  Home  Geography — Brings  out  the  relation 
between  home  and  the  geography  of  the  surrounding  country — 
Gives  as  much  of  land  and  water  forms  and  the  elements  of  com- 
merce as  is  necessary  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  United 
States  and  the  several  continents — Takes  up  existing  industries, 
trade,  industrial  and  trade  centers,  etc.,  and  shows  them  to  be  the 
outgrowth  of  geographical  surroundings;  in  other  words,  reasons 
from  consequences  to  causes. 

Each  continent  is  represented  by  three  full-j)age  maps  and  the 
United  States  by  three  double-page  maps,  the  first  in  each  case  a 
Relief  Map.  the  second  a  Physical  Map,  the  third  a  Political  Map. 
The  book  also  contains  a  large  number  of  black  and  white  mafjs 
and  colored  product  maps. 

Dodge's  Advanced  Geography $1.20 

Begins  with  a  thorough  treatment  of  the  Principles  of  Geogra- 
phy— Takes  up  land  and  water  forms,  climate  (a  more  comprehen- 
sive treatment  than  is  usual  in  grammar-school  geographies), 
vegetation,  animals,  and  men  —  Observes  the  causal  order  —  Cites 
an  abundance  of  concrete  illustrations  of  principles  discussed. 

Considers  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  continents  first, 
with  a  \  iew  to  showing  how  they  have  determined  industries,  trade. 
industrial  and  trade  centers,  etc.;  that  is.  reasons  from  causes  to 
consequences — Brings  out  the  interrelation  of  countries  and  peoples 
through  trade  —Keeps  clearly  in  mind  the  comparison  between 
countries — Gives  special  attention  to  commercial  geography. 

K)ach  continent  is  represented  by  three  full-page  and  the  United 
States  by  three  double-j)age  maps,  the  first  in  each  case  a  Physical 
Map,  the  second  a  Political  Map,  the  third  a  Commercial  Map. 
The  book  also  contains  the  largest  number  of  black  and  white 
diagrams  and  colored  product  maps  to  be  found  in  any  grammar- 
school  geography. 

&he  Elementary  and  the  Advanced  Geographies  are  each  published  as  th7o 
boo'Ks,  making  a  four»book  series. 

RAND.   McNALLY  &  COMPANY 

CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  OCTOBER,  1904  No.  8 

GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES* 

HY    ALHKRT    PKRRY    HRIOHAM 
Colgate   l'niver»ity,  Hamilton,  N.  Y. 

THAT  geographic  conditions  have  power  in  human  affairs  is  known 
to  all,  but  their  sc()|)e  and  importance  are  appreciated  by  few. 
We  cannot  ascribe  all  that  we  do,  or  ex|)erience.  to  geographic 
sources,  and  we  must  draw  our  conclusions  with  caution,  for  personal 
and  racial  traits  come  in  whose  origin  we  cannot  trace.  We  may 
safely  reject,  however,  Xhv  phrase,  '*  theater  of  history,"  as  it  is  com- 
monly used.  The  earth  is  more  than  a  mere  stag(\  (Iround  to  stand 
on,  a  background  to  look  at.  and  even  nuichinery  to  |)roduce  new 
effects  do  not  express  the  relation  of  earth  to  the  human  drama.  The 
bond  is  closer,  and  might  be  called  organic,  bearing  its  share  of  the 
complication  and  mystery  that  l)elong  to  life  everywhere. 

The  writer  has  elsewhere  sought  to  show  th(»  greater  relations 
which  obtain  between  the  American  land  and  American  life,  and  can 
here  select  but  two  or  three  examples  which  seem  to  have  the  force  of 
types,  and  these  will  form  a  l)asis  for  the  emphasis  to  be  laid  upon 
correlating  these  two  great  l)ranches  of  knowledge  in  American  schools. 
We  take  our  pe(»ple  of  the  western  world  as  we  find  them.  It  is  a 
race  ancestrally  molded  by  environment,  but  man  nuist  long  be  studied 
from  the  ccmibined  points  of  view  of  history,  geography,  and  l)iology 
before  the  unknown  geographic  factor  in  the  ecpiation  can  be  brought 
out.  Given  the  early  Americans,  they  W(»re  affected  by  local  influences 
which  told  in  the  resources  of  rocks  and  soils,  in  climate,  in  lines  of 
commerce,  modes  of  communication,  in  the  planting  and  growth  of 
cities.  We  pass  these  and  we  pass  also  the  l(»ss  ol)trusive  Ijut  doubt- 
less more  compelling  influences  of  .sea.  of  relief,  and  of  climate  upon 
the  inner  man,  upon  thought,  imagiiuition,  and  moral  convictions. 

♦Presented  before  the   Kdiicationnl  Section  of  the  Kighth  Inteniatioiial  (ico- 
graphie  Congress. 


360  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

We  hav'e  taken  certain  larger  regional,  and  indeed  we  might  say 
national,  exhibitions  of  geographic  influence  in  the  temperate  portions 
of  North  America.  In  so  doing  we  must  remember  that  our  history  is 
short  and  that  we  see  it  in  its  making,  in  its  more  creative  stages.  But 
thus  to  see  it  is  to  have  a  blurred  vision,  it  may  be,  of  some  of  its  most 
distinctive  characters.  Until  recently  we  have  had  as  a  nation  a 
migrating  fnmtier,  an  ever-shifting  "West,^'  repeating  with  variations 
the  features  of  frontier  life,  furnishing  outlet  from  the  more  settled 
regions,  and  reflecting  the  influence  of  new  conditions  of  society  and 
of  new  products  of  the  earth,  back  upon  the  ohler  populations.  Some 
of  these  older  regions  have  seen  swift  changes,  therefore,  despite  the 
persistence  of  their  soils,  their  minerals,  their  reliefs,  and  their  skies. 
Thus  we  have  widening  circles  of  adjustment  in  larger  and  larger  fields. 
Or,  we  may  say  that  the  process  of  adjustment  is  twofold.  There 
are  local  adaptations,  as  in  periods  of  first  settlement  when  most  of 
man's  necessities  are  won  from  the  soil  at  home;  and  there  are  adjust- 
ments in  relation  to  other  regions,  hinging  upon  more  favorable  com- 
munications, and  upon  products  of  special  regions,  the  law  of  competi- 
tion coming  in.  The  former  sort  are  known  and  utilized  in  some  meas- 
ure in  the  teaching  of  our  sch(K)ls.  We  are  but  beginning  to  know  the 
latter,  and  can  know  them  only  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  historian 
and  the  (^'ononiist. 

,  Our  first  (^xam|)le  is  New  l^ngland.  Here  nothing  less  than  a  revo- 
lution has  taken  |)lace,  and  indeed  it  is  in  progress  before  our  eyes. 
When  the  early  coionisis  sought  the  protected  waters  of  the  shore  and 
the  fertile  lowlands  of  Xho  Connecticut,  or  cleared  their  rough  fields  and 
challenged  the  uj)lan(ls  to  give  them  a  living,  or  snared  it  beneatli  the 
salt  waters,  then*  was  abundant  geographic  influence  and  there  was 
genuine*  adjustment  to  the  conditions  of  the  land.  J-^ut  if  we  look  at 
tlie  New  Kngland  of  to-day,  we  see  many  new  things.  The  fishing  has 
waned  and  what  there  is  conccMitrates  itself  chiefly  at  one  port.  There 
has  been  a  decline,  so  called,  of  agriculture,  but  perhaps  no  diminution 
of  the  value  of  the  |)roducts  of  the  soil.  Boston  is  said  to  be  second  in 
this  ])articular  among  the  towns  of  Massachusetts.  That  the  growths 
of  the  greenhouse  must  l)e  counted  in  to  nuike  this  true,  only  points  to 
the  great  fact  of  s|)ecialization  of  tillage.  It  is  now  tobacco  in  the 
C'oiuiecticut  Valley,  cranberries  on  Cape  Cod,  and  truck  farming  adja- 
cent to  innumeral)le  cities,  instead  of  a  toilsome  struggle  to  raise  bread- 
stuff's everywhere.  Fields  too  steep  and  too  rough  with  bouklers 
to  favor  the  ])l()w  are  relapsing  into  forest,  to  become  valuable  to 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  36  I 


the  next  generation  at  least  for  refreshment,  and  to  later  genera- 
tions, it  may  be,  for  lumber  as  well.  Meantime  the  population  of  the 
region  has  increased,  its  wealth  has  grown,  and  its  array  of  comfortable 
conditions  of  living  is  out  of  all  comparison  with  the  days  of  the  fathers. 
What  now  are  the  larger  connections  in  this  chain  of  events?  We  find 
them  in  early  migraticms  to  New  York  and  Ohio,  the  '^West^';  in  the 
wheat  fields  of  the  Genesee  Valley;  in  the  expansive  acres  of  Illinois 
and  Iowa,  and  in  the  silver  and  gold  of  Colorado  and  California.  Cer- 
tain industries  could  be  better  carried  on  if  New  England  men  and 
others  were  to  follow  the  fleeting  limit  of  our  country  toward  the  set- 
ting sun,  and  the  old  New  England,  mourning  less  about  herself  than 
others  have  mourned  about  her,  set  herself  to  do  the  things  that  she 
could  do  best.  No  water  power  could  be  more  abundant,  no  seashores 
more  attractive,  and  few  harl^ors  more  inviting  than  those  of  New 
England.  Manufacturing,  commerce,  a  considerable  range  of  mineral 
industries,  and  the  care  of  resorts  among  the  mountains  and  by  the 
sea,  may  not  unfairly  be  said  to  mark  the  more  assured  and  final 
adjustments  of  life  to  land  in  this  region  whose  bread  can  better  be 
won  by  exchange  than  with  the  plow.  Adjustment  and  control  are 
marked  by  wider  range.  But  even  in  her  special  field  of  the  factory 
there  is  a  qualification.  Abundant  as  water  power  is,  coal  is  yet 
important,  and  must  come  by  a  long  haul.  And  tiie  haul  for  cotton 
is  yet  longer.  The  South  is  awakening,  and  a  region  which  has  water, 
coal,  cotton,  and  labor  in  juxtaposition  is  likely  to  win  in  the  race. 
Time  will  impart  the  needed  skill  to  the  southern  operative,  and  New 
England  manufacturing  must  turn  in  tiie  main  to  other  lines. 

Professor  Hinsdale  has  remarked  upon  the  prodigious  importance 
to  the  old  Northwest  of  the  fact  that,  on  the  one  hand,  it  belongs  to 
the  upper  Mississippi,  and  on  the  other  is  closely  associated  with  the 
Great  Lakes.  Thus  in  a  word  is  summed  up  much  of  the  history  of  the 
prairies.  Speaking  in  detail,  we  have  first  what  we  may  call  prairie 
conditions,  land  that  is  mainly  flat  and  low-lying,  in  a  forestless  state, 
a  fairly  moist  climate,  and,  owing  in  part  to  its  lack  of  relief,  a  land 
fitted  to  accumulate  a  soil  of  surpassing  richness.  Water  power  is  for 
the  greater  part  absent,  but  there  is  abundant  coal.  These  conditions 
mean  the  dominance  of  agriculture,  easy  local  communications,  and 
the  ultimate  growth  of  manufactures.  The  critical  (juestions  of  geo- 
graphic adjustment  arise  in  connection  with  long-distance  transporta- 
tion. It  has  been  said  that  the  railroads  raised  up  Chicago  and  deter- 
mined New  Orleans  to  an  inferior  position.     But  this  does  not  tell  the 


-7  62  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

whole  story.  It  is  true  that  railways  waxed  as  traffic  clown  the  Miss- 
issippi waned,  but  it  is  difficult  to  weigh  the  share  that  lake  shipping 
has  had  in  making  Chicago.  It  is  also  true  that  railways  fall  back 
upon  geographic  conditions — easy  grades  along  the  old  lake  plains  to 
the  eastward,  the  open  Mohawk  \'alley  with  its  Erie  Canal,  the  tidal 
Hudson,  and  New  York  at  the  western  end  of  the  Atlantic  Ferry.  But 
it  remains  to  be  seen  how  the  old  Northwest  will  be  affected  by  rail- 
ways to  New  Orleans  and  Galveston,  by  an  extended  Drainage  Canal, 
and  a  ship  channel  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  In  brief,  the  East 
and  the  South  have  long  been  striving  for  the  prairie  country,  for  it 
stands  balanced  between  the  one  and  the  other.  The  easy  grades  and 
shorter  haul  ilown  the  Mississippi,  added  to  American  developments 
all  about  the  Mediterranean  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  may  compen- 
sate for  the  longer  passage  from  the  Gulf  ports  to  Europe,  and  may 
weaken  the  bond  between  the  prairies  and  New  York.  The  more  is 
this  result  possible  now  that  for  more  than  a  generation  slavery  has 
been  wiped  out,  and  steady  assimilation  of  social  conditions  betw^een 
the  upper  and  lower  Mississippi  regions  can  proceed.  The  old  struggle 
is  on  which  gave  Washington  and  the  fathers  so  much  concern  in  their 
time,  as  to  whether  by  roads  and  waterw^ays  they  could  render  nuga- 
tory the  divisive  influence  of  the  Appalachian  barrier.  The  sturdy 
men  that  won  the  old  Northwest  came  in  l)y  the  Cumberland  Gap,  and 
the  men  that  subdued  and  populated  it  came  by  the  Seneca  turnpike 
or  through  Pittsburg,  but  the  ancestral  homes  of  New  England  cannot 
])e  forever  renieni])ere(l,  nor  will  the  man  of  the  prairies  maintain 
loyalty  to  New  York  wlien  liis  interests  point  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

We  take  a  furtlu^r  exani[)le  in  the  development  of  the  arid  lands. 
Tlie  basal  motive  cannot  ])e  counted  as  other  than  the  wealth  of  min- 
(»rals  in  tlie  western  mountains.  Once  prompted  to  test  the  possibili- 
ti(^s  of  the  dry  phiti^aus  of  the  Cordilleran  country,  they  have  been 
found  to  liave  vahies  of  their  own,  making  them  no  longer  merely  sub- 
sidiary to  deposits  of  gold  and  silver.  The  Kansas  problem  and  the 
unliappy  inflation  of  the  decade  following  1S85  had  their  origin  in 
ignorance  of  g(M)grapiiic  conditions.  A  temporary  increase  of  rainfall 
was  thought  to  ])et()ken  a  permanent  and  beneficent  change  of  climate. 
Hence  came  an  era  of  speculation  and  foolish  spending,  of  boom  towns 
and  exc(\^sive  railway  building,  of  reckless  borrowing  and  inability  to 
pay  interest,  of  ])ankruptcy  and  foreclosure.  With  this  unhappy  har- 
vest of  distress  came  wild-cat  theories  of  money,  misunderstanding  and 
bickering  Ix^tween  East  and  West,  and  great  loss  and  suffering  on  the 


I904  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  363 

part  of  lender  and  borrower,  until  the  bubble  collapsed,  until  over- 
population was  checked,  and  most  of  those  semi-arid  lands  were 
returned  to  grazing.  Thus  we  approach  the  deeply  characteristic 
development  w^hich  arid-land  life  must  have.  There  will  be  tillage 
where  there  is  water  enough  for  it,  and  grazing  over  wide  intermediate 
spaces.  And  in  the  areas  of  tillage  population  will  be  dense,  \vill 
approach  the  conditions  of  the  town,  and  the  interests  of  the  people  will 
link  them  to  each  other  in  semi-communistic  ways.  These  conditions 
of  solidarity  will  work  themselves  out  in  the  school,  the  church,  in 
economic  relations,  and  in  the  very  life  and  quality  of  the  men  that 
make  up  such  a  society.  And  the  nation  itself,  by  adopting  an  irriga- 
tion policy,  has  not  only  prospectively  increased  its  wealth  and  its 
census  roll,  but  fosters  thereby  a  modified  and  highly  specialized  type 
of  society. 

Final,  or  at  least  larger,  adjustments  are  hinted  at  in  our  expansion 
of  territory,  in  binding  to  ourselves,  more  or  less  closely,  lands  across 
the  seas  and  in  the  enlarging  commercial  bonds  which  join  us  to  other 
lands.  We  can  hardly  emphasize  too  much  the  fact  that  w-e  stand 
between  two  oceans.  The  Pacific  now  looms  in  importance  and  w^e 
are  pointed  back  to  our  primal  geographic-historical  fact  that  we 
fronted  Europe  and  were  thus  approached  on  our  more  open  side  by 
several  colonizing  peoples,  of  which  one,  perhaps  in  defiance  of  geo- 
graphic obstacles,  became  dominant. 

We  now  come  to  the  question  whether  these  great  relations  between 
history  and  geography  are  properly  recognized  in  the  literature  of  the 
two  subjects  and  in  the  schools.  We  shall  do  historical  literature  no 
injustice  by  affirming  that  it  is  generally  deficient  in  a  real  understand- 
ing of  relations  to  the  earth.  The  quality  of  regions  and  of  national 
domains  is  but  partly  realized.  There  are  plains,  there  are  mountains, 
there  are  rivers;  there  is  impressionistic  painting,  but  little  photography 
upon  the  pages  of  the  historians.  In  like  degree  geography  has  failed 
to  avail  itself  of  the  rich  interest  which  history  offers,  with  its  wealth 
of  human  elements  and  its  causal  associations  running  through  time, 
and  its  economic  and  social  relations  giving  easy  unity  to  wide  regions 
or  remote  nations. 

If  we  inquire  for  correlation  in  schools,  the  answer  is  little  better 
than  negative.  Certainly  geography  should  be  fundamental  and 
should  in  some  measure  precede,  while  history  should  follow,  and 
should  not  only  be  more  intelligible,  but  contribute  new  fascination  to 
the  geography.     The  teacher  of  geography  must  know  the  essentials 


364  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 


of  history,  and  should  be  well  schooled  in  the  history  of  his  own 
people,  and  the  teacher  of  history  is  but  half  fitted  for  his  task  if  he 
does  not  know  the  principles  of  geography,  and  if  he  has  not  a  generous 
knowledge  of  the  geography  of  his  own  country. 

Such  correlations,  whether  in  the  teacher  himself  or  in  school  pro- 
grams, are  rare.  And  yet  correlation  is  peculiarly  possible  with  the 
common  plan  of  one  teacher  for  all  subjects  in  a  grade  and,  in  the 
department  system,  only  recjuires  some  planning  on  the  part  of  direc- 
tors and  teachers,  liut  tlie  teacher  will  often  wait  long  for  aid  from 
his  superiors.  As  it  was  put  by  another,  *'It  is  no  uncommon  thing 
for  a  class  to  be  studying  at  the  same  time  the  geography  of  Africa,  the 
history  of  England,  the  plant  life  of  Minnesota,  while  having  for  their 
reading  lesson  the  story  of  Peter  the  Great. ^'  Jiut,  barring  repressive 
systems  of  examination,  there  is  no  limit  except  of  time  and  interest 
to  the  amount  of  history  that  a  teacher  of  geography  may  know  and 
use,  or  to  the  history  teacher's  use  of  geography,  each,  of  course,  mak- 
ing the  other  subject  subsidiary  to  his  own.  In  this  respect  we  seem 
to  be  far  behind  Germany,  where  the  two  subjects  more  often  are  han- 
dled by  the  same  teacher.  We  need  not,  however,  wonder  that  w^e  are 
backward  when  we  see  geography  just  escaping  from  its  thrall  as  a 
locational  study,  and  when  the  first  association  in  this  country  for 
improving  educational  methods  in  history  dates  from  the  Nebraska 
organization  of   1SS9. 

Professor  Howard  criticises  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven 
to  the  American  Historical  Association  as  disappointing  in  the  matter 
of  coi relation.  Ho,  however,  lays  stress  here  on  law  and  economics, 
while  we  would  place  it  without  question  upon  geography.  In  fact, 
the  one  passage  of  the  report  that  touches  geography  with  emphasis, 
serious  and  true  as  it  mainly  is,  is  amusing  in  its  assurance.  "Fortu- 
nately," says  the  passage,  "it  is  unnecessary  in  these  latter  days  to 
call  the  teacher's  attention  to  the  use  of  maps,  and  to  the  idea  that 
geography  and  history  are  inextricably  interwoven."  This  would  be 
pleasant  if  it  were  true.  Th(»  use  of  wall  maps,  physical  maps,  and  of 
an  historical  atlas  is  recognized,  and  we  are  told  that  ''pupils  should 
not  lose  .sight  of  the  i)hysical  causes  that  have  acted  in  history."  But 
what  if  nine-tenths  of  the  teachers  are  densely  ignorant  of  these  physi- 
cal causes!  The  best  thing  in  the  passage  is  quoted  from  Hinsdale, 
who  says,  with  freshness  and  power,  **  Groupings  of  historical  figures 
and  scenes  around  geographical  centers  make  these  centers  themselves, 
])in(ling  the  figures  and  scenes  together,  give  them  a  new^  permanence 


1904  GEOGRAPHV  AND  HISTORY  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES  365 

and  solidity/'  Aside  from  the  one  passage  there  is  little  reference  to 
geography  in  the  report,  and  the  implication  is  that  locational  geog- 
raphy and  a  rough  knowledge  of  the  principal  reliefs  is  all  that  is 
needed.  Dr.  C.  A.  McMurry,  in  his  'Special  Method  in  Geography/' 
has  given  pointed  expression  to  the  importance  and  feasibility  of  such 
correlation  as  is  here  under  review. 

One  of  the  more  satisfactory  utterances  on  this  subject  is  found  in 
the  report  of  the  history  conference  to  the  Committee  of  Ten,  as  fol- 
lows: "From  the  beginning  the  teacher  should  attempt  to  connect 
physical  geography  with  the  present  political  condition  of  the  world; 
and,  in  like  manner,  the  study  of  political  geography  should  constantly 
bring  in  the  physical  features."  Even  more  emphatic  is  the  formal 
resolution  of  that  conference,  "That  the  study  of  history  should  be 
constantly  associated  with  the  study  of  topography  and  political  geog- 
raphy, and  should  be  supplemented  by  the  study  of  historical  and 
commercial  geography  and  the  drawing  of  historical  maps."  Good  as 
this  is,  we  may  even  read  between  the  lines  here  the  "  theater-of-his- 
tory"  idea,  rather  than  the  very  ground  and  conditioning  element  of 
his  ory.  Thorpe,  in  an  essay  included  in  the  volume  on  the  "Study 
of  History  in  American  Colleges,"  observes:  "That  study  [history] 
should  be  at  first  chiefly  geographical  and  sociological."  He  is  speak- 
ing here  of  the  public  school.  The  College  Entrance  Examination 
Board  might  well  go  farther  in  its  syllabus  of  history,  than  this,  "geo- 
graphical knowledge  will  be  tested  by  re(iuiring  the  location  of  places 
and  movements  on  an  outline  map."  This  might  have  been  written 
a  hundred  years  ago  if  history  had  then  'counted  for  admission  to 
college. 

What  is  proposed  to  be  done,  in  view  of  the  need  and  of  the  evident 
gains  of  such  correlation?  We  have  no  scheme  to  outline,  but  we  hope- 
fully recognize  an  awakening  interest  and  excellent  beginnings. 
Within  a  brief  time  formal  works  on  the  interrelations  of  geography 
and  history  have  begun  to  appear.  There  is  a  profound  interest  in 
this  field  on  the  part  of  all  progressive  geographers,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  pertinent  articles  have  appeared  in  tlie  geographical  jour- 
nals during  the  past  five  years.  Several  of  the  later  historians  have 
also  recognized  the  intrinsic  (if  we  may  so  term  it)  value  of  geography. 
To  Francis  Parkman  must  be  given  the  honor  of  being  the  pioneer  in 
this  splendid  field.  H  to  him  a  region  is  a  theater,  it  is  a  stage  that 
glorifies  with  its  native  colors  every  deed  that  emerges  upon  it,  and  the 
reader  knows  that  he  has  seen  no  manufactured  setting,  but  the  very 


^66  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  October 

home  and  fertile  soil  where  historic  deeds  have  matured.  Fiske  and 
McMaster  are  not  far  behind  the  great  master  of  lake  and  forest,  and 
it  is  worthy  of  note  that  for  a  part  of  its  next  annual  meeting  the  Asso- 
ciation of  History  Teachers  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland  have 
arranged  a  session  for  the  discussion  of  such  problems  of  joint  interest. 
These  indications  point  to  a  vital  growth  which  will  bring  about  the 
needed  organization  and  will  develop  suitable  school  programs.  We 
shall,  as  time  advances,  have  more  teachers  of  geography  and  of  his- 
tory, specialists  in  chosen  fields,  and  neither  will  be  deemed  fit  for  his 
own  subject  until  his  interest  and  his  first-hand  knowledge  take  him 
far  over  into  the  other. 


EMPHASIS     UPON    ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY 
IN  SCHOOLS* 

HV    KLLEN    CHURCHILL    SEMPLE 
Louisville,  Ky. 

EVKRV  State  or  nation  includes  two  ideas,  the  land  and  its  peo- 
ple, each  unthinkable  \\4thout  the  other.  Even  the  Sahara  sug- 
gests. ])esides  its  wastes  of  sand,  the  group  of  huts  in  the  palm- 
grown  oasis,  the  white-robed  Arab  sitting  in  the  shadow  of  his  tent  by  a 
solitary  well,  the  camel  with  his  brown-skinned  driver  bending  before 
the  blast  of  the  simoon,  and  the  long-drawn  caravan  creeping  along  a 
bone-marked  trail,  (leography  is  the  study  of  the  land  and  its  effect 
upon  its  people;  history  is  the  study  of  a  people  in  whose  economic, 
social,  and  political  development  the  land  is  an  essential  and  potent 
factor,  (leography  lays  the  stress  ui)on  the  land,  history  upon  the 
peo])le.  Hut  the  land  is  fully  comprehended  only  when  studied  in 
t'lo  light  of  its  influence  upon  the  inhabitants,  and  a  people  can  never 
be  understood  apart  from  the  field  of  their  activities,  from  the  climate 
which  determines  their  housing  and  dressing,  the  rainfall  and  soil  which 
control  their  agriculture,  the*  isolation  or  accessibility  of  their  country 
which  defines  the  amount  and  character  of  their  intercourse  with 
other  lands,  and  finally  the  size  of  their  territory,  which  must  always 
be  a  factor  in  the  numerical  strength  of  the  population. 

By  I  ho  introduction  of   the   human   element,  geography  is  lifted 
out   of  tlie  <lul]  round  of  formal  studies  and  the  earth  becomes  the 

*  ProiMited  before  tlie   Kdiieat.oii:*!  Seetioii  of  t'^e   Kitrhth   Internationnl  Geo- 
^rapliie  Conirri  ss. 


i9<H  EMPHASIS  UPON  ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY  IN  SCHOOLS  3^7 


setting  of  a  great  world  drama.  By  the  introduction  of  the  geographic 
element,  history  becomes  vitalized;  through  it  now  pulses  the  life- 
blood  of  the  people.  All  the  forces  and  treasures  and  beauties  of 
nature  enter  into  the  chronicle.  Its  pages  seem  to  smell  of  the  up- 
turned soil;  they  are  golden  with  fields  of  ripened  grain  and  white 
with  fields  of  cotton ;  they  echo  the  sound  of  the  pioneer's  axe  blazing 
a  trail  over  a  mountain  pass,  the  ripple  of  the  voyageur's  canoe  explor- 
ing some  far  northern  stream,  the  splash  of  the  steamboat  on  a  river 
highway,  the  roar  of  waterfall  and  the  whir  of  mill-wheel,  the  lowing 
of  cattle  on  thirsty  plain,  and  the  hum  of  life  in  the  big  seaport;  they 
reflect  the  persistent  and  potent  forces  back  of  political  bodies  and 
legislative  enactments  in  the  geographic  conditions  of  the  people. 

The  chief  emphasis  in  the  two  studies  should  not  be  changed;  but 
this  is  still  compatible  with  a  fuller,  deeper  geographical  interpre- 
tation of  history  than  is  now  customary,  and  a  more  fruitful  anthro- 
pological interpretation  of  geography.  Though  the  newer  geograph- 
ical text-books  give  an  interesting  and  scientific  treatment  of  earth 
forms,  the  sections  devoted  to  the  various  countries  of  the  world  are 
burdened  with  masses  of  economic  detail,  which  in  themselves 
are  uninteresting  to  a  child,  which  are  imperfectly  presented  in 
their  causal  relation,  and  which  for  a  large  part  are  only  indi- 
rectly, not  directly  and  obviously,  the  effect  of  geographic  condi- 
tions. The  result  is  that  the  child  is  swamped  in  a  mire  of  unsys- 
tematized knowledge  or  is  forced  along  a  line  of  causal  reasoning 
too  long  and  involved  for  the  immature  mind  to  follow.  Finally, 
these  facts  are  selected  with  little  view  to  history,  the  next  study 
in  the  school  curriculum. 

Economic  facts  appeal  little  to  the  child;  their  study  is  proper 
only  for  the  mature  mind,  and  hence  their  multiplication  in  geograph- 
ical text-books  is  stultifying.  Yet  the  causal  idea  back  of  a  group 
of  such  facts  the  child  will  seize  upon  and  retain.  For  instance,  he  is 
not  eager  to  learn  or  sure  to  remember  that  Troy,  N.  Y.,  is  an  impor- 
tant center  for  the  manufacture  of  collars  and  cuffs,  Cohoes  for  knit 
goods  and  hosiery.  Utica  for  fine  hardware  and  machinery,  but 
he  can  grasp  the  principle  that  all  these  are  manufacturing  tow^ns, 
because  their  location  on  the  great  canal  and  valley  railroad  route 
between  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Great  Lakes  renders  them  access- 
ible to  raw  materials  of  all  kinds  and  enables  them  to  send  their  fin- 
ished goods  to  widely  distributed  markets,  while  local  water  power 
reduces  the  item  of  fuel  in  the  cost  of  production.     In  the  same  way 


368  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  October 

the  child  can  readily  understand  the  geographic  factors  which  have 
made  P^ngland  lead  the  world  in  manufactures  and  which  have  local- 
ized the  great  manufacturing  area  in  the  northwestern  part  of  that 
country;  but  he  gains  little  by  memorizing  a  list  of  the  chief  industries 
distinguishing  the  various  English  cities.  The  teaching  of  geography 
would  gain,  therefore,  both  in  interest  and  educative  value,  by  paying 
less  attention  to  the  mere  enumeration  of  details  and  more  to  their 
scientific  interpretation. 

This  multiplication  of  economic  facts,  which  has  so  expanded  the 
text  in  recent  geographies,  has  crowded  to  the  wall  the  important 
study  of  the  map.  Earth  forms  are  slighted  in  their  geographical 
distribution  and  tlieir  effects  as  phases  of  geographical  environ- 
ment. The  old  routine,  illogical  map  questions  have  not  been  suc- 
ceeded by  intelligent,  logical  map  questions  designed  to  develop 
anthropo-geographical  principles.  The  drainage  systems  of  Russia, 
Germany,  China,  or  America  are  described  in  the  t^xt,  perhaps;  but 
the  child  is  not  sent  to  the  map  by  discreet  questions  to  discover 
those  drainage  systems  for  himself  and  to  estimate  their  importance 
for  their  respective  countries.  And  every  child  should  become 
an  infant  discoverer  on  the  cartographical  page  in  order  to  accjuire 
a  self-constructed  knowledge  of  every  ocean,  continent,  and  coun- 
try as  the  basis  for  anthr()p()-geograf)hical  deductions.  Maps, 
physical  and  political,  nuist  remain  the  child's  chief  repository  of 
facts,  to  which  he  can  most  easily  refer  and  from  which  he  can 
draw  his  surest  conclusions.  Trained  to  this  anthropological  inter- 
l)retati()n,  he  finds  th(»  otherwise  dull  page  becoming  luminous.  The 
facts  and  ])rinci|)les  thus  ac(|uire(l  introduce  him  to  contemporary 
history,  the  terms  and  names  of  which  are  more  or  less  familiar 
to  him,  and  by  comparative  methods  into  past  history.  Moreover 
they  deal  with  themes  far  more  likely  to  interest  him  than  the  weary 
enumeration  of  economic  data.  A  list  of  Cuba's  mineral  resources 
or  a  statement  of  its  commercial  exchanges  with  other  countries 
appeals  little  to  a  child,  and  is  not  readily  associated  with  the  Cuba 
which  he  knows  best,  the  Cuba  of  the  map;  but  if  you  would  arouse 
his  interest,  point  out  the  isolation  due  to  Cuba's  island  character, 
show  him  that  to  this  separation  from  the  mainland  and  to  the  island's 
limited  size  was  due  in  large  part  its  long  subjection  to  Spain,  when 
all  the  other  Spanish  colonies  in  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America 
had  gaincMJ  thcnr  inde})endence.  either  because  the  vast  extent  of 
their   territories   and    their   consetpient    larger   populations   rendered 


X904  KMPHASIS  UPON  ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHV  IN  SCHOOLS  369 

their  uprising  more  formidable,  or,  as  in  South  America,  continental 
neighbors  like  Colombia  and  Vene/Aiela,  Argentine  and  Chile,  sent 
armies  even  over  the  high  barrier  of  the  Andes  to  support  each  other 
in  the  struggle  for  freedom,  while  Cuba\s  seagirt  location,  accessible 
only  to  ships  which  the  new-born  Latin  republics  lacked,  kept  at 
arm's  length  the  deliverer,  and  Cuba's  relatively  small  area  could 
be  retained  under  the  crushing  hand  of  Spain.  Finally,  Cuba's 
proximity  to  the  I  nited  States  and  her  strategic  position  on  Florida 
Straits  become  obvious  factors  in  her  independence  and  the  guarantee 
of  that  independence  by  the  American  Government. 

In  the  same  way,  lead  the  young  student  to  read  from  the  map 
the  restricted  availability  of  Russia's  coastline  —  its  White  Sea  har- 
bors accessible  from  the  open  ocean,  but  closed  by  ice  more  than  six 
months  of  the  year;  its  Haltic  coast,  also  ham[)ered  by  a  long  winter, 
liable  in  time  of  war  to  be  bottled  up  by  Germany,  Scandinavia,  or 
the  ships  of  England  patrolling  the  narrow  exit;  its  Black  Sea  coast, 
to  which  the  neck  of  the  bottle  is  particularly  small  and  the  cork 
secured  for  all  naval  vessels  of  the  great  Muscovite  power;  its  far- 
northern  strip  on  the  Pacific  with  the  often  ice-bound  port  of  \'lad- 
ivostock,  where,  moreover,  the  long  cordon  of  the  Japanese  Islands 
makes  the  Japan  Sea  another  Kuxine  and  the  Korean  Strait  another 
Bosphorus;  the  significance  of  the  struggle  for  a  maritime  outlet  on 
an  unfrozen  sea  in  Manchuria;  and  finally  the  meaning  of  the  ominous 
bulge  of  Russia's  frontier  south  of  the  Caucasus  and  the  wedge  driven 
into  northern  Afghanistan,  signposts  of  her  proposed  advance  to  the 
Persian  Gulf  and  the  Arabian  Sea.  Ask  the  child  to  estimate  from 
the  map  the  value  of  the  coasts  of  all  the  Kuropean  countries,  in  terms 
of  length,  harbor  facilities,  availability,  and  routes  of  communica- 
tion with  the  interior.  See  how  eagerly,  from  an  inspection  of  the 
coasts  of  Germany,  France,  Russia,  and  the  United  States,  as  inter- 
rupted by  the  intervening  littoral  of  a  foreign  power,  he  will  reason 
to  the  political  necessity  of  a  canal  to  connect  the  separated  coasts, 
and  from  a  study  of  a  physical  map  will  fix  its  possible  location. 
Tell  the  child  that  the  Samoyedes,  a  retarded  people  of  Arctic 
Siberia,  have  twenty-one  different  words  for  the  color  gray,  and  ask 
for  the  geographical  reason  of  this  surprising  richness  in  a  primitive 
language. 

The  map,  thus  treated,  becomes  for  the  young  student  a  great 
field  for  comparison,  and  hence  for  the  deduction  of  anthropo- 
geographical   principles.      Tracing  the  strategic   and  hence  political 


370  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  October 


importance  of  the  entrances  to  enclosed  sea  basins,  he  reads  at  a 
jj;lance  the  significance  of  Havana  and  Key  West  for  the  command 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  of  Constantinople  for  the  Black  Sea,  of  the 
Russian  fortress  at  Port  Arthur  for  Pechili  Gulf,  of  the  British  posi- 
tions at  Singapore,  Aden,  Suez,  and  Gibraltar;  he  groups  with  these 
strategic  points  Denmark's  peninsula  and  island  location  command- 
ing the  channels  leading  into  the  Baltic,  and  readily  grasps  the  fact 
that  this  location  made  the  historic  greatness  of  the  country  in  the 
past,  enabling  it  at  one  time  to  levy  toll  on  merchant  vessels  entering 
this  northern  Mediterranean,  and  has  prevented  its  absorption  by 
one  of  its  larger  neighbors,  because  all  these  could  agree  upon  the 
desirability  of  having  this  important  passway  in  the  hands  of  a  weak 
and  neutral  power. 

To  recapitulate,  this  interpretation  of  the  map  has  the  follo\\ing 
advantages:  Its  metliod  is  comparative  and  hence  scientific;  it  arrives 
at  anthropo-geographical  principles  interesting  and  comprehensible 
to  an  immature  mind;  it  deals  with  familiar,  present-day  history 
and  leads  from  the  present  to  the  past ;  finally  it  is  a  natural  prepara- 
tion for  the  study  of  history,  which  immediately  follows  geography 
in  the  school  curriculum.  The  American  child  goes  from  the  study 
of  goograpiiy  to  the  history  of  the  United  States.  He  possesses  a 
valual)le  stock  of  facts  about  the  climate,  location,  size,  coastline, 
and  topography  of  his  country,  ready  to  serve  as  the  basis  for  his 
study  of  its  history,  but  rarely  or  inadequately  utilized  for  this  pur- 
pose by  school  text-books.  The  o])|)ortunity  to  apply  the  pedagog- 
ical j)rinciple  of  proc(»o(ling  from  the  known  to  the  unknown  stares 
one  in  the  face;  but  the  valuable  ready-made  foundation  is  ignored, 
the  child  begins  inimcMJiatel.v  on  the  superstructure,  and  his  history 
hovers   in    the   air. 

The  geographical  element  in  history  as  taught  to-da}'  in  the  schools 
— taught  often,  too,  in  compliance  with  the  reciuirement  of  college 
preparation — is  for  the  most  part  superficial  and  inadequate.  It 
consists  chiefly  in  nuMuorizing  geographical  locations,  in  very  imper- 
fect map-drawing,  yielding  to  the  student  scant  profit  in  proportion 
to  the  expenditure  of  time  and  effort,  or  in  fiUing  in  outline  maps, 
guiltless  of  any  suggestion  of  topography,  with  poHtical  boundaries 
and  sites  of  towns  and  })attles.  The  study  is  not  in  the  least  inter- 
j)retative;  it  makes  a  demand  upon  the  memory,  not  upon  the  reason- 
ing power.  The  teacher  asks  the  student  to  locate  the  battles  of 
Oriskany,   Ticonderoga,   and    Saratoga   in    the    Revolution,    and    is 


1904  EMPHASIS  UPON  ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY  IN  SCHOOLS  37  I 

satisfied  with  the  answer  that  they  were  in  the  central  part  of  east- 
ern New  York,  overlooking  the  important  fact  of  their  location  along 
the  two  great  valley  routes  between  flanking  mountain  barriers  from 
Lake  Ontario  on  the  west  and  the  St.  Lawrence  on  the  north,  con- 
verging upon  the  upper  Hudson,  that  great  river  highway  through 
the  heart  of  the  Colonies.  In  the  War  of  1812  the  land  battles  of 
Saranac  River  and  the  naval  engagement  ofF-shore  are  located  by 
the  student  near  the  northern  end  of  Lake  Champlain,  but  are  not 
shown  to  be  a  repetition  of  the  battles  of  Ticonderoga  and  \'alcour 
Island  in  the  previous  war,  pushed  a  little  farther  north  on  this  same 
great  Champlain-Hudson  route.  Or  the  numerous  naval  conflicts 
in  this  same  war  are  located  vaguely  in  the  wide  waste  of  the  Atlantic, 
with  no  regard  to  the  great  trade  routes  determined  by  prevailing 
winds  and  ocean  currents,  which  were  followed  in  that  day  by  English 
merchantmen  seeking  the  West  or  East  Indies,  and  which  there- 
fore were  infested  by  American  vessels  preying  upon  English  com- 
merce. 1  remember  distinctly,  when  a  child  of  ten  years  old,  studying 
the  dreary  list  of  naval  engagements  in  this  war,  with  the  names  of 
vessels  and  commanders  on  either  side,  and  wondering  in  my  childish 
mind  where  all  these  battles  were,  and  why  they  were  anywhere.  If 
I  learned  that  the  conflict  between  the  "Constitution"  and  the"(juer- 
riere"  took  place  southeast  of  Sable  Isle  in  such  longitude  and  latitude, 
I  was  not  much  wiser,  because  the  significant  fact  in  this  location 
was  carefully  suppressed  —  namely,  that  this  battle  was  fought  near 
the  southern  entrance  to  the  (iulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  where  American 
vessels  throughout  the  war  were  lurking  about  to  intercept  English 
supply  ships  on  their  way  either  to  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  the 
British  forces  in  Canada  or  to  the  British  naval  base  at  Halifax. 

The  geographic  factors  in  the  history  of  Greece  receive  more  atten- 
tion in  school  text-books  than  those  of  any  other  country;  but  here 
only  the  more  obvious  influences  are  discussed,  the  political  sub- 
division of  the  country  due  to  physical  subdivision  by  mountain 
barriers  and  arms  of  the  sea;  the  indented  coastline,  the  fringing 
island  groups,  and  the  proximity  of  other  lands  resulting  in  the  sea- 
faring and  colonizing  propensities  of  the  early  Greeks;  the  effect  of 
climate,  quality  of  atmosphere,  and  scenery  upon  the  artistic  develop- 
ment of  the  Greek  mind.  But  other  equally  important  influences 
are  past  unnoticed.  The  marked  colonizing  tendency  of  the  peo])le 
was  a  result  also  of  the  restricted  territory  of  the  Httle  peninsula  and 
the  limited  amount  of  arable  soil  in  a  country  of  rugged  mountains 


372  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 


and  sterile  plateaus.  In  a  country  where  to-day  only  eighteen 
per  cent  of  the  surface  is  under  cultivation,  population  must  at  an 
early  ilate  have  begun  to  press  upon  the  limits  of  subsistence  yielded 
by  primitive  agriculture.  Emigration  from  congested  districts 
necessarily  followed,  and  foreign  commerce  was  resorted  to  to  increase 
the  earning  power  of  the  states.  In  all  these  points  ancient  Greece 
presents  a  geographic  and  hence  economic  parallel  with  the  histor}- 
of  Fhcenicia,  Norway,  England,  and — barring  the  quality  of  the  soil 
— with  Holland. 

But.  as  Hatzel  says.  ''The  most  important  fact  in  the  geography 
of  (Ireece  was  its  location  at  the  threshold  of  the  Orient/'  and  yet 
this  factor  is  never  brought  out  in  its  full  significance.  Greece  was 
the  part  of  Europe  most  accessil)le  to  the  ancient  centers  of  ci\'iliza- 
tion  in  Egypt  and  southern  Asia;  upon  it  converged  all  the  great 
routes  from  tlie  East,  which  poured  into  the  Hellenic  world  the  intel- 
lectual and  commercial  wealth  of  the  Orient.  The  Mediterranean 
and  Black  Sea  termini  of  every  such  route^were  marked  by  Greek 
coloni^»s  —  Trebizond.  Sinope,  Byzantium,  Smyrna,  Miletus.  Antioch, 
and  Xaucratis  in  the  Nile  delta.  Over  the  eastern  rim  of  the  .Egean 
rose  the  sun  of  Greek  culture,  flooding  with  light  the  islands  of  that  sea, 
the  Asia-fronting  shore  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Pindus  Mountains,  while  a  gray,  uncertain  dawn  long  defined  the  west- 
ward-reaching shadow  of  the  massive  range.  Then,  by  its  position 
midway  between  the  productive  countries  of  the  East  and  the  newly 
opeiKMl  lands  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  (ireece  became  the  great 
middleman  of  {\\c  early  world,  the  distributing  center  of  products  and 
ideas,  just  as  twenty  centuries  later  the  Hanse  towns  of  the  North 
Sea  and  the  neigh])oring  Baltic  l)ecame  the  agents  of  Mediterranean 
commerce^  and  culture  for  the  less  developed  coast  regions  of  northern 
Europe. 

When  the  nialurer  student  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  general 
history  and  passes  to  the  advanced  study  of  physiogra])hy,  as  now 
taught  in  some  high  schools  and  colleges,  he  conmiands  the  material 
for  broader  anthropo-geographical  conclusions,  which  in  turn  give 
him  a  larger  outlook  upon  history.  Tiie  study  of  the  physical  features 
of  fiord  coasts  and  countries  will  gain  immensely  in  interest  if  followed 
by  a  comparison  of  the  influence  of  fiord  environment  upon  the  Indians 
of  southern  Alaska,  the  people  of  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  Norway. 
as  also  upon  the  (H-onomic  development  of  British  Columbia,  Wash- 
ington, and  Maine.     A  study  of  continental  islands  is  complete  only 


I904  EMPHASIS  UPON  ANTHROPO-GEOGRAPHY  IN  SCHOOLS  373 

with  a  comparison  of  the  isolating  influence  of  an  island  environ- 
ment in  Japan,  England,  Iceland,  Corsica,  Madagascar,  Cape 
Breton,  and  Cuba,  and  with  an  analysis  of  the  striking  and  not  for- 
tuitous parallels  in  the  history  of  England  and  Japan.  The  study  of 
enclosed  sea  basins  requires  a  comparison  of  early  maritime  develop- 
ment in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Baltic;  the  study  of  mountains, 
a  comparison  of  their  isolating  effects  in  the  survival  of  moribund 
languages  in  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  Caucasus,  the  Highlands  of  Scotland, 
the  mountain  districts  of  Wales  and  Ireland,  and  in  the  persistence  of 
a  seventeenth  century  English  in  the  remoter  parts  of  the  Southern 
Appalachians  to-day.  All  mountain  peoples  are  found  to  have  cer- 
tain characteristics  in  common,  especially  a  love  of  political  and  per- 
sonal freedom,  which  explains  the  existence  of  small,  independent 
mountain  states  like  Switzerland,  Andorra,  Montenegro,  Nepal,  and 
Bhutan;  the  fierce  and  protracted  resistance  to  conquest  made  by 
the  ancient  Samnite  tribes  of  the  Apennines,  the  Highland  clans  of 
Scotland,  the  tribes  of  the  Caucasus  and  Himalayas,  and  the  Albanian 
mountaineers  of  Turkey;  and  it  accounts  for  the  habitual  disregard 
of  governmental  authority  displayed  to-day  by  the  people  of  the 
isolated  Southern  Appalachians  in  matters  of  clan  feuds  and  illicit 
distilling. 

By  comparison  of  different  periods  also,  the  same  geographic 
factor  is  seen  to  operate  continuously,  though  under  new  aspects, 
caused  by  a  change  of  other  conditions.  For  instance,  certain 
mountain  passes  and  the  river  valleys  leading  from  them  down 
either  slope  have  determined  the  routes  across  the  Appalachians, 
whether  of  *^  buffalo  trace,"  or  Indian  war-path,  or  tlie  well-beaten 
trail  of  the  pioneer,  or  the  wagon  road  of  the  early  western  emigrant, 
or  the  line  of  the  railway  seeking  the  easiest  path  across  the  wide- 
stretched  barrier.  In  the  same  way  that  deep  furrow  between  the 
mighty  Caucasus  and  Anti-Caucasus  Mountains  which  served  as  the 
ancient  route  of  communication  between  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian,  and  brought  the  gold  of  the  East  to  mythical  Colchis,  sees 
to-day  the  railroad  which  brings  the  petroleum  of  Baku  and  the  rugs 
of  Bokhara  to  the  Mediterranean  lands.  The  geographic  conditions 
which  made  a  maritime  power  of  ancient  Greece  still  enable  the 
modern  country  to  lead  in  the  carrying  trade  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean. The  arid  plains  and  mountain  slopes  of  the  American  West, 
once  the  grazing  lands  of  the  buffalo  and  deer  whose  skins  figured 
prominently  in  the  early  exchanges  of  the  busy  little  tow^ns  at  the 
2        ^ 


374  '^'"^  JOURNAL  OF  GKOGRAPHY  October 

elbow  and  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River,  to-day  raise  the  cattle 
and  sheep  to  supply  the  great  slaughtering  and  packing  industries 
at  8t.  Louis  and  Kansas  City. 

These  geographic  forces  are  stable,  persistent;  they  operate  from 
day  to  day  and  from  century  to  century.  They  constitute  the  soil 
in  which  empires  are  rooted,  and  they  rise  in  the  sap  of  the  nation. 

PRACTICAL  WORK  IN  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY* 

BY    R.    H.    AVHITBECK 
Stale  Model  School,  Trenton,  N.  J.      . 

NO  line  of  development  in  modern  education  has  been  more 
remarkable  than  the  growth  of  science  teaching  by  the  labora- 
tory method.  "Study  things  themselves;  learn  by  first-hand 
experience,"  is  a  universally  accepted  principle.  The  general  prin- 
ciple is  established  and  the  working  out  of  the  details  is  progressing 
rapidly.  A  decade  of  experimentation  by  practical  teachers  has 
yielded  well-organized  plans  of  work  in  chemistry,  physics,  and  biolog>\ 
Laboratory  courses  in  these  sciences  have  been  outlined  and  are 
practiced  with  pretty  general  satisfaction.  But  what  about  geogra- 
phy? Certain  it  is  that  in  this  field  matters  are  in  an  unsettled  state, 
at  least  in  America.  There  are  people  who  (juestion  whether  geop:ra- 
phy  is  really  a  science  at  all.  There  is  lack  of  agreement  as  to  what 
should  be  included  under  the  term  and  what  excluded.  Any  one  who 
has  attempted  to  define  the  scope  of  geography  has  found  how  elusive 
and  elastic  are  its  boundaries,  and  how  numerous  its  ramifications 
into  all  other  fiehls  of  knowledge. 

Physical  geograpliy  is  accorded  a  i)lace  among  the  sciences,  but  it 
does  not  so  readily  lend  itself  to  the  laboratory  treatment  in  schools 
as  do  chemistry  or  biology  or  (n'en  physics.  In  the  very  nature  of  the 
science,  lal)oratory  practice  cannot  form  so  large  a  part  in  the  study 
of  physical  geography  as  it  does  in  the  other  sciences  named.  In  the 
broader  field  of  general  geography,  this  is  even  more  largely  true. 

(ilance  down  the  table  of  contents  of  a  school  text-book.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  geography  treats  of  an  almost  endless  list  of  places,  activities, 
phenomena,  and  relations,  scattered  ovc^r  the  entire  earth,  and  that 
most  of  these  cannot  be  studied  at  first  hand  unless  we  travel  over  the 
entire  earth.      Deserts,  mountains,  oceans,  glaciers,  and  a  tiiousand 

*  Pnvscntrd  Ixforo  tbo  Kduratioiial  Section  of  the  Firhth  International  Geo- 
graphic Congress. 


PRACTICAL  WORK  IN  SCHOOL  GEOC.RAPHY  375 


more  of  the  real  things  with  which  geography  deals  cannot  be  brought 
together  for  study  in  one  place.  Manifestly  a  very  large  part  of  a 
student's  geographical  knowledge  must  lye  gained  at  second  haiul 
unless  he  is  able  to  travel  extensively.  Principles,  processes,  and  tyj)e 
forms  may  usually  be  found  illustrateil  near  home.  Particularly  is 
this  true  of  the  physical  side  of  the  study,  and  also  of  the  connnercial. 
The  meteorological  phase  of  the  subject  is,  of  course,  well  suited  to 
first-hand  study  in  almost  any  school.  Every  locality  furnishes 
opportunities  for  some  outdoor  studies  and  these  opportunities  should 
be  used  to  the  utmost*  Such  studies  are  the  lifeblood  of  school 
geography. 

Regarding  indoor  laboratory  work  in  physical  geography,  one 
scarcely  knows  what  to  say.  Very  few  schools  indeed  have  achieved 
any  notable  success  along  this  lino.  The  laboratory  manuals  thus  far 
produced  are  confessedly  unsatisfactory,  and  each  one  diflfers  radically 
from  every  other. 

In  the  geography  of  the  elementary  school,  systematic  laboratory 
work  is  as  yet  unknown,  but  observation  and  experience  are  impressing 
upon  us  that  there  are  forms  of  practical  work  which  enrich  our  geog- 
raphy teaching  and  enhance  its  value.  It  is  with  these  elementary 
exercises  that  this  paper  chiefly  deals.  For  convenience*  we  may 
classify  the  exercises  as  follows: 

1.  Manual  exercises,  including — 

(a)  Modeling  in  sand,  clay,  or  pulp. 

(6)  Map  making  and  ordinary  map  drawing. 

(c)  Making  of  special  maps  such  as,  for  example,  those  showing 

productions,  rainfall,  or  industries,  including  tlie  filling  in 

of  printed  outline  maps. 
(rf)  Graphic  representation  of  important  statistical  facts,  such 

as    relative    areas   of    countries,    po|)ulati()n    of    cities, 

exports,  etc. 

2.  Observational  exercises,  including — 

(a)    Study  of    pictures;  the  use    of    the  stereoscope*  and   stere- 

opticon. 
(6)    Study  of  relief  models  and  contoured  maps. 

(c)  Study  of  raw  materials  and  tlieir  finished  products. 

(d)  Indoor  study  of  common  rocks,  soils,  ores,  etc. 

(e)  Visits  to  mills,  (piarries,  markets,  etc. 
(/)    Weather  observations  and  records. 

(g)    Field    trips    chiefly   for   the    study  of    natural   forms  niul 
phenomena  of  a  geogra|)hic  character. 


276  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  October 

It  is  not  to  he  hoped  that  all  of  the  above  will  be  emphasized  in  any 
one  school.  Such  a  condition  would  probably  be  worse  than  empha- 
sizing none  of  them. 

Sand  molding  has  proved  its  worth  in  primary  grades.  A  month 
ago  I  secured  an  expression  of  opinion  from  forty  or  more  teachers 
from  some  twenty  different  states  as  to  the  value  of  the  sand  table. 
There  was  hearty  agreement  that  its  use  is  essential  to  clear  teaching 
in  the  primary  grades.  Only  a  few  of  the  teachers  cared  for  the  sand 
table  beyond  the  fifth  grade.  Map  modeling  in  pulp  or  putty  by 
grammar-grade  pupils  may  be  W(^rth  while  as  an  exercise  in  manual 
training,  but  not  as  an  exercise  in  geography. 

Map  drawing,  which  formed  so  large  a  part  of  the  geography  work 
a  generation  ago,  seems  to  have  been  largely  crowded  out  of  the  modern 
granunar-school  curricidum.  The  group  of  teachers  referred  to  above 
were  in  general  agreement  that  the  expenditure  of  a  large  amount  of 
time  by  the  pupil  on  a  single  map.  laboriously  executed,  is  not  profit- 
able. Rut  the  rapid  sketching  of  maps,  done  free  hand  by  the  pupil, 
was  heartily  endorsed  by  all.  The  outline  maps  sold  by  various  pub- 
lishers were  generally  approved  by  the  teachers.  These  give  correct 
outlines  of  states  and  countries  in  which  the  pupils,  usually  from 
memory,  place  riti(»s.  rivers,  or  mountains:  sluide  areas  of  ample  or 
scanty  rainfall;  indicate  the  industrial,  farming,  grazing,  lumbering, 
or  mining  sections,  the  great  trade  routes, — in  short,  any  of  the  larger 
facts  in  which  hwntiou  is  a  matter  of  importance. 

The  practice  of  graphic  representation  in  geography  is  worthy  of 
more  att(Mition  tlian  most  teachers  give  it.  Statistics  are  to  l)e 
avoided  in  ge^ography  teacliing:  yet.  to  a  small  extent,  they  must 
enter.  To  teach  the  exact  population  of  cities  or  the  areas  of 
states  is  manifestly  unwise:  yet.  to  know  something  of  the  relative 
areas  of  a  few  of  xhv  most  important  states  and  countries  and 
the  relative  population  of  a  few  impf>rtant  cities  is  useful.  The 
graphic  representation  o\  a  few  selected  areas  of  .states  and  coimtries 
by  proportii»nal  squares  (^ften  i»pens  one's  eyes  to  long-cher'shed  errors 
which  he  gained  l\v  studying  maps  constructed  upon  different  scales. 
How  many  Rhode  l>land  boys  realize  that,  if  their  own  state  be  repre- 
sented by  a  small  sipiare.  more  than  200  like  squares  are  neces.sary  to 
reproent  thi^  area  o\  Texas?  It  may  be  tlisappointing  but  it  is  also 
eilucative  when  a  piq^il  wht>  lives  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson  or  Dela- 
ware draws  a  iine  o\  any  convenient  length  to  represent  the  length 
o\   his  river.  :\\u\  then  draws  another  in  proportion  to  represent  the 


1904  PRACTICAL  WORK  IN  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY  377 

Mississippi-Missouri,  and  finds  that  it  takes  fourteen  of  the  former 
placed  end  to  end  to  equal  the  latter.  A  graphic  representation  would 
reveal  to  the  pupils  of  New  Jersey  that  if  sixteen  mountains  as  high 
as  the  highest  in  their  state  were  placed  on  top  of  one  another,  the 
pile  would  scarcely  equal  Mount  Everest  in  altitude.  The  value  of 
graphic  representation  lies  in  the  vividness  of  the  impressions  which  are 
left  on  the  mind  by  making  these  diagrams,  and  it  should  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  vividness  of  impressions  diminishes  as  their  number 
increases. 

The  second  group  of  practical  exercises  may  be  termed  observa- 
tional. Most  of  them  are  studies  of  real  things.  Picture  study  is  an 
imperfect  substitute,  but  the  substitution  is  often  unavoidable.  We 
cannot  see  the  Alps  or  the  Alhambra  in  America.  I  judge  that  enough 
pictures  are  used  in  teaching  geography — perhaps  too  many.  If  the 
pupil  is  shown  a  great  number  of  pictures  rapidly,  no  clear  mental 
pictures  are  retained. 

My  suggestion  is  : 

First,  a  careful  selection  of  a  relatively  small  number  of  clear  pic- 
tures which  present  truly  typical  scenes  at  home  and  abroad.  Second, 
that  these  pictures  be  used  for  actual  study,  each  picture  being  accom- 
panied by  a  few  written  (|uestions  which  shall  direct  the  pupil's  atten- 
tion to  the  salient  things  in  the  picture. 

Regarding  the  study  of  relief  models  and  contoured  maps  little  need 
be  said.  Teachers  find  them  so  generally  lacking  in  the  human  and 
life  elements  that  they  do  not  appeal  to  younger  children.  Secondary 
and  collegiate  students  may  use  tlieni  to  marked  advantage. 

The  study  of  raw  materials  of  manufacture  and  their  products  in 
various  stages  of  completion,  and  also  the  study  of  common  rocks, 
ores,  soils,  etc.,  may  or  may  not  be  highly  profitable.  It  is  a  noticeable 
fact  that  when  these  objects  are  taken  from  the  school  collection  and 
studied,  interest  soon  lags.  On  the  other  liand,  it  is  equally  noticeable 
that  if  the  specimens  were  collected  by  these  pupils  themselves,  they 
are  a  genuine  center  of  interest.  They  study  them  and  talk  about 
them  eagerly.  They  may  yawn  over  a  lesson  on  specimens  brought 
from  the  school  museum,  but  be  on  the  qui  vive  of  interest  over  like 
specimens  which  they  themselves  have  collected  on  a  trip.  In  observa- 
tional studies,  interest  is  absolutely  essential  to  good  results;  only 
the  interested  observer  really  sees  what  he  looks  at. 

The  last  and  most  important  phase  of  practical  work  in  school 
geography  is  found   in   the  visits  to  mills,  quarries,  markets,  river 


^yS  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

banks,  falls,  or  anywhere  else  where  the  pupils  may  see  with  their  own 
eyes  the  actual  things  and  processes  about  which  they  are  studying  in 
geography.  As  a  trip  to  Europe  differs  from  the  printed  description 
of  such  a  trip,  so,  in  a  general  way,  does  field  geography  differ  from 
book  geography.  Weather  observations,  systematically  made  and 
recorded,  form  the  reasonable  basis  for  elementary  meteorological 
studies.  These  studies  of  things  just  as  we  find  them  is  the  most  valu- 
able kind  of  education.  In  large  cities  and  with  large  classes,  field 
trips  are,  of  course,  so  difficult  to  provide  for  that  most  teachers  do  not 
undertake  them.  However,  we  found  in  the  recent  session  of  the 
Cornell  Summer  School  of  (Jeography  that  more  than  half  of  the 
teachers  present  make  a  practice  of  taking  their  classes  on  field  trips 
or  factory  visits,  and  practically  all  of  these  teachers  were  from  large 
cities.  1  asked  a  groat  many  of  them,  '^  Do  you  really  feel  that  these 
trips  pay  for  tlie  time  and  trouble  involved?"  and  1  received  in  all 
only  one  negative  answer.  But  the  fuller  discussion  of  field  work  in 
geography  is  assigned  to  another,  and  1  must  not  encroach. 

I  have  used  or  seen  used  in  the  class  room  every  exercise  recom- 
mended above.  1  have  faith  in  thom.  They  are,  however,  means  to 
an  end  and  not  an  end  in  thomselvos.  Their  value  in  ])ractical  use 
will  depend  uj)()n  the  clearness  with  which  tlie  teaclier  sees  the  end 
which  she  is  really  aiming  at  in  using  them;  the  definiteness  of  her  pur- 
pose and  plan;  and  her  good  sense  in  deciding  what  to  use  and  what 
not  to  use. 

srMMAHV 

1.  Scientific  teacliing  calls  for  the  first-hand  study  of  things  wher- 
ever possible—  the  laboratory  method. 

2.  Physical  geogra|)hy  lends  itself  to  laboratory  treatment,  but 
not  to  the  same  extent  as  do  some  of  tlie  other  sciences. 

.*!  Tn  general  geography  most  of  the  facts  must  be  gained  by 
studying  about  things  ratlier  tluiii  by  studying  the  things  themselves. 

4.  The  valu(^  of  geogra|)hical  study  is  increased  by  the  u.'^e  of 
available  field  and  laboratory  excM'cises.  These  are  both  manual  and 
observational. 

.').  Maj)  sketcliing  and  outline-nuip  (»xercises  by  pupils  are  a 
valuable  means  of  expressing  and  impressing  geographical  ideas  and 
n  convenient  means  by  which  the  teacher  may  test  the  accuracy 
of  the   pu|)irs   knowledge. 

G.  (Iraphic  representation  tlirough  diagrams  aids  in  correcting 
faulty  notions  and  in  getting  correct  id(»as  where  statistics  are  involved. 


I904  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS  %JQ 

7.  The  systematic  study  of  pictures  is  a  profitable  form  of  geo- 
grai)hical  work. 

8.  Relief  models  and  contoured  maps  are  better  adapted  to  sec- 
ondary and  collegiate  students  than  to  elementary  students. 

9.  The  study  of  specimens  of  any  kind  is  most  satisfactory  when 
the  pupils  collect  the  specimens  which  they  study. 

10.  Field  trips,  whenever  possible,  are  the  most  valuable  form 
of  all  practical  work  in  geography. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS* 

IJY    MARY    I.    PL  ATT 
High  School,  Brookline,  Masn. 

PHYSICAL  geography,  though  in  one  sense  as  old  as  the  hills 
themselves,  has  been  looked  upon  and  is  still  considered  a  com- 
paratively new  subject.  It  has  a  brief  past,  a  period  which  was 
not  formative  and  preparatory,  but  which  rather  represented  a  cycle 
of  inactivity  preceding  renewed  activity  or  revival.  Its  present  we 
are  in  the  midst  of — a  i)eri()d  also  l)rief —  cliaracterized  by  activity  and 
accomplishment  such  as  should  be  characteristic  of  the  youth  of  any 
life — characterized  also  undoubtedly  by  some  of  the  mistakes  which 
necessarily  accompany  experiment.  Toward  its  future  we  are  now 
looking  forward,  to  be  characterized,  we  hope,  by  increased  activity 
and  accomplishment,  by  steadiness  and  stability  also.  It  is  my  pur- 
pose in  the  following  paper  to  give  very  l)riefly  an  accoiuit  of  the  past, 
the  present,  and  of  what  we  hope  for  in  the  future  of  physical  geogra- 
phy in  the  high  schools  of  our  country.  Twenty  years  ago  physical 
geography  was  a  subject  which  appeared  in  the  curriculum  of  public 
and  private  schools  as  one  to  be  pursued  for  a  teri;i  of  from  sixteen  to 
twenty  weeks  if  so  elected  })y  the  |)upils  themselves.  These  pupils  had 
passed  through  the  preliminary  steps  of  political  geography  in  tlie 
grammar  schools,  where  the  emphasis  had  probably  been  laid  upon 
arbitrary  memory  efforts  in  the  study  of  political  and  natural  features, 
and  now  found  themselves  confronted  with  new  and  more  difficult 
problems  in  their  high -school  geography. 

To  the  standard  text-book  of  that  time  (Cluyot's)  the  modern  phys- 
ical geography  owes  much,  and  to  it  also,  1  believe,  many  of  the  more 
mature  students  and  teachers  of  i)hys*cal  geography  trace  their  first 

*  Presented  before  the  Educational  Section  of  the  Eighth  International  Geo- 
graphic Congress. 


380  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

interest  in  the  subject  and  their  first  inspiration  along  such  lines. 
Concise,  interesting,  vivid,  giving  cause  and  effect  their  due  share  in 
the  treatment  of  the  successive  problems  of  physical  geography,  those 
of  us  who  studied  or  taught  it  still  find  its  very  language  coming  often 
to  our  lips,  making  a  ready  tool  for  rapid  work.  Other  books  most 
frecjuently  used  two  decades  ago  were  Warren's  and  Maury's.  These 
books  were  all  similar  in  style — in  outer  form  the  type  geography  of 
our  childhood;  within,  the  subject-matter  was  arranged  in  double  col- 
umns of  alternating  coarse  and  fine  print,  with  no  attempt  at  illustra- 
tion. They  were  much  less  attractive  to  the  eye  than  our  newer  books. 
The  problems  which,  when  strictly  classified,  we  designate  as  meteoro- 
logical were  less  empirical  than  those  of  physical  geography  proper. 
Here,  however,  explanation  was  not  omitted — on  the  contrary,  much 
more  difficult  explanations  were  given  than  are  now  attempted.  It 
was  not  upon  the  text-books,  then,  that  the  burden  of  responsibility 
for  the  unsatisfactory  condition  of  the  subject  in  schools  rested.  This 
was  divided  between  the  school  authorities,  who  gave  the  subject  no 
consideration,  and  the  teacher,  who,  chosen  for  convenience  sake,  was 
often  wholly  unfitted  for  the  work. 

As  a  result  of  this  low  standing  of  the  subject,  and  the  low  standards 
set  for  the  teacher,  the  i)resentation  naturally  lacked  much  that  we 
now  consider  essential.  The  method  was  ])urely  a  text-book  method. 
Each  topic  was  j)resented  as  a  complete  luiit — a  chapter  to  be  opened, 
committed,  and  finished  with  little  reference  to  the  preceding  or  to  the 
future  topics;  cause  and  consecjuence  were  but  little  dwelt  upon,  and 
the  laboratory  method  was  ])ractically  unheard  of.  Notwithstanding 
the  adverse  conditions  under  which  it  labored,  physical  geography 
was  considered  an  interesting  study  from  the  very  character  of  the 
subject-matter.  The  whole  thing  lacked  vitality — lacked  reality.  It 
was  presented  as  a  series  of  spectacles,  the  most  sensational  being  most 
emphasized  and  longest  renuMnbered.  Too  much  emphasis  was  laid 
upon  externals — too  little  uj)oii  structure,  process,  and  gradual  change, 
the  idea  of  the  inipernianence  of  the  everlasting  hills  was  scarcely 
grasped,  and  tlie  classification  of  land  forms  according  to  their  ])hase 
of  development  was  not  attem|)ted.  Systematic  botany  and  zoology 
were  at  their  zenith,  but  classification  in  geography  was  almost  ])urely 
ar})itrary  and  based  upon  externals.  Only  great  teachers  recognized 
any  other.  Outdoor  observations  were  purely  accidental  or  incidental 
at  the  best,  and  there  was  only  the  most  casual  connection  between 
the  actual  outdoors  and  the  mountains  and  hills,  the  rivers  and  valleys 


1904 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS  38  I 


of  the  book.  Definitions  were  much  insisted  upon,  and  partook  of  the 
general  empirical  character  of  the  teaching;  they  were  most  arbitrary 
and  quite  satisfactory  if  one  could  accept  them. 

The  aim  of  the  teaching  of  physical  geography  was  a  somewhat 
shifting  one,  in  keeping  with  its  transitory  position  in  the  course.  It 
could  hardly  have  been  called  a  culture  subject,  nor  was  it  as  discipli- 
nary as  some  of  the  other  sciences  of  the  schools.  It  was  too  often  a 
stop-gap  or  a  makeshift,  and  its  results  tallied  closely  with  the  skill 
and  effort  put  into  the  work  of  preparation  and  teaching. 

During  the  last  fifteen  years,  or  perhaps,  more  accurately  speaking, 
during  the  last  ten  years,  physical  geography  has  made  great  progress. 
First,  in  popularity — it  is  now  taught  in  nearly  all  good  city  schools, 
and  appears  on  the  curriculum  in  many  of  the  smaller  schools  of  New 
England  and  New  York,  while  the  Central  West  is  undoubtedly  more 
progressive  in  this  respect  than  is  the  East.  Its  popidarity  among 
pupils  has  increased  also  with  its  wider  field  and  with  the  improved 
methods  and  facilities  for  teaching.  Its  appeal  to  pupils,  whether  of 
mature  or  immature  minds,  is  uncjuestioned. 

Its  position  in  the  school  course  is  a  varying  one,  but  it  is  a  much 
more  secure  one  than  formerly.  Ordinarily  it  is  offered  as  an  elective, 
in  some  schools  to  the  first-year  pupils,  in  others  to  those  of  the  second 
year,  while  in  others  it  is  taught  as  a  more  advanced  sul)ject  to  the 
juniors  and  seniors,  or  again  it  may  be  given  early  in  the  course  and 
then  reviewed  and  enlarged  upon  later  in  preparation  for  college. 
There  is  something  to  be  said  in  favor  of  each  of  these  methods,  even 
from  a  disinterested  standpoint,  and  in  view  of  the  needs  and  require- 
ments of  each  individual  school  there  is  much  to  be  said  as  a  reason 
for  putting  it  either  in  the  first,  second,  or  third  years.  In  a  year's 
study  of  physical  geography,  whether  it  be  early  or  late  in  the  course, 
we  find  it  practicable  to  study  type  land-forms,  to  describe  them,  fol- 
low their  history,  classify  them,  learn  something  of  their  human  value, 
and  finally  to  apply  the  type  to  other  lands.  We  study  briefly  the 
ocean  with  its  main  features  and  motions,  and  lastly  the  atmosphere 
and  its  phenomena.  This  study  is,  of  course,  all  elementary,  and  yet 
the  results  attained  compare  very  favorably  with  those  in  more 
advanced  classes — they  are  encouraging  and  very  real.  It  enables 
the  pupils  to  interpret  what  they  have  already  seen;  it  opens  their 
eyes  and  their  minds  to  much  that  they  have  never  seen;  it  arouses  a 
questioning  attitude  and  a  new  alertness;  it  makes  travel  doubly 
interesting  and  it  is  not  easily  forgotten.      I  have  put  elementary 


o 


82  THK  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  October 


meteorolofiy  last  in  order  as  1  do  in  teaching,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
last  in  importance  or  interest,  and  should  be  included  in  every 
course  in  physical  geography,  no  matter  how  elementary. 

Within  tht  last  ten  years,  also.'^new  text-books  have  been  published 
which  mark  a  new  epoch  in  the  teaching  of  physical  geography.  Put 
forth  by  men  of  acknowledged  attainments  and  leadership,  the  best 
ones  among  them  bear  the  hall  mark  of  authority.  Attractive  in 
form,  scientific  and  accurate,  and  increasingly  practical,  our  present- 
day  text-book  in  physical  geograi)hy  marks  the  most  rapid  advance  in 
value  and  the  quality  of  teachableness.  The  very  nomenclature  of  the 
modern  text-book  is  in  itself  an  indication  of  the  difference  between 
the  new  and  the  old  in  physical  geography.  Doctor  Crothers  has  said 
in  a  recent  essay  that  a  noun  is  known  by  the  adjectives  it  keeps,  and 
this  is  (juite  as  true  in  physical  geography  as  in  literature.  A  young 
river  or  a  drowned  river,  a  young  or  a  sul)dued  mountain,  at  once  con- 
veys a  picture  to  the  present-day  student  of  physical  geography.  But 
a  few  years  ago  such  nouns  did  not  keep  company  with  such  adjectives, 
and  the  terms  would  have  been  quite  unintelligible  even  to  students 
of  tlie  sid)ject.  Cuesta  and  JVneplain  are  new  nouns  which  convey 
their  own  meaning  without  associating  adjectives.  Progress  has  been 
made  also  in  supplementary  material  to  which  pupils  may  be  sent  as 
to  original  sources.  This  is  in  the  form  of  monographs  on  geogra])hical 
subjects  and  state  and  town  geograj^hies  or  geologies,  all  of  them  too 
few  in  number,  considering  their  excellence. 

Tiider  the  guidance  of  some  of  the  more  recent  of  our  best  text-books 
pliysical  geography  must  be  taught  as  a  laboratory  subject,  and  is  at 
once  taken  out  of  the  reahn  of  the  abstract  and  the  empirical.  Labo- 
ratory work  and  laboratory  e(iui|)ment  have  made  less  rapid  advance 
than  text-books,  and  along  this  line  there  is  the  most  inviting  field  for 
l)rogressive  work.  Field  work  as  a  branch  of  laboratory  work  also 
offers  most  promising  opportunities  for  tlu^  activity  of  original  minds. 

In  the  presentation  of  a  sul)ject  wliich  has  the  status  of  physical 
geography  in  the  high  schools  of  to-day  the  teacher  is  a  most  important 
(dement ;  this  is  undoubtedly  true  always,  but  less  strikingly  so  in  sub- 
jects where  lines  of  work  are  already  very  definitely  laid  out.  The 
work  of  physical  geography  demands  a  teacher  technically  trained, 
progn^ssive.  jutlicious  in  experiment,  enthusiastic,  and  open-minded. 
With  the  emphasis  now  laid  upon  professional  training,  the  increasing 
d(»mand  for  technical  pre|)aration.  and  the  increased  opportunities  for 
j)r(»paration    along  special  lines,  the   iuind)er  of  teachers  especially 


i9<y  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS  383 

prepared  for  this  subject  is  increasing,  and  with  this  improvement  in 
the  teaching  force  the  quality  of  work  done  has  also  improved.  In 
the  more  advanced  schools,  a  college  course,  years  of  special  study  on 
the  subject,  or  summer  study  at  home  or  abroad,  now  fit  the  teacher 
of  physical  geography. 

Both  the  impulse  toward  better  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and 
the  opportunities  for  doing  better  work  have  come  from  above  rather 
than  below.  Because  to  our  leading  colleges,  and  oftentimes  to  single 
individuals  in  those  colleges,  do  we  owe  both  inspiration  and  oppor- 
tunity. Harvard,  Cornell,  Chicago,  and  Colund)ia,  and  an  increasing 
number  of  other  colleges,  now  give  courses  in  geography  which  are  most 
valuable  to  teachers  and  advanced  students,  while  the  summer  schools 
offer  opportunities  for  brief  but  intensive  work  to  the  larger  number 
who  cannot  avail  themselves  of  the  full  college  courses.  To  college 
professors  also  we  owe  our  text-books,  and,  in  large  measure,  our 
present  tendency  toward  laboratory  work. 

If  in  all  or  most  of  our  high  schools  these  things  were  true;  that 
there  was  laboratory  ec|ui])ment  for  physical  geography;  that  it  occu- 
pied an  acknowledged  place  in  the  school  course;  that  abundant  time 
was  given  to  it;  that  the  text-book  was  scientific  and  satisfactory,  and 
the  whole  subject  in  the  hands  of  a  competent  teacher,  then  we  might 
say  that  physical  geogra])hy  had  indeed  made  great  strides.  These 
things  are  true  in  many  schools,  and  increasingly  true  each  year,  but 
the  fact  remains  that  there  are  also  many  schools — some  of  them 
among  the  largest  and  best  ecjuipped — where  methods  of  teaching  pre- 
vail which  are  more  representative  of  the  past  than  of  the  present — 
a  condition  of  things  which  is  the  result  of  the  ])lan  of  school 
administration.  In  such  schools  insufhcient  time  is  given  to  the  sub- 
ject; it  is  frequently  introduced  in  the  school  course  to  serve  a  tem- 
porary exigency;  no  trained  teacher  is  provided,  and  in  some  cases  no 
text-book.  This,  however,  is  not  a  permanent  condition — it  simply 
means  that  the  whole  subject  is  in  a  transitional  stage.  A  lecture 
course  in  a  high  school  or  a  brief  course  based  wholly  on  the  book  is 
merely  a  begimiing,  which  must  soon  of  necessity  lead  to  better  things. 
The  conditions  now  are  very  hopeful,  and  I  feel  almost  inclined  to  say 
that  those  who  shape  the  work  in  ])hysical  geography  at  the  present 
day  hold  the  schools  in  the  hollow  of  their  hands.  College  preparatory 
high  schools,  where  the  traditions  are  most  strongly  classical,  have 
introduced  and  are  introducing  physical  geography  as  a  subject  open- 
ing a  comparatively  new  and  hopeful  field.     Schools  which  offer  a 


384  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

general  course  for  the  sake  of  numbers  of  pupils,  who  finish  their  school 
career  with  the  high  school,  have  introduced  it  or  are  ready  to  do  so, 
as  a  practical  subject  suited  to  the  needs  of  many  pupils.  Schools 
which  attempt  to  do  both  these  things  must  of  necessity  make  it  a  part 
of  their  work  and  the  manual  training  schools  also.  There  is  a  very 
wholesome  attitude  of  mind  among  people  in  general  toward  outdoor 
subjects,  an  attitude,  too,  which  demands  a  certain  vitality  in  our 
treatment  of  outdoor  things,  a  breadth,  and  strength,  and  largeness 
such  as  can  well  be  used  when  one  studies  the  big  things  of  nature. 

The  course  of  the  high  school  itself  is  in  a  somewhat  unsettled 
stage;  old  traditions  are  giving  way  and  much  that  is  new  is  being 
added.  The  work  in  the  New  (ieography,  so  called,  has  been  nota- 
ble for  its  individuality,  if  1  may  so  term  it;  one  man  in  a  college  here 
and  there  has  sent  out  teachers  who,  acting  in  the  inspiration  thus 
received,  have  carried  the  work  to  widely  separated  schools.  This 
work  has  been  individual  not  only  in  the  sense  of  large  dependence 
upon  one  personality,  but  both  methods  and  results  have  been  stamped 
with  individuality. 

This  period  has  had  the  advantage  of  independence  and  oppor- 
tunity and  so  it  will  continue  to  have.  Until  very  recently  no  effort  has 
been  made  to  unify  the  subject  work  in  any  way.  X'aluable  sugges- 
tions leading  to  greater  uniformity  of  treatment  have  been  made  by 
the  Committee  of  Ten.  Tlie  outlines  prepared  by  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  and  by  the  College  P'.xamination  Hoard  have  also 
been  stei)s  toward  a  certain  uniformity,  and  in  New  England  informal 
conferences,  particii)ate(l  in  by  teachers  of  geography  and  geology, 
have  looked  toward  the  same  end.  This  individuahstic  phase  through 
which  we  are  j)assing  is  about  to  give  way  to  a  period  of  greater  unity. 
We  have  been  working  toward  the  same  ends,  but  we  have  pursued 
diverse  means,  l^y  experiment,  comparison,  ami  elimination  we  have 
established  certain  principles  of  work,  even  in  the  laboratory  and  fichl 
work  when*  the  greatest  diviTgence  has  existed.  From  our  various 
(\\])eriences  T  think  we  may  saf(^ly  be  said  to  agree  on  a  few  simple 
fundamental  j)rin(*ip]es.  Among  others,  that  the  subject  should  be 
largely  a  laboratory  subject;  that  the  laboratory  work  should  consist 
partly  of  outdoor  work,  the  character  of  the  latter  to  be  largely  con- 
trolled by  the  natural  featuns^  of  the  locality;  that  the  time  given  to  it 
should  e(|ual  if  not  exceed  that  given  to  text-book  work;  that  it  should 
follow  tlie  order  of  subjects  as  given  in  recitations  and  should  precede 
tlie  recitation  if  possible.     Our  work  should  proceed  from  the  general 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


385 


to  the  specific,  aiming  to  cultivate  power  of  inference,  independence 
in  thought,  practical  observation,  and  the  ability  to  visualize  from 
type  forms.  It  should  acquaint  the  pupil  by  means  of  description, 
map,  or  model  with  a  large  number  of  type  forms,  which  he  will  at  the 
end  be  able  to  classify  and  extend  to  a  wider  application.  Both  text- 
book work  and  the  laboratory  work  should  be  most  definitely  laid  out 
in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  when  deaUng  with  the  immature 
minds  of  our  high-school  children. 

Some  believe  that  the  text-book  of  physical  geography  is  still  to  be 
written,  and  as  this  is  undcmbtedly  true  of  all  subjects  in  the  school 
curriculum,  it  must  needs  be  true  in  so  new  a  field  as  the  new  geogra- 
phy. The  great  need  of  the  immediate  future  is  a  laboratory  book 
which  shall  follow  quite  definitely  the  order  of  work  in  our  best  text- 
books. Such  a  book  would  be  of  the  greatest  help  in  systematizing 
the  subject  and  also  in  giving  courage  to  teachers  who  have  not  had 
special  training,  and  who  dread  to  initiate  work  with  which  they  are 
themselves  unfamiliar.  A  beginning  has  been  made  and  the  need 
will  soon  be  met  by  a  satisfactory  l^ook  of  suggestion  and  outline.  I 
hope  the  time  will  never  come  when  forty  exercises  in  physical  geogra- 
phy shall  be  laid  down  as  a  necessity  for  the  secondary  schools  sending 
pupils  to  college,  for  from  the  very  nature  of  our  laboratory  work  and 
material  no  arbitrary  outlines  can  be  followed  in  detail.  Outdoor 
observations  on  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  must  of  necessity  differ 
from  corresponding  work  in  the  old  land  of  New  Kngland  or  the  delta 
of  the  Mississippi.  Among  our  immediate  needs,  also,  J  would  place 
additional  monographs  on  geographical  subjects,  and  an  increasing 
number  of  state  and  town  geographies,  all  of  them  up  to  the  standard 
of  those  at  present  published. 

The  position  of  physical  geography  in  the  school  curriculum  must 
be  a  surer  one,  though  not  necessarily  an  unchangeable  one,  that  can 
only  be  dictated  by  the  needs  of  the  individual  school.  More  time 
also  is  needed  for  its  pro])er  development.  In  schools  which  give  the 
most  attention  to  the  subject  a  year  is  now  allowed  for  it,  and  this  is 
well;  but  if  an  opportunity  could  be  given  to  large  numbers  of  the 
entering  class  in  high  schools  to  study  physical  geography  in  an  ele- 
mentary way,  and  then  this  could  be  followed  by  a  half  year  of 
advanced  study  later  in  the  course,  it  would  be  better.  In  the  crowded 
condition  of  the  high-school  course  1  doubt  if  this  woidd  be  practicable 
in  many  schools.  The  value  of  physical  geography  being  proved  both 
as  an  informational  and  disciplinary  subject,  our  experts  in  school 


386  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

administration  will  in  the  end  give  it  a  recognized  place.  Let  the 
number  of  schools  where  geography  is  taught  increase  just  as  rapidly 
as  it  can  be  taught  and  taught  well.  It  is  already  popular  in  large 
schools;  it  ought  also  to  extend  to  country  schools.  It  can  be  taught 
without  elaborate  equipment  in  such  schools  where  working  material 
is  ready  at  hand  and  where  outdoor  observations  can  be  most  easily 
made. 

As  the  years  go  on  and  the  need  both  of  professional  and  technical 
training  among  teachers  is  made  more  manifest  in  the  schools,  this 
demand  will  extend  with  even  greater  force  to  the  teaching  of  physical 
geography,  and  knowing  something  of  the  liberal  manner  in  which  the 
teaching  ranks  are  recuperated  each  year  we  need  not  fear  a  dearth  of 
teachers  with  the  necessary  equipment  even  in  this  comparatively 
new  field. 

The  teacher  of  the  next  few  years  will  still  have  great  opportunities 
for  original  work  and  will  at  the  same  time  have  as  a  foundation  for 
work  the  practical  results  of  others'  experience.  He  will  find  a 
stronger  popular  sentiment  in  favor  of  natural  sciences  and  a  greater 
willingness  on  the  part  of  school  authorities  and  among  the  pupils  to 
work  experimentally  both  out  of  doors  and  indoors,  and  the  subject 
will  all  the  time  be  a  progressive  one.  An  opj)()rtunity  to  watch 
development  and  to  see  actual  results  is  a  greater  opportunity  than 
that  of  taking  a  subject  at  its  height  and  with  only  the  possibility  of 
kee])ing  it  up  to  that  point  or  struggling  against  its  decline.  Without 
desiring  that  the  work  in  physical  geography  shall  be  one  of  absolute 
uniformity,  it  will  yel  be  an  improvement  in  the  future  to  maintain  a 
greater  uniformity  of  general  j)rincii)les,  a  more  vigorous  attack  and 
a  sur(»r  touch  in  treat menl  to  emphasize  the  process  of  growth  and 
change,  to  recognize*  the  human  side  more  fully,  and  to  build  up  a 
system  of  classification  which  shall  enable  the  student  to  grasp  the 
sul)ject  more  comprehensively  and  give  to  him  a  working  standard 
with  whicli  to  measure  the  world  wide. 

We  look  back  upon  a  period  of  disintegration  and  decay,  when  old 
methods  proved  their  futility  and  gave  way  before  the  new.  We  are 
in  tlu»  midst  of  a  period  marked  by  experiment,  by  rapid  growth  and 
accomplishment.  We  look  forward  to  a  period  of  increased  vitality, 
increased  accom|)lishment.  increased  certainty. 


J904 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  ^Sy 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

State  Geography  —  Cause  and  Effect  —  Search  Questions. —  The  fol- 
lowing questions  were  prepared  with  two  aims  in  view:  First,  to  aid 
in  the  intensive  study  of  one's  own  state;  second,  to  aid  the  pupil  in 
gaining  an  appreciation  of  the  *' causal  sequence"  in  geography. 

The  questions  are  designed  for  use  in  the  later  part  of  the  grammar 
school  course,  w^hen  the  home  state  is  being  studied  in  detail,  as  is  done 
in  many  schools.  In  the  New  Jersey  State  Model  School  this  is  done 
in  the  eighth,  or  last,  year. 

1 .  To  what  extent  did  physical  conditions  determine  the  boundaries 
of  the  stat^?     Note  Michigan  and  New  Jersey  for  examples. 

2.  Did  the  physiography  of  the  state  favor  or  hinder  early  explora- 
tion and  settlement?  Note,  for  example,  the  contrast  between  Ohio 
and  West  Virginia  in  this  particular. 

3.  What  valleys,  passes,  gaps,  or  rivers  favored  travel  in  the  early 
days?  Note,  for  example,  the  Cumberland  (lap  and  the  Mohawk 
Valley. 

4.  What  barriers  retarded  travel  and  still  do?  Note,  for  example, 
the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania  or  the  (,'umberland  Plateau  of  Tennes- 
see. 

5.  What  natural  routes  of  travel  has  the  state?  These  are  gener- 
ally river  valleys  or  lakes. 

6.  To  what  extent  have  these  become  trade  routes?  Are  the 
valleys  occupied  by  railways?     By  canals? 

7.  To  what  extent  are  the  large  cities  and  the  manufacturing 
industries  found  along  these  natural  highways  of  travel?  For  example, 
nearly  all  of  New  York's  large  cities  are  along  tlie  route  of  the  Erie 
Canal  and  New  York  Central  Railroad. 

8.  Does  the  state  occupy  an  advantageous  positicm  for  commerce 
and  manufacturing?  For  instance.  New  Jersey's  greatest  asset  is  its 
position  between  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

9.  In  what  ways  has  the  state's  position  proved  advantageous  for 
trade  and  manufacturing?  Contrast,  for  instance,  Maine  and  X'ermont 
with  Connecticut  and  Ohio. 

10.  To  w^hat  extent  has  the  industrial  development  of  the  state 
been  affected  by  its  mountains?  Have  the  Adirondacks  and  Catskills 
of  New  York,  for  example,  been  a  help  or  hindrance  to  tlie  develop- 
ment of  the  state?  What  of  the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania.  West 
Virginia,  Colorado? 


388  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

11.  If  the  state  was  covered  by  the  great  continental  glacier,  what 
have  been  the  chief  effects  of  the  glaciation,  (a)  as  to  soil,  (6)  as  to 
drainage,  (c)  as  to  waterfalls  and  water  power,  (d)  as  to  clay  deposits 
of  commercial  value? 

12.  What  are  the  leading  factors  in  determining  the  climate  of 
the  state?     What  is  the  average  annual  rainfall? 

13.  Show  how  the  farming  industries  of  the  state  are  influenced 
by  the  climate  and  rainfall.  Note,  for  example,  the  Chautauqua 
grape  belt  of  New  York,  the  tobacco  area  of  Connecticut,  the  wheat 
belt  of  Kansas. 

14.  To  what  extent  are  the  rivers  of  the  state  used  for  commerce? 
For  water  power?     In  the  lumber  industry? 

15.  What  are  the  great  natural  resources  of  the  state  (soil, 
forests,  minerals,  water  power,  fisheries)? 

16.  Trace  the  relation  between  the  natural  resources  and  the 
manufactures  of  the  state.  In  some  states,  as  North  Carolina  or  Minne- 
sota, there  is  a  close  relationship  between  the  productions  of  the  state 
and  its  maiuifactures;  in  others,  as  New  Jersey,  there  is  only  a  slight 
connection. 

17.  To  what  extent  are  the  manufactures  of  the  state  influenced 
by  the  nearness  of  great  markets  like  New  York  and  Philadelphia? 
Note,  for  exain|)le,  the  manufactures  of  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey. 

IS.  What  cities  of  the  state  are  noted  for  a  particular  kind  of 
numufacturing?  For  example,  Faterson,  for  silk;  P]ast  Liverpool. 
Ohio,  for  pottery:  Minneapolis,  for  flour. 

19.  Is  tliere  a  natural  reason  for  the  concentration  of  these  iiuUis- 
tries  in  tliose  particular  cities?     What  is  that  reason? 

20.  What  cities  in  the  state  are  ])redominantly  commercial  cities? 
What  ones  are  prcMloniinantly  manufacturing  cities? 

21.  What  parts  of  the  state  are  especially  engaged  in  (a)  fruit- 
growing. (/;)  (hiirying,  (c)  gardening,  (d)  lumbering,  (c)  general  farming. 
(/)  special  farming?     Wliat  are  tlie  cliief  reasons  in  each  case? 

22.  Has  the  state  valuable  mineral  deposits,  as  coal,  iron.  salt, 
petroleum,  etc?  How  liave  these  affected  the  growth  of  the  state  in 
(a)  population,  (h)  wealth,  (r)  manufacturing,  (d)  railroad  mileage? 

23.  Has  the  develoj>nient  of  the  state  been  rapid,  slow,  uniform, 
or  intermittent?  What  are  the  reasons?  What  advantage's  has  it  for 
future  growth?     Why? 

24.  Are  the  effects  of  canals  and  railroads  in  developing  the  state 
plainly  visible?  Note,  for  exam])le,  the  effect  of  the  Erie  Canal  in 
New  "i'ork. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  389 


25.  How  has  the  physiography  of  the  state  affected  canal  and  rail- 
road building?  Contrast,  for  example,  the  difficulties  to  railroad 
building  in  the  mountain  and  plateau  states  with  those  in  the  prairie 
states. 

26.  What  great  trunk-line  railroads  traverse  the  state?  Note  the 
route  or  routes  followed  by  them  and  account  for  the  selection  of  the 
routes. 

27.  Are  the  great  cities  of  the  state  all  on  trunk-line  railroads? 
Is  there  a  good  reason  for  this?     Explain. 

28.  If  yours  is  a  seacoast  state,  has  the  coast  been  rising  or  sinking 
in  the  past?  What  effect  has  this  had  upon  harbors?  Contrast  the 
drowned  coast  of  Maine  with  the  rising  coast  of  New  Jersey  or  the 
Carolinas,  for  example. 

29.  How  has  the  presence  or  absence  of  good  harbors  affected  the 
commercial  development  of  the  state?  Show  why  trunk-line  railroads 
seek  to  have  termini  on  good  harbors. 

30.  If  the  state  is  bordered  by  one  of  the  Great  Lakes  or  by  the 
Mississippi  River,  show  how  this  has  influenced  the  industries  of  the 
state. 

31.  How  has  the  physiography  of  the  state  or  its  position  affected 
its  part  in  the  nation's  history?  For  example,  the  Champlain  Valley 
of  New  York  has  been  the  scene  of  eleven  military  campaigns.  The 
valley  is  a  natural  highway  between  Canada  and  the  North  Atlantic 
States. 

32.  On  the  whole,  what  natural  causes  have  been  most  important 
in  promoting  the  growth  of  the  state  in  population,  wealth,  and  indus- 
try? R.  H.  Whitbeck. 

The  Geographical  Field  in  Indiana. — The  discussion  of  geographical 
subjects  in  text-books  is  usually  so  general  or  so  bnef  that  unless  the 
work  can  be  supplemented  by  nuich  work  in  the  local  field  for  the 
purpose  of  illustrating,  verifying,  and  objectifying  the  points  studied 
the  results  may  be  vague  and  disappointing. 

Home  geography  is  particularly  vahiable  to  the  beginner,  wliose 
knowledge  may  be  appropriately  developed  in  literal  harmony  with 
the  pedagogical  maxim,  "Proceed  by  easy  steps,  from  the  near  to  the 
more  remote — from  the  known  to  the  closely  related  unknown. '* 

The  study  of  Indiana  geography  would  thus  become  one  of  the 
essential  topics  of  the  subject.  In  the  school  geographies  used  in  the 
State  the  Indiana  sup])lement  usually  appended  should  be  jnade  the 
center  of  most  careful  and  complete  study. 


590  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Ocioter 


In  tliis  connection  a  brief  outline  of  the  geographical  processes, 
features,  and  relations  to  he  observed  and  studied  in  the  State  may 
profitably  be  considered  by  teachers  of  the  subject. 

In  general  the  surface  features  of  the  State  depend  upon  the  position 
of  the  rock  strata  of  the  region.  These  were  formed  of  sediment  from 
some  land  surface  carried  by  streams  and  currents  into  a  sea  which 
overspread  that  ])art  of  the  earth's  surface  now  comprising  the  greater 
part  of  the  Mississippi  ])asin.  These  rock  layers  are  estimated  to  be 
from  three  to  five  thousand  feet  thick  in  Indiana.  They  slo|>e  or  dip 
gently  to  tlie  southwest.  They  are  composed  of  shales,  sandstones, 
limestones,  and  conglomerates.  Observation  of  these  rocks  may  be 
made  in  places  where  streams  have  cleared  away  the  loose  soil  from 
the  surface  of  the  underlying  rock  or  where  holes  have  been  drilled  in 
searcli  of  gas,  oil,  water,  or  coal.  If  a  hole  could  be  drilled  through  the 
stratified  rocks,  igneous  or  nu»tamorphic  rocks  would  be  found  below. 
In  tlie  southwest(Tn  part  of  the  State  seams  of  coal  arc  interstratified 
with  the  beds  of  rock.  In  tlie  east  central  part  the  rocks  penetrated 
by  the  drill  give  forth  accunudations  of  gas  and  oil,  probably  derived 
from  the  fossil  remains  of  animals  formerly  living  in  the  sea  and 
entombed  in  the  rocks  as  tli(\v  were  forming. 

As  soon  as  the  lan<l  rose  above  the  surface  of  the  .sea  in  which  the^o 
rocks  were  formed,  streams  took  their  way  across  its  surface  and  began 
to  trench  their  channels  into  the  earth.  The  agents  of  weathering  began 
to  l)reak  up.  dissolve,  and  oxidize  the  rocks  so  that  a  mantle  of  loose 
material  was  gradually  formed  where  not  swept  away  by  nnming 
water,  wind,  or  by  its  own  weight  on  steep  slopes.  By  the.se  different 
processes  the  surface  was  gradually  changed  from  a  comparatively 
smooth  plain  to  a  country  of  hills  an<l  valleys.  Tlie  surface  was  roughest 
where  the  rocks  were  hardest,  for  there  the  streams  made  narrow, 
steep-sided  valleys  and  left  high,  steep  ridges  between.  A  belt  of  such 
hard  rock  e\t(Mids  from  near  \ew  Albany  in  the  southtTii  part  of  the 
State  in  a  northwest  direction  through  Floyd.  Washington.  Jackson, 
and  Brown  countic^s,  forming  a  chain  of  high,  rough  hills  called  "knobs." 
These  hills  are  only  the  most  conspicuous  of  a  very  rough  region  em- 
braced in  the  counties  named  and  in  several  others  to  the  west  and 
southwest.  This  is  an  excellent  region  for  the  study  of  valleys.  The 
surfacf*  has  been  literally  cut  to  pieces  in  all  directions.  Along  the 
valley  side's  the  edges  of  the  rock  strata  correspond  in  nund)er,  order, 
and  kind,  indicating  their  former  continuity.  Over  the  wh(de  State 
this  work  of  valley  making  has  ])rogressed,  Init  the  farther  north  wc 


1904 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  39  I 


go  the  smaller  the  valleys  become  because  there  they  are  much  younger, 
as  is  the  whole  surface. 

Streams  and  their  valleys  are  valuable  features  for  observation 
because  of  their  occurrence  in  close  proximity  to  all  points.  They 
furnish  examples  of  great  variety,  with  their  numerous  features,  such 
as  flood-plains,  terraces,  sandbars,  islands,  falls,  gorges,  etc. 

The  northern  part  of  the  State  was  formerly  much  rougher  than  at 
present,  resembling,  probably,  the  present  hilly  southern  region.  This 
was  before  a  comparatively  recent  and  very  important  event  in  the 
physical  history  of  the  State.  This  was  what  is  called  the  ** glacial 
period.''  The  chmate  from  some  cause  not  certainly  known  became 
colder  and  a  great  sheet  of  ice  began  to  gather  in  the  region  of  Hudson 
Bay  and  creep  southward,  bringing  with  it  the  soil  and  stones  of  the 
region  whence  it  came. 

This  creeping  ice-sheet  ground  and  scraped  the  rocks  in  its  course 
and  many  elevations  were  lowered,  while  in  many  places  the  valleys 
were  filled  with  the  debris  of  the  glacier  called  "glacial  drift."  This 
drift  covers  about  five-sixths  of  the  State  to  a  depth  averaging  one 
hundred  feet.  A  depth  of  five  hundred  feet  has  l)een  found  near  Ken- 
dallville.  Noble  County.  This  material  in  most  places  is  clay  with 
stones  of  various  sizes  and  many  kinds  mixed  through  it.  The  boulders 
scattered  here  and  there,  over  many  fields  in  the  glaciated  region,  are 
among  the  most  easily  and  connnonly  observed  signi;  of  glacial  action. 
These  stones  are  generally  of  igneous  origin  and  must  on  that  account 
have  been  brought  from  l)ey()nd  tlie  borders  of  the  State,  as  no  igneous 
rocks  are  native  to  Indiana.  Many  of  these  boulders  are  planed  and 
grooved  by  being  dragged  along  in  the  bottom  of  the  glacier.  Any 
gravel  pit  or  road  cut,  and  many  plowed  fields,  will  furnish  a  collection 
of  dozens  of  varieties  of  rocks,  such  as  granite,  gnei.ss,  syenite,  lava, 
quartz,  etc.  Occasional  masses  of  copper,  grains  of  gold,  diamonds,  and 
other  precious  stones  are  found  in  digging  wells.  It  is  (piite  common 
to  find  portions  of  tre<\s  at  various  depths  up  to  fifty  or  sixty  feet.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  in  the  northern  two-thirds  of  the  State  the 
people  dig  cellars,  wells,  and  ditches,  plow,  dig,  and  plant  in  the  glacial 
drift.  They  make  nnid  pies  of  it  as  children,  and  are  buried  in  it  after 
having  lived  upon  it  all  their  lives. 

The  surface  of  the  drift  region,  though  monotonously  smooth,  is 
diversified  here  and  there  by  various  superficial  features.  Among  these 
are  moraines  or  ridges  of  clay  or  gravel  formed  along  the  edge  of  the 
ice-sheet  at  many  places  as  it  melted  away.     These  moraines  are  often 


292  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  Oct(»ber 

discernible  only  as  gentle,  wavelike  undulations,  but  they  are  generally 
found  in  ranges  or  belts  extending  across  the  country  for  long  distances. 
They  arc  numerous  and  conspicuous  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
State,  where  several  concentric  ridges  run  roughly  parallel  with  the 
west  shores  of  Lake  Erie.  An  inuiiensc  moraine  parallels  the  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan  at  a  distance  of  ten  or  fifteen  miles  from  it.  All  hills, 
mounds,  and  ridges  in  the  drift  region  except  the  sand  dunes  and  ridges 
in  the  northwestern  part  are  morainic  in  character.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  confuse  these  features  with  the  bluffs  found  along  the 
streams  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

Many  of  the  morainic  ridges  are  partly  composed  of  sand  and  gravel, 
and  domes  or  mounds  of  this  material  frequently  form  the  most  con- 
spicuous elevations.  Some  of  these  heaps  of  gravel  fonn  the  highest 
points  in  many  square  miles  of  area.  They  are  often  more  or  less  per- 
fectly stratified,  and  the  pebbles  in  them  are  smooth,  rounded,  of  many 
varieties,  and  generally  of  igneous  origin.  These  facts  show  that  the 
piles  are  due  to  running  water,  probably  streams  nuining  off  the  e<lge 
of  the  ice  or  into  holes  or  cracks  in  it  and  filling  them  \^-ith  sand  and 
gravel  washed  from  the  ice.  When  the  glacier  finally  melted  away 
the  heaps  became  rounded  down  by  gravity  and  weathering  into  their 
present  outlines.  Sometimes  the  sand  and  gravel  have  been  deposite<l 
in  extensive  shoots,  })r()hably  as  deltas  at  the  edge  of  the  ice.  Moraine.*^ 
composed  mainly  of  sand  and  gravel  are  called  *'  kames."  Examples  are 
abundant  and  any  gravel  \)\t  not  in  ji  stream  valley  will  repay  a  visit. 

Cotton  Cultivation. — The  recent  shortage  in  the  supply  of  Amer- 
ican cotton  has  led  to  an  investigation  of  the  possibilities  of  growing 
cotton  in  other  |)arts  of  the  world,  so  that  (Ireat  Britain,  and  other 
countries  as  well,  may  not  l)e  dependent  upon  the  Tnited  States.  A 
l^ritish  l)lue  l)ook  has  l)een  issued  recently  which  is  devoted  to  ''Cot- 
ton Cultivation  in  the  Hritish  lOmpire  and  Egypt."  In  this  volume 
the  present  condition  of  cotton  production  in  the  areas  named  is 
summarized.  The  re|)ort  will  prove  valuable  to  a  large  number  of 
persons.  Among  the  most  |)roniising  of  the  experimental  districts 
for  the  growth  of  cotton  the  following  are  named:  British  Central 
African  Protectorate,  Cganda,  the  West  African  Colonies  and  pro- 
tectorates, the  West  Indies,  and  perhaps  Fiji,  British  North  Borneo, 
and  Cy|)rus. 

Ju  a  ])aper  read  before  the  Manchester  Statistical  Society  on  Feb- 
ruary loth  last,  Mr.  .1.  A.  llutton,  vice-chairman  of  the  British  Cotton 
(Irowing   Association   formed    in    June,    1903,   for  the   promotion  of 


I904  GEOGRAPHICAL    NOTES  393 

cotton  fields  within  the  British  Empire,  made  an  encouraging  report 
upon  the  results  and  the  prospects  of  cotton  cultivation  in  Nyassa- 
land.  The  climatic  conditions  are  there  favorable,  the  wet  season 
from  November  to  April  favoring  germination  and  growth,  and  the  dry 
season  securing  good  conditions  in  the  picking. — Scot.  Geog.  Mag.,  July, 
1904.  R.  DeC.  W. 

The  Winter  of  1903-04  in  the  Great  Lakes  Region. — The  winter 
of  1903-04  was  the  coldest  that  has  been  experienced  in  the  Lake 
Region  since  the  beginning  of  the  Weather  Bureau  observations  in 
1871.  It  was  characterized  by  severe  and  continuously  cold  weather, 
devoid  of  thaws  on  the  one  hand  and  of  periods  of  exceedingly  low 
temperatures  on  the  other.  Individual  months  with  lower  monthly 
mean  temperatures  are  on  record,  and  lower  minimum  temperatures 
have  also  been  registered,  except  in  western  New  York.  The  precip- 
itation was  almost  wholly  in  the  form  of  snow,  the  snowfall  being 
above  normal  in  all  districts;  the  greatest  excess,  4S  inches,  was  in 
the  Huron  Basin.  The  ice  on  the  lakes  was  larger  in  amount  than 
usual;  the  ice  fields  were  more  extensive  and  disappeared  later  than 
during  recent  years.  In  Lake  Superior  the  lighthouse  supply  steamer 
^' Amaranth^'  was  fast  in  the  ice  off  Whitefish  Point  as  late  as  May  22, 
1904.  Although  certain  newspapers  reported  that  the  lake  was 
frozen  over  solid  during  the  winter,  such  was  not  the  case.  In  Lake 
Michigan  the  Ann  Arbor  car  ferries  were  caught  in  an  ice  field  and 
imprisoned  for  nearly  two  months  off  Two  River  Point,  Wis.,  and 
there  was  considerable  difficulty  in  operating  steamers  between  Chi- 
cago and  Milwaukee  and  between  Milwaukee  and  Grand  Haven.  In 
Lake  Erie  a  car  ferry  was  imprisoned  in  the  ice  off  Conneaut  from 
January  2d  until  March  11th,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  fire.  The 
Meteorological  Chart  of  the  Great  Lakes,  No.  1,  1904,  from  which  these 
fact*  are  taken,  contains  some  excellent  illustrations  of  the  ice  in 
the  lakes.  R.  DeC.  W. 

Bermuda. — Area  and  Population. — The  area  of  the  colony  of  Ber- 
muda is  about  eighteen  square  miles,  of  which  about  3,000  acres  are 
under  cultivation.  Its  length  is  twenty-six  miles;  its  width  (in  the 
^^ddest  part),  three  and  one-half  miles;  its  shape,  that  of  a  fishhook. 
There  are  two  ports,  St.  George,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  land,  and 
Hamilton,  in  the  center,  inside  the  great  sound. 

The  permanent  population  is  about  17,500;  to  this  may  be  added 
the  strength  of  the  garrison,  laborers  on  public  works,  the  naval  and 


394  THK  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

(lockyanl  rrmtingeiit.  ami  officials  anil  their  families,  estimated  at, 
say,  o.OfK). 

The  Xorth  Atlantic  scjuadron  (British),  which  remains  in  these 
waters  but  a  part  of  the  year,  may  have  on  board  from  1,500  to  double 
that  numlM»r.  deiXMiding  on  the  fleet  of  ships  that  may  come  into  the 
ports. 

The  tourist  element  is  to  be  counted  on  as  adding,  according  to 
the  records  in  the  steamer  company's  offices,  some  2,500  more  that 
visit  these  islands  in  a  twelvemonth. 

Import.9  —  The  local  dealer  therefore  has  as  a  basis  on  which  to 
make  his  estimates  for  the  season's  business  a  local  and  transient 
population  of  about  27,000  people. 

For  these  reasons  the  imports  of  Bermuda  are  comparatively 
very  large,  those  for  the  calendar  year  1902  amounting  to  $2,65S.41S. 
of  which  the  imports  from  the  United  States  amounted  to  $1,583,714; 
from  the  I'nited  Kingdom.  $746,906;  and  from  Canada,  $246,511. 

The  nearness  of  Xew  ^'ork  insures  prompt  ilelivery  of  goods  and 
enables  dealers  to  visit  freciuently  the  northern  markets. 

Commercial  travelers  know  the  trade  and  are  prompt  in  availing 
themselves  of  opportunities  for  placing  orders. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  also  comes  in  for  a  share  of  this  trade, 
via  tlie  Halifax  and  St.  John  lines  of  steamers. 

The  I'nited  Kingdom  and  the  continent  of  Europe  supply  princi- 
|)ally  the  finer  woolen  and  silk  and  fancy  dress  goods. 

Products  and  Kjcports. — IkTmuda  holds  a  unique  place  in  the 
western  world,  it  is  a  little  country,  with  absolutely  no  manufac- 
tures or  railways,  with  agriculture  alone  as  its  industry  (the  annual 
c\|)()rt  ol"  j)()tatoes,  onions,  bulbs,  and  vegetables  being  about  $500,- 
()()()),  with  no  l)usiness  but  that  of  selling  goods  at  retail  and  in  a 
limited  way  the  warehousing  of  wines  and  spirits;  nevertheless  Ber- 
muda is  of  importance  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

Birmndftn  Dcjcnscs.  —  It  is  the  western  outi)ost  of  the  J^ritish 
I^m|)ire,  considered  impregnable,  well  defended  by  fortifications, 
l)ut  more*  completely  by  its  chain  of  reefs  that  can  only  be  passed 
through  in  daylij^ht,  needing  then  a  skilled  pilot  to  guide  all  vessels 
into  j)ort. 

On  tlic  land  the  imperial  government  is  carrying  on  large  and 
imj)ortant  works.  At  the  naval  station  and  dockyard  the  appro- 
j)riati()n  of  €.')()(),()()()  ($2.4:^:^.250)  was  made,  to  be  expended  in  five 
yrars.     otlier   hirge   ap|)ro|)riations   have  been   made,   and   for  very 


GEOGRAPHICAL    NOTES  395 


heavy  amounts,  for  fortifications,  barracks,  officers'  quarters,  and 
other  public  works,  all  of  which  work  is  now  started  and  some  is  well 
under  way.  The  weekly  pay  rolls  for  this  work  is  largely  spent  in 
the  towns  and  means  business  activity  and  prosperity  to  all  classes 
of  the  population. 

Bermuda  as  a  Health  Resort. — Bermuda  is  also  a  favorite  winter 
resort  for  a  large  number  of  strangers  who  come  hither  to  escape 
the  rigor  of  a  northern  climate,  and  who  spend  their  money  freely 
in  every  conceivable  way.  Of  late  years  a  crowd  of  visitors  come 
in  the  summer  months,  eager  to  enjoy  all  the  delights  that  Hermuda 
offers  so  bountifully.  All  this  brings  trade  to  the  stores,  life  and 
activity  everywhere — to  hotels,  boarding  and  lodging  houses,  and 
to  the  farmer  and  the  artisan,  and  added  to  the  great  outlay  of  money 
made  by  the  national  government  may  explain  why  it  is  that  Ber- 
muda can  afford  to  import  so  heavily,  pay  its  bills,  and  continue 
to  prosper. 

Eggs  and  Poultry. — The  imports  of  eggs  and  poultry  seem  to  l)e 
inexplicable,  considering  the  ease  with  which  poultry  can  be  raised 
here.  In  1902  there  was  imj)orted  in  eggs  alone  some  SS.OOO  worth, 
and  poultry  in  proportion,  and  this  was  done  even  with  a  duty  on 
eggs,  recently  imposed,  of  0  cents  per  dozen.  The  price  of  this 
commodity  never  goes  l)el()\v  30  cents  per  dozen  and  that  for  a 
short  time  only,  soon  rising  to  50  or  60  cents  per  dozen.  It  would 
seem  that  here  is  an  opportunity  for  some  skilled  and  enterprising 
man  to  establish  a  paying  himuoi^^.— Consular  Reports,  March,  1904. 

Poultry  and  Eggs.— Few  people  have  any  adecjuate  idea  of  the 
extent  of  this  vast  industry,  because  it  is  generally  considered  on  a 
small  scale  as  a  mere  side  issue  to  something  else.  N'iewed  in  the 
aggregate  the  totals  are  so  vast  as  to  recpiire  comparison  with  other 
great  industries  to  aid  the  struggling  comprehension  to  grasp  the 
situation. 

The  latest  available  statistics  show  that  hist  year  the  poultry  and 
eggs  produced  in  the  United  States  were  worth  more  than  all  the 
gold  and  silver  mined  in  the  world  during  the  same  year.  Kxcept 
for  the  year  1900,  the  c^g  product  alone  of  this  country  has  exceeded 
in  value  that  of  its  coml)ined  gold  and  silver  output  for  every  year 
since  1S50,  which  takes  in  the  entire  bonanza  period  of  our  history. 
That,  with  the  poultry  i)ro(luct,  also  exceeds  in  value  the  wheat  crop 
of  twenty-eight  of  the  most  fruitful  states  and  territories. 


-^gS  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

Consider  tho  discussion  raised  by  politicians  over  threatened 
ruin  to  beet  sug:ar  and  wool.  How  earnestly  they  appealed  for  higher 
tariffs  and  made  protests  against  reciprocity  propositions  !  Yet  in 
1902  our  whole  sugar  production  amounted  to  only  about  820»000,- 
000,  while  the  wool  industry  is  only  about  a  third  as  important  as 
the  egg  and  poultry  industry.  In  Missouri  alone,  the  fourth  poultry 
state  in  the  Tnion,  recent  statistics  show  that  the  poultry  products 
in  a  single  year  exceeded  all  the  other  products  of  that  state  combined 
by  about  $17,000. 

Prof,  (leorge  F.  Thompson  of  the  agricultural  department  esti- 
mates the  total  value  of  the  annual  output  of  eggs  in  tliis  countr}- 
at  8145,000,000  and  the  value  of  poultry  at  $139,000,000.  The 
value  of  the  combined  poultry  and  egg  product  is  thus  nearly  double 
that  of  the  precious  metals. 

Recent  statistics  show  that  Iowa  easily  leads  in  the  production 
of  eggs,  its  yearly  ])roduct  being  100,000,000  dozen.  Ohio  comes 
next  with  91,000,000  dozen;  Illinois  is  third  wdth  86,000,000  dozen, 
and  Missouri  fourth  with  85.000,000  dozen. 

A  crate  of  eggs  contains  thirty  dozen.  A  refrigerator  car  will 
carry  about  4,000  such  crates.  Some  one  fond  of  figures  calculates 
that  to  transj)ort  the  annual  egg  j)ro(Iuclion  of  the  I'nited  States 
would  requin*  a  train  of  cars  long  enough  to  reach  from  Chicago  to 
Washington,  S()S  miles,  and  then  have  a  few  cars  left  for  another 
train.  If  you  like  to  mix  your  eggs  with  multiplicati<ni  and  division 
you  can  figure  out  the  cornM't  solution  of  the  egg  train  problem. 

Pdckint/  Poultnj  and  Eijtjs. — A  single  large  j)acking  comi)any,  the 
Armour's,  lias  nearly  100  cold-storage  warehouses  scattered  through 
Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  Most  of  them  are 
fully  (Mjuij)])ed  with  machinery  for  dressing  poidtry  and  employ  experts 
to  examine  tin*  eggs.  A  recent  writer-  thus  explains  what  is  done 
there : 

The  buyer  who  goe>  around  in  a  wagon  jncking  up  eggs,  chickens, 
and  butter  from  the  farms  and  the  country  grocers  brings  his  load 
to  one  of  these  cold-storage  warehouses,  where  it  is  placed  in  cold 
rooms  until  it  can  be  examined.  Every  egg  and  every  chicken  is 
carefully  scrutinized.  The  eggs  are  divided  into  three  classes.  The 
"  firsts  *'  are  pack(»d  in  cases  nnd  ship})e(l  by  refrigerator  cars  to  Clii- 
cago,  Omaha,  or  Kansas  City  and  stored  away  to  remain  until  they 
i\Yv  needed.  There  are  storehouses  in  Chicago  that  will  contain 
I^5().()()()  such  cas(^s.  The  "seconds"  among  the  eggs  are  packed 
in  a  similar  manner,  but  are  shipped  immediately  to  market,  while 
tlie  "thirds"  go  to  tlie  tanneries  and  other  manufacturing  establish- 
ments to  b(»  used  for  various  purjK>ses. 


GEOGRAPHICAL    NOTES  397 


Poultry  is  treated  in  the  same  way,  and  spring  chickens  are  stowed 
away  until  they  are  needed  to  meet  the  winter  demands.  The  "spring" 
chickens  or  **  broilers,"  as  they  are  better  known  to  the  market, 
can  be  had  the  year  round.  This  is  not  entirely  due  to  the  cold- 
storage  system,  however.  The  introduction  of  incubators  is  respon- 
sible for  much  of  it.  An  incubator  can  be  made  to  hatch  out  a  brood 
at  any  season  of  the  year,  and  modern  poultry  farms  are  so  arranged 
that  the  chicks  can  be  protected  from  the  cold  and  fattened  in 
the  winter  as  well  as  in  the  spring  and  summer.  Not\\'ithstandi ng 
the  incubator,  October,  November,  December,  and  January  continue 
to  be  the  biggest  months  for  bu\dng  poultry,  while  April  and  May 
are  the  largest  months  for  eggs. 

It  is  estimated  that  4,000,000  cases,  each  containing  thirty  dozen 
eggs,  were  stored  over  last  winter  in  the  cold-storage  warehouses  of 
the  United  States,  and  100,000,000  pounds  of  poultry,  killed  during 
the  fall  and  early  winter,  were  packed  away  and  preserved  for  the 
higher  prices  of  the  late  winter  and  spring  months.  The  volume  of 
this  business  runs  up  to  the  enormous  total  of  over  $1,000,000,000 
a  year. 

Cold  Storage  of  E<j(fs. — To-day  the  prices  of  eggs  are  definitely 
controlled  V)y  the  cold-storage  liouses.  The  demand  seems  to  be 
always  ecpial  to,  if  not  greater  than,  the  supply.  It  is  estimated 
that  every  five  years  the  consumption  of  eggs  doubles,  and  only  the 
success  of  cold  storage  keeps  down  the  prices.  In  cold-storage  houses 
eggs  may  be  kept  for  an  indefinite  time  as  fresh  as  if  they  were  just 
laid.  The  secret  of  success  in  this  matter  lies  in  careful  sorting  and 
packing  of  the  eggs  at  a  uniform  temi)erature. 

An  old  picture  in  the  Dresden  gallery  represents  a  Dutch  house- 
wife '*  testing  eggs,"  and  shows  that  the  modern  method  was  in  vogue 
more  than  a  hundred  years  ago,  except  for  the  substitution  of  a  strong 
electric  light  for  the  oil  lamp.  Tlie  interior  of  the  egg  is  examined 
by  the  light  which  shines  directly  through  it.  If  a  perfect  ball  of 
rosy  red  is  found  floating  in  clear  liquid  in  a  clean  shell  the  egg  is 
fresh.  If  there  is  a  slight  vacuum  at  one  end  it  is  fresh  enough  for 
ordinary  use.  Evaporation  has  set  in,  l)ut  for  cake-making  and  for 
many  purposes  this  egg  is  better  than  a  perfectly  fresh  one.  Finally, 
when  the  egg  has  decomposed,  the  yolk  sticks  to  the  shell;  it  is  stale 
and  unfit  for  use,  though  it  may  not  be  odorous.  Eggs  which  this 
test  shows  to  be  practically  fresh  may  have  been  laid  for  months, 
while  those  that  have  not  been  properly  stored  will  not  bear  *' can- 
dling^" though  laid  only  a  few  weeks  before. 

The  cold-storage  houses  l)egin  to  store  eggs  in  February  and  stop 
storing  after  June  until  cold  weather  comes  again.    In  the  hot,  sultry 


^gS  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 

weather  of  August  eggs,  like  all  other  perishable  products,  spoil  easily, 
and  are  usually  unfit  for  storage  purposes  by  the  time  they  reach 
market. 

The  first  eggs  to  reach  the  great  packing  houses  come  from  the 
far  South.  In  March  the  Middle  States  send  in  their  eggs  for  storage. 
In  April  and  May  eggs  from  the  North  and  Eastern  states  reach 
market  in  great  quantities.  Before  the  end  of  June  there  are  often 
a  thousand  carloads  in  market  to  be  stored  for  the  dull  season  *'\vhen 
hens   will   not   lay." 

At  those  packing  houses  the  temperature  is  kept  at  thirty  degrees 
Fahrenheit  by  means  of  pipes  through  which  brine  circulates,  just 
as  steam  does  in  modern  houses.  The  secret  of  storing  eggs  success- 
fully consists  in  keeping  tliem  at  two  degrees  below  freezing  point, 
in  surroundings  of  s[)olless  cleanliness,  and  in  sorting  those  that  have 
Ix'gun  to  ])e  stale  from  the  strictly  fresh. 

PrvjmriiKj  Poultry  for  Market. — The  American  Cultivator  says  a 
poultryman  of  Sydney,  Ohio,  has  a  contract  with  a  Cleveland  com- 
mission firm  to  furnish  100  dozen  eggs  each  day,  wdth  the  date 
stamped  on  them.  The  contract  price  is  20  cents  a  dozen.  It  is 
cortaiidy  worth  this  man's  while  to  have  his  hens  attend  strictly  to 
business,  as  tliey  are  ovidcMitly  doing,  for  he  is  filHng  Ids  orders  as 
regularly  as  clockwork. 

This  same  man  has  a  different  contract  with  another  firm.  He 
agr(»es  to  furnish  daily  300  young  chickens  weighing  one  and  one-half 
|)ounds  each,  for  eating  })urposes.  He  gets  S3  per  dozen  for  these 
broilers.  He  managers  to  keep  up  with  tliis  l)ig  undertaking  by  using 
thirty  improved  incubators,  that  are  not  all  filled  at  tiie  same  time, 
but  are  j)roj)ortione(l  so  that  some  of  them  can  discharge  fresh  chicks 
o'di'h  day.  A  larg(>  and  comj)etent  (lock  of  barred  Plymouth  Rock 
hens  are  kept  constantly  on  duty  laying  t^ggs  with  which  to  stock 
th{\^e  hatching  machines,  and  450  eggs  are  placed  in  them  each  day. 

In  connection  with  the  incubators  there  is  a  row  of  pens  nund)eretl 
from  one  to  ninety,  ivicli  day  the  little  chicks  from  the  nuichines 
are  turned  into  the  first  pen.  They  are  advanced  one  pen  each  day. 
and  when  the  last  one  is  reached  they  are  ninety  days  old.  weigh 
one  and  one-half  |)ounds,  and  are  ready  for  the  market.  They  are 
herded  from  th(^  incubators  through  all  of  the  pens  without  being 
toucluMJ  until  ihcy  an^  ready  for  the  frying  pan.  A  certain  propor- 
tion of  the  eggs  do  not  hatch,  nor  do  all  that  are  hatched  five  to 
make  \\\v  trij)  through  the  ninety  pens,  but  the  percentage  of  loss  is 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 


399 


comparatively  small,  and  the  breeder  finds  that  the  450  eggs  which  go 
into  the  incubators  every  day  easily  net  him  300  perfect  broilers  at 
the  coops,  which  are  shipped  to  the  city  daily  from  pen  No.  90.  In 
order  to  carry  out  this  system  and  meet  his  contract  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  pouJtryman  hasjsomething  like  13,000  chicks  constantly  on  hand, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  hundreds  of  dozens  of  eggs  tied  up  in  the  incu- 
bators, or  of  the  great  flock  of  laying  hens  that  supply  the  eggs.  But 
he  gets,  to  market  wdth  his  daily  order  and  is  reported  to  be  making 
a  profit  of  $25,000  annually. 

Studying  the  Business. — Ry  intelligent  management,  not  the  kind 
that  vaguely  wonders  what  sort  of  luck  they'll  have  this  season,  but 
by  a  clear  understanding  of  the  care  of  poultry  and  the  various  details 
of  the  business,  poultry  raising,  even  on  a  small  scale,  can  be  made  to 
realize  what  a  shrewd  business  person  would  deem  enormous  profits, 
often  as  high  as  75  or  80  per  cent. 

To  furnish  proficiency  an  unusual  school  has  been  established  at 
Water\dlle,  N.  V..  the  Columbia  School  of  Poultry  Culture,  with 
college  and  university  graduates  on  its  faculty  and  special  courses 
in  the  care  of  waterfowl,  geese-growing,  turkeys,  pheasants,  guinea 
and  pea  fowls,  pigeons,  and  bees,  in  addition  to  the  regular  course 
with  chickens.  This  school  is  conducted  in  connection  with  a  poultry 
plant  that  annually  raises  5,000  chicks  and  winters  2,000  layers. 

International  Egg  Trade. — The  1901  issue  of  the  Yearbook  of 
Agriculture  reported  more  than  233,000,000  chickens  on  farms  in  the 
United  States,  and  while  this  poultry  and  its  egg  products  are  mostly 
for  the  home  market,  yet  we  make  large  exports  of  eggs.  The  United 
Kingdom,  the  largest  importer  of  poultry  and  eggs  in  the  world, 
buys  in  nearly  twenty  countries  about  40  per  cent  of  the  eggs  con- 
sumed there.  Russia  is  rated  as  the  largest  exporter  of  eggs  in  the 
world.  Japan  imports  many  from  China,  where  they  are  cheap. 
Denmark  has  a  large  export  egg  trade.  Many  Danish  eggs  are  marked 
on  the  shell  with  a  stamp  so  the  person  selling  them  can  be  identified 
if  they  are  inferior.     Italy  is  a  large  egg  exporter. 

It  is  only  recently  that  we  in  the  United  States  considered  it  worth 
while  to  impose  a  duty  on  foreign  eggs,  and  when  that  was  done  it 
was  rather  to  make  our  tariff  schedule  symmetrical  than  because 
of  any  conviction  that  it  was  necessary. — Intelligence,  March  15,  1904. 


4CX)  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  October 


EDITORIAL 

CLUBS  OF  GEOGRAPHY  TEACHERS 

MANY  teachers  have  returned  from  their  summer  vacations 
full  of  enthusiasm  for  geography  because  they  have  visited 
a  new  and  interesting  region,  or  have  come  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  a  leader  at  some  summer  school  or  teachers'  institute.  They 
are  full  of  a  desire  to  make  their  work  in  geography  more  efficient 
and  to  do  something  to  make  the  value  of  geography  more  appreciated 
in  their  conmiunity. 

One  very  helpful  way  in  which  advance  can  be  brought  about  is 
through  the  formation  of  a  club  composed  of  all  the  teachers  in  a 
community  who  are  osj)ecially  interested  in  geography.  Such  clubs 
have  been  formed  in  many  places  and  have  proved  of  great  value  not 
only  to  the  teachers  interested,  but  their  work  has  helped  the  whole 
community.  A  club  to  bo  effective  should  be  as  simply  organized 
as  possible.  There  should  be  no  long  Hsts  of  officers,  and  the  initial 
plans  should  bo  simple  and  easily  accomplished.  A  leader  or  a  com- 
mittee to  plan  work  and  keep  the  movement  going,  and  subcommit- 
tees to  carry  on  s|)ecial  linos  of  work,  is  probably  the  most  effective 
organization  at  tlio  beginning.  With  increased  strength  and  increased 
confidonco  the  plans  of  work  may  bo  elaborated. 

Tlie  cliiof  advantage  of  such  organizations  is  the  opportunity  for 
exchanging  ideas  as  to  ways  of  teaching  and  of  becoming  better 
ac(iuainto(l  witli  oner's  colleagues.  The  opportunities  for  mutual 
holj)  are.  however,  almost  unHmit(Ml.  The  different  committees  can 
bring  to  viwh  mooting  brief  summaries  of  the  Hterature  pertaining 
to  llio  <liff(M<'nl  fields  in  which  th(»  individual  members  are  interested. 
Such  suniniarios  should  bo  |)resentod  in  such  a  form  that  others  may 
readily  make  use  of  tin*  references  in  their  class  work.  Maps  and 
illustrations  should  be  reviewed  in  the  same  way,  for  no  geographv 
teaching  can  bo  etTectivo  unless  based  on  the  best  maps  and  a  few  of 
th(^  best  ])ertin(Mit  illustrations. 

Another  way  in  which  stu'h  a  club  can  be  of  help  to  the  individual 
inom])ers  and  to  the  community  is  by  furnishing  suggestions  to  the 
otiicials  of  the  town  or  city  library  as  to  the  purchase  of  geographical 
book>  for  general  use.  The  club  can  also  help  by  summarizing  such 
books  and  bringing  {\\vm  to  tlu^  attention  of  pupils  and  parents  by 
notices  ])()st(Ml  on  the  school  or  library  bulletin  boards,  or  both. 
Many  H])raries  contain  many  books  of  great  value  geographically,  but 


REVIEWS 


401 


are  little  used  for  geographic  reference  because  the  resources  are 
unknown.  Many  librarians  neglect  geography  or,  in  their  innocence, 
buy  books  that  can  only  be  classified  geographically  as  trash,  and 
would  be  glad  of  interested  advice  even  though  it  be  partial. 

The  opportunities  also  of  helping  in  organizing  a  strong  course 
of  study  in  geography,  and  in  planning  and  conducting  excursions 
for  pupils  and  teachers,  are  almost  limitless  in  any  locality.  In  fact 
any  club  will  find  so  much  to  do  that  the  danger  is  they  will  do  little 
through  tr}dng  too  many  things  at  once. 

There  are  two  primary  facts  that  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  any 
club:  First,  that  a  few  things  well  done  are  more  beneficial  than  many 
things  just  touched  superficially;  and,  second,  that  geography  is  a 
wide  subject  and  should  be  treated  as  such.  In  spite  of  our  school 
texts  and  the  advance  along  certain  lines  in  America  within  the  last 
few  years,  geography  is  not  all  physical  geography  or  economic  geog- 
raphy. Geography,  as  a  subject  of  discipline  or  of  culture,  is  many- 
sided,  and  no  student  of  geography,  and  particularly  no  teacher  of 
school  geography,  can  afford  to  become  so  much  of  a  specialist  in  one 
branch  as  to  neglect  all  reference  to  the  other  sides  of  what  may  be 
called  general  geography. 

The  editors  of  the  Journal  will  be  glad  to  know  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  Teachers'  Geography  Clubs,  and  will  help  in  the  work  in  any 
ways  they  can. 

REVIEWS 

Commercial  Geography  of  the  World  Outside  the  British  Isles,     liv  A.  J.  Her- 

bertson.     Pp.268.     London  and  Edinburgh:     W.  &  R.  Chambers,' 1903. 

"Herbertson's  "Commercial  Geography  of  the  World"  is  a  companion  volume  to 
his  "Commercial  Geography  of  the  British  Isles/'  published  in  1899,  and  noted  in 
this  Journal,  Vol.  IV  (old  series),  p.  38. 

Teachers  in  America  are,  or  should  be,  acquainted  with  many  contributions  to 
Educational  Geograpliy  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Herbertson,  primarily  for  use  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  but  of  great  value  in  America.  This  latest  volume  from  liis  pen 
is  not  as  serviceable  in  America  as  some  of  his  other  volumes,  but  is  a  good  ))ook  of 
reference  for  all. 

The  first  fifty-seven  pages  fonn  an  excellent  summar>'  of  the  eeneral  principles 
of  geography  necessary  as  a  basis  for  the  understanding  of  regional  commercial  geog- 
raphy to  which  the  rest  of  the  book  is  devoted.  These  introductory'  chapters  are 
well  arranged,  simple  and  readable,  and  remind  one  of  his  excellent  and  indispensable 
volume  entitled  "Man  and  His  Work." 

The  chapters  devoted  to  Regional  (Commercial  Geography  are  simple  and  logi- 
cally arranged,  but  for  American  teachers  are  not  as  serviceable  as  several  of  the 
commercial  geographies  by  American  authors. 


An  Important  Book  of  Travel 


AFRICA 

FROM  SOUTH  TO  NORTH 
THROUGH    MAROTSELAND 

By  MAJOR  A.  St.  H.  GIBBONS,  F.  R.G.  S. 

Author  of  **  Exploration  and  Hunting  in  Central  Africa." 
With  Numerous  Illustrations  reproduced  from  Photo- 
graphs, and  Maps.  Octavo.     2  vols.    $7.50  net. 


Major  Gibbons  tiescription  of  his  travels  through  the  whole  leni^th  of 
the  African  continent  is  amongst  the  ntost  valuable  contributions  to 
this  class  of  literature  published  in  recent  years.  Amongst  other 
important  features  in  the  work  is  an  account  of  the  tracing  of  the 
Zambesi  River  to  its  source,  which  had  hitherto  remained  undiscovered. 


JOHN  LANE,  Publisher,  i\™^  New  York 


BEPAKTMHJT  OF  EDTlDATiai)  LIBRiST. 


HAMMETT'S 

Maps  and  Globes 


HAMMETT'S  EXCELSIOR  SCHOOL  MAPS 

Published  by  G.  W.  Bacon. 

Twenty  Maps  all  uniform  in  si/.e. 

Twenty  Outline  Maps  to  correspi»ncl. 

The  mf>st  complete  and  satisfactory  series  published. 

An  artistic  sea-coast  shading:  has  been  adopted,  gfivinK  remarkable  beauty 

and  attractiveness. 
The  hills  have  been  drawn  in  a  more  vi>jorous  style. 
Remarkable  character  is  given  by  the  system  of  using  blue  for  rivers, 

brown  for  hills,  b.ack  for  names,  and  deej)  red  for  towns. 
The  skillful  classification  and  arrangement  of  names  gives  a  clearness  and 

legibility  found  in  n«)  other  map  in  existence. 

Price  on  Common  Roller Jl»2.25  each 

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Size  of  all  maps,  64  xnj  inches. 

HISTORICAL  MAPS 

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Hammett's  Map  of  the  World  on   ecjuivalent  projection, 

43x62  inches  (new) $5.00 

GLOBES 

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^^ 


^/fc-JOURNAL? 
GEOGRAPHY 

•Volume  III.  NOVEMBER,  1904  Number  9 


gt«  lUu#trat^lr  in^ntliiu  vxa^a\\xiz  X^z-ocXtta  \o  \\xt 
\Xi\txz^\%  0f  \z<tt\\zx%  0f  0e00vaph}i  itt  tit- 


Edited  by  RICHARD  E.  DODGE,  Professor  of  Geog- 
raphy,Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City,  and  EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS,  Professor  of 
Geography,  State  Normal   School,  Winona.  Minnesota 


i&oxiXtnX^  fox  ^cvtttibtx 

PAGE 

-^^iirsions  in  College  Geography    ....  WILLIAM  HARMON  NORTON  403 

^^^poDse  to  Surroundings— A  Geographic  Principle    .     .   R.  H.  WHITBECK  409 

^«^»sportation,  Part  HI JOHN  THOM  HOLDSWORTH  413 

'^^^at  a  Child  Should  Gain  From  Geography R.  P.  IRELAND  421 

^^^^^lat  the  Child  Should  Know  of  Geography  at  the  End  of  His  Grade  Course 

AMOS  W.  FARNHAM     424 

^*^ographical  Notes: 

Geographic  Features  of  Alaska,  427  —  A  Great  Tunnel,  432  —  British  India.  433 — The 
Practical  Use  of  the  Globe  in  Teaching?  Geography,  436  —  First  Lessons  in  Geography, 
440  —  Acclimatization  of  the  White  Race  in  the  Tropics,  443  —  Forests  and  Climate 
in  Texas,  444. 

Bditorial: 

Home  Geography,  445 

Review: 

North  America,  446. 
Authors  are  personally  responsible  for  opinions  and  statements  expressed  in  the  JOURNAL 


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The  JOURNAL  of 
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An  lttustrat9d  Maga£in9  1>9Vot9d  to  th9  Int9r99ta  of  T9ach9rs  of  G9ograph9  in 
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Successor  to  the  Journal  of  School  Geography^  Vol.  V.,  and  the  Bulletin  of  the 
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EDITORS 

RICHARD  E.  DODGE, 

Professor  of  Geography^  Teachers  College^  Columbia  University^  New  York  City, 

EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS 

Professor  of  Geography^  State  Normal  School^  Winona^  Minnesota, 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

CYRUS  C.  ADAMS Geographical  Editor,  N.  Y.  Sun 

OTIS  W.  CALDWELL  .  Professor  of  Botany,  Slate  Normal  School,  Charleston,  IlL 
JAMES  F.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Prof  .of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Los  Angeles^Cal. 
HENRY  C.  COWLES  .  .  .  Associate  in  Botany,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  IlL 
WILLIAM  M.  DAVIS.  Professor  of  Geology,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass, 
N.  M.  FENNEMAN  .  .  Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis, 
J.  PAUL  GOODE,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geography,  University  of  Chicago^  Chicago,  IlL 
GEORGE  B.  HOLLISTER,  Hydrographer,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C, 
M.  S.  W.  JlS.^YKKSO'ii,  Professor  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Ypsilanfi,Mich. 
EMORY  R.  JOHNSON,  Asst.  Prof,  of  Transportation  and  Commerce,  Univ.  of  Penna. 
EDW.  D.  JONES,  Asst.  Prof,  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Univ.  of  Mieh.,  Ann  Arbor 
VERNON  L.  KELIX)GG,  Prof,  of  Entomology,  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto,  CaL 

CHARLES  F.  KING Master  of  Dearborn  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

S.  J.  Maclean,  Asst.  Prof,  of  Economics,  Inland  Stanford  Jr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto^  CaL 
FOREST  RAY  MOULTON,  Assistant  Professor  of  Astronomy,  University  of  Chicago 

JACQUES  W.  REDWAY Author,  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y, 

ELLEN  C.  S  EM  PL  E Writer  in  Anthropogcography,  Louisville,  Ky, 

FREDERICK  STARR,  Associate  Prof,  of  Anthropology,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  IlL 
RALPH  S.  TARR,  Professor  of  Physical  Geography,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

SPENCER  TROTTER Professor  of  Biology,  Swarthmore  College,  Pa. 

ROBERT  DkC.  ward   .    .  Assistant  Professor  of  Climatology,  Harvard  University 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  POR  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  CANADA 
A.  J.  HERBERTS(^N,  Lecturer  in  Regional  Geography,  Oxford  University,  England 
JOHN  A.  DRESSER Prince  Albert  School,  St.  Henry  de  Montreal,  Quebec 


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Dodge's  Geographies 

AN    CNTIRELY  NEW   SERIES    FOR  THE   GRAMMAR   GRADES 

By  RICHARD  ELWOOD  DODGE 

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DODGE'S  GEOGRAPHIES  are  based  on  a  definite  plan 
which  is  adhered  to  throughout  the  series — the  plan  of 
relating  geography  to  life,  showing  how  physical  environ- 
ment shapes  man's  industries,  trade,  and  ways  of  living.  The 
maps  used  in  this  series  have  been  prepared  expressly  for  these 
books  and  have  never  been  used  before.  They  represent  the  most 
accurate  work  of  this  kind  that  has  been  done  in  this  country. 

Dodge's  Elementary  Geography $0.65 

Begins  with  Home  Geography — Brings  out  the  relation 
between  home  and  the  geography  of  the  surrounding  country — 
Gives  as  much  of  land  and  water  forms  and  the  elements  of  com- 
merce as  is  necessary  to  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  United 
States  and  the  several  continents — Takes  up  existing  industries, 
trade,  industrial  and  trade  centers,  etc.,  and  shows  them  to  be  the 
outgrowth  of  geographical  surroundings;  in  other  words,  reasons 
from  consequences  to  causes. 

Each  continent  is  represented  by  three  full-page  maps  and  the 
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The  book  also  contains  a  large  number  of  black  and  white  maps 
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Dodge's  Advanced  Geography $1.20 

Begins  with  a  thorough  treatment  of  the  Principles  of  Geogra- 
phy— Takes  up  land  and  water  forms,  climate  (a  more  comprehen- 
sive treatment  than  is  usual  in  grammar-school  geographies), 
vegetation,  animals,  and  men  —  Observes  the  causal  order  —  Cites 
an  abundance  of  concrete  illustrations  of  principles  discussed. 

Considers  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  continents  first, 
with  a  view  to  showing  how  they  have  determined  industries,  trade, 
industrial  and  trade  centers,  etc.;  that  is,  reasons  from  causes  to 
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The  book  also  contains  the  largest  number  of  black  and  white 
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booiis,  mailing  a  four'book  series. 

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ne  JOVRNAL  of    ■ 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  NOVEMBER,  1904  No.  9 

EXCURSIONS  IN  COLLEGE  GEOGRAPHY* 

BY   WILLIAM    HARMON    NORTON 
Professor  of  Geology,  Cornell  College,  MovrU  Vernon,  Iowa 

THE  excursion  in  geography  is  based  on  two  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  education.  It  has  long  been  recognized  that  first-hand 
knowledge  must  form  the  foundation  on  which  all  other  knowl- 
edge of  a  subject  rests.  Nor  is  it  questioned  that  in  higher  education 
training  in  research  is  more  than  information.  Learning  is  not  enough 
to  make  the  scientific  scholar;  he  must  be  trained  to  observe,  to 
arrange,  to  compare,  to  draw  inductions,  to  propose  hypotheses  and 
test  them,  to  solve  the  problems  of  his  science. 

If  the  application  of  these  principles  has  been  less  thorough  in 
geography  than  in  other  sciences,  it  is  only  because  of  the  difficulties 
inherent  in  our  subjects.  The  phenomena  with  which  we  deal  are  for 
the  most  part  too  large  to  be  brought  to  the  laboratory  for  observa- 
tion and  experiment.  If  we  study  them  first  hand  and  with  the 
technic  of  research  it  must  be  in  the  field. 

The  excursion,  therefore,  in  the  earth  sciences  has  the  same  place  as 
the  laboratory  has  in  other  studies ;  it  gives  first-hand  knowledge  and 
definite  and  accurate  conceptions  of  reality;  it  teaches  the  methods 
of  investigation.  The  field  has  a  smaller  place  in  teaching  geography 
than  the  laboratory  has  in  other  sciences ;  but  this  is  not  because  its 
value  is  underrated,  but  only  because  it  is  less  manageable  than  the 
laboratory  as  an  educational  instrument. 

As  outdoor  laboratory  work  the  excursion  meets  with  climatic 
difficulties.  In  latitudes  of  severe  winters  it  is  suspended  during 
much  of  the  college  year.  Our  schedules  must  be  arranged — perhaps 
I  should  say  disarranged — so  as  to  bring  the  topics  where  field  work 
is  most  needed  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  yearns  courses. 
The  field  work  thus  crowded  into  a  few  months  of  fall  and  spring 

*  Read  at  the  Eighth  International  Geographic  Congress. 


404  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

• 

is  restricted  further  by  the  weather,  and  how  serious  this  restriction 
may  be,  those  teachers  know  who  have  experienced  an  October  or 
a  May  of  rainy  Saturdays.  The  uncertainty  of  the  weather  makes 
it  difficult  to  arrange  our  programs  in  advance,  and  the  field  meet 
designed  to  introduce  or  to  illustrate  a  given  subject  must  often  be 
postponed  until  it  has  lost  its  pertinence  or  be  given  up  altogether. 

Nor  is  it  easy  to  avoid  conflicts  with  the  other  engagements  of  our 
students.  In  most  schools  the  excursion  cannot  be  assigned  definite 
place  on  the  college  roster,  and  the  regularly  scheduled  exercises  of 
each  day  hold  the  right  of  way  against  it.  The  excursion  cannot  be 
limited  to  the  hour  or  two  allotted  to  other  college  exercises,  but 
requires  often  half  a  day  at  least.  Conflicts  are  therefore  numerous 
where  it  must  be  foregone  in  favor  of  recitations  or  other  scheduled 
exercises.  It  is  thus  usually  deferred  until  the  Saturday  holiday, 
where  it  competes  with  athletic  sports  and  unduly  lengthens  the 
working  week  both  of  student  and  instructor.  In  some  schools  the 
employment  of  student  assistants  permits  an  excursion  to  be  scheduled 
on  the  college  roster  for  four  afternoons  a  week,  and  the  student 
registers  for  field  work  on  that  afternoon  of  each  week  in  which  his 
time  is  free.  Such  a  delightful  comity  prevails  in  several  univer- 
sities that  students  are  excused  —  "cheerfully  excused,*'  one  corre- 
spondent writes  me — by  their  departments  for  absence  on  excursions, 
though  of  course  the  work  is  to  be  made  up  later.  But  I  see  no 
general  relief  in  sight  from  these  conflicts  until  the  excursion  comes 
to  be  considered  as  a  college  sport  instead  of  an  essential  part  of 
scientific  education.  When  the  field  day  in  geography  is  once  placed 
on  the  same  plane  with  football,  our  students  can  be  taken  by  the 
day  and  week  hundreds  of  miles  away  and  excused  from  all  their 
cla.sses  meanwhile. 

Certain  difficulties  are  more  or  less  inherent  in  the  excursion. 
The  number  participating  may  make  itjmpossible  to  give  close  super- 
vision and  direction  to  the  individual  student.  Our  young  people, 
exhilarated  by  their  unaccustomed  release  from  sedentary  tasks, 
tend  at  first  to  look  upon  the  excursion  as  an  outing  and  to  take  an 
attitude  of  mind  more  suited  to  a  picnic  than  to  serious  study.  As 
the  field  meet  is  held  more  often,  and  as  students  are  sent  out  in 
small  parties  each  in  charge  of  an  assistant,  such  difficulties  diminish, 
and  they  practically  disappear  with  thoroughly  interested  students 
and  those  in  advanced  courses.  To  meet  these  difficulties,  however, 
requires  all  the  qualities  of  the  successful  class  room  and  laboratory 


X904  EXCURSIONS  IN  COLLEGE  GEOGRAPHY  4^5 

instructor  raised  to  the  nth  power.  The  important  problems  must 
be  set  clear  in  view,  investigation  must  be  directed,  and  the  attention 
of  the  class  is  to  be  held  under  circumstances  which  cannot  fail  to  be 
distracting.  To  make  the  exercise  to  all  who  take  part  in  it  one  of 
earnest  intellectual  effort  without  impairing  its  natural  pleasure 
taxes  a  teacher's  skill  if  not  his  patience,  and  requu*es  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  local  field,  studied  preparation  of  methods,  and 
experience  in  this  kind  of  work. 

So  various  are  the  subjects  studied  in  the  field  and  the  purposes 
in  view,  that  even  in  elementary  courses  no  uniform  methods  are 
adopted.  Any  lecture  is  certainly  out  of  place.  A  short  demon- 
stration may  be  useful  in  closing  the  exercise,  or  such  a  review  may 
be  postponed  to  the  recitation  hour  when  the  students*  papers  on  the 
excursion  are  presented. 

In  general,  the  end  of  the  excursion  is  best  met  by  whatever  method 
rouses  the  student's  interest  and  effort  and  leads  him  to  describe 
accurately  what  he  sees  and  to  think  out  clearly  the  causes  of  it 
for  himself.  That  field  work  has  the  greatest  zest,  I  think,  to  which 
the  student  brings  for  solution  problems  which  have  already  risen  in 
the  lecture  room  and  laboratory.  He  holds  in  mind  various  hypoth- 
eses by  which  the  facts  might  be  explained,  together  with  the  critical 
phenomena  which  would  decide  in  favor  of  one  hypothesis  or  another, 
and  his  search  for  these  decisive  evidences  can  hardly  fail  to  be  dili- 
gent and  fruitful. 

In  many  cases  problems  cannot  well  be  brought  before  the  stu- 
dent until  the  field  is  reached,  but  here  also  they  may  be  set  forth 
with  advantage  early  in  the  exercise  rather  than  at  its  close.  Facts 
which  might  seem  trivial  so  long  as  they  were  unrelated  details  of 
observation  gain  dignity  when  they  are  seen  to  lead  up  to  large 
conclusions.  Thus  in  the  study  of  the  not  uncommon  sections  in 
the  middle  west  of  the  United  States,  where  deeply  decayed  rock 
mantled  with  residual  clay  is  overlain  with  till,  the  question  whether 
the  rock  decay  is  older  or  younger  than  the  deposit  of  the  till  may  be 
raised  as  soon  as  the  general  relations  of  the  section  are  well  seen. 
With  this  problem  in  view  the  discovery  of  fragments  of  residual 
clay  kneaded  in  the  till  becomes  to  the  student  one  of  the  first  impor- 
tance, proving  the  clay  preglacial  and  that  a  continental  glacier 
may,  move  over  rotten  rock  and  its  residual  clays  and  leave  them 
disturbed  but  little. 

Some  topics  may  best  be  opened  in  the  field  without  the  prepara- 


406  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

tion  of  any  previous  study.  Investigation  of  a  section  of  the  drift 
may  well  begin  class  work  on  glaciers.  The  characteristics  of  loess 
are  better  learned  at  outcrops  than  from  any  text-book.  Care  is 
needed  to  advance  no  step  beyond  the  facts  open  to  observation 
and  the  inferences  which  may  be  drawn  clearly  from  them.  Least 
of  all  in  the  field  is  there  place  for  the  dictum:  Thus  saith  the  au- 
thority. If  questions  rise  to  which  the  facts  before  us  give  no  answer, 
let  them  go  unanswered  for  a  while  and  trust  to  an  awakened  curi- 
osity to  continue  the  search.  The  active,  investigative  attitude  of 
mind  is  to  be  encouraged,  not  the  passive  attitude,  the  listening  ear. 

Individual  effort  is  stimulated  by  requiring  of  each  student  a  for- 
mal report  of  his  work.  His  field  notes  are  written  fully  on  the  spot. 
With  beginners,  suggestive  questions  are  needed  at  every  step,  and 
before  any  subject  is  left  some  notes  may  well  be  read  for  correction 
and  addition  by  the  class,  while  the  appeal  in  case  of  disagreement 
can  yet  be  made  to  Nature.  Sketches,  maps,  and  diagrams  are 
prepared,  and  may  be  inspected  also  as  far  as  possible,  on  the  spot. 
Some  pains  are  taken  by  the  instructor  to  have  the  reports  conform 
to  the  rules  of  scientific  writing.  The  uninitiated  need  warning  to 
avoid  all  that  is  subjective,  to  omit  references  to  the  weather,  the 
route,  and  incidents  of  the  trip,  and  to  describe  in  simple  phrases 
the  things  which  they  have  studied,  stating  logically  the  inferences 
which  they  have  drawn. 

Even  in  elementary  courses  considerable  is  taught  of  the  use  of 
instruments — the  compass,  the  hand  level,  the  aneroid,  the  clinom- 
eter. Distances  are  paced,  dimensions  and  angles  of  slope  are 
estimated  by  the  eye  as  well  as  measured  afterward.  Contour 
sketching  is  practiced  in  the  field^and  the  data  taken  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  maps  and  sections. 

In  more  advanced  courses,  study,  mapping,  and  technical  descrip- 
tion are  made  more  systematic.  Small  areas  are  mapped  with 
the  plane  table.  Students  are  given  special  areas  to  work  out  inde- 
pendently and  their  final  reports  rise  to  the  dignity  of  theses. 

There  is  one  general  preparation  for  the  excursion  wliich  I  am 
convinced  is  greatly  needed.  If  our  students  do  not  ^* tackle'^  well 
the  problems  of  the  field,  it  is  probably  not  only  because  of  their 
inexperience  in  outdoor  study,  but  also  because  they  are  unaccustomed 
to  solve  problems  in  the  class  room.  Lectures,  library  references, 
and  text-book  recitations  do  not  encourage  the  investigative  attitude 
of  mind.     The  dei)arture  most  needed  in  our  text-books    and   our 


X904  EXCURSIONS  IN  COLLEGE  GEOGRAPHY  4^7 

teaching  is  the  wider,  freer  use  of  problems,  whose  function  in  our 
inductive  science  will  be  that  of  the  exercises  of  inventional  geom- 
etry. If,  for  example,  the  means  of  discriminating  contemporaneous 
lava  flows  from  sills  have  been  worked  out  in  class  room  and  laboratory 
exercises,  one  of  the  best  possible  preparations  has  been  made  for  an 
excursion  to  some  outcrop  of  the  traps  of  the  Newark  system  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley  or  of  northern  New  Jersey,  often  visited  by  stu- 
dents. 

The  scope  of  the  excursion  is  limited.  The  field  accessible  to  the 
most  favorably  located  school  is  far  from  embracing  all  the  phenomena 
of  earth  science.  All  topics  cannot  be  studied  in  the  field,  nor 
need  any  topic  be  studied  there  alone.  But  if  the  excursion  secures 
even  a  little  first-hand  knowledge,  that  leaven  will  permeate  and 
vivify  the  entire  body  of  knowledge  of  our  science.  A  little  field 
study  of  land  forms,  sufficient  to  make  the  subject  real,  to  develop 
the  topographic  sense,  to  give  some  few  type  specimens  for  reference, 
to  bring  into  clear  view  the  slow,  sure  w^orkings  of  earth  forces  in 
the  present  and  in  ages  past,  to  train  in  methods  of  research — even 
a  little  field  w^ork  will  lay  the  foundation  on  which  the  superstructure 
may  be  raised  by  other  means. 

Models  and  photographs  are  only  a  step  removed  from  Nature. 
To  study  a  good  model,  such  as  that  by  Howell  of  the  Chattanooga 
district,  might  almost  be  called  field  geography.  The  photograph 
projected  by  the  lantern  of  the  glacier,  the  sea  cliff,  the  lava  flow, 
the  desert  dunes,  or  the  dissected  peneplain,  gives  almost  the  sense 
of  reality  of  the  view  of  the  thing  itself,  and  is  to  be  studied  by 
much  the  same  methods  of  the  excursion — as  phenomena  to  be 
described,  presenting  problems  for  solution.  When  contour  mapping 
has  been  well  learned  in  the  field,  topographic  maps  and  charts  open 
up  the  land  forms  of   a  large  part  of  the  world  to  laboratory  study. 

Every  college  teacher  knows  how  greatly  the  excursion  is  still 
needed  even  in  its  elementary  exercises.  Our  students  have  not 
seen  things  nor  have  they  learned  to  see  things.  Only  a  small  per 
cent  of  college  students,  at  least  in  the  western  states,  have  done 
field  work  in  secondary  schools.  The  attention  of  most  of  our  students 
has  never  been  called  to  the  phenomena  of  our  science.  Of  course 
they  have  not  seen  them,  any  more  than  they  have  seen  the  structures 
of  leaves  and  flow^ers,  unless  they  have  studied  leaves  and  flowers  in 
botany.  The  training  which  students  have  received  in  other  studies 
is  not  our  training  and  cannot  take  its  place.     As  one's  memory  for 


j^08  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHV  Xovember 

faces  is  not  strengthened  by  committing  vocabularies,  so  a  critical 
observation  of  Greek  accents,  or  of  organic  tissues  under  the  micro- 
scope, does  not  make  the  student  ready  to  read  the  lessons  of  the 
sky  line  and  the  profiles  of  hills  and  valleys.  On  the  whole  the  con- 
ceptions of  the  college  student  in  our  science  as  he  comes  to  us  are 
faint  and  hazy — undertimed,  under  developed,  and  unfixed  negatives 
— and  are  derived  largely  from  words  and  not  from  things.  His 
education  has  been  largely  bookish.  The  study  of  nature  in  the  field 
throws  the  average  student  into  a  new  element  where  the  support 
of  authority  is  wanting,  and  he  is  decidedly  uncomfortable  until  he 
has  learned  to  swim.  Our  students  crowd  about  the  instructor  to 
obtain  some  authoritative  word  for  their  field  notes  far  more  eagerly 
than  they  turn  to  investigate  a  section  for  themselves.  The  con- 
ception derived  from  books  of  what  they  ought  to  see  blurs  the 
impression  on  the  retina  of  the  thing  itself.  Thus  students  stand- 
ing in  the  dry  channel  of  a  little  brook  have  told  me  that  the  pebbles 
were  well  water  worn  and  rounded,  while  in  fact  they  were  subangular 
stones  washed  from  the  adjacent  bank  of  drift.  The  university  stu- 
dent who,  on  a  field  trip  to  an  interesting  Ordovician  shale,  packed 
with  fossils,  flat  lying,  and  hardly  altered  from  the  sea  mud  it  once 
was,  cried  out  after  the  instructor's  demonstration,  ''But,.  Professor, 
where  is  the  volcano  which  threw  out  all  this  stuff?''  is  an  excep- 
tional case,  but  I  infer  that  she  was  studying  volcanoes  at  the  time. 

From  communications  from  many  American  colleges  and  universi- 
ties giving  in  detail  the  field  work  done  in  earth  science,  I  am  assured 
that  the  excursion  holds  an  increasingly  large  and  valued  place. 
In  a  nunil)or  of  elementary  courses  outdoor  laboratory  work  counts 
one-third.  In  general  our  best  higher  schools  can  say  in  the  words 
of  one  of  my  correspondents,  ''We  have  all  the  excursions  we  can 
get  in." 

It  is  in  the  l^niversity  Summer  School,  or  Summer  Quarter,  where 
the  students'  entire  time  is  at  command,  that  the  excursion  has  devel- 
oped to  its  best.  Field  courses  are  offered  by  a  number  of  our  schools, 
in  which  snuill  i)arties  of  advanced  students  spend  five  weeks  or  more 
of  the  summer  in  camp  in  the  serious  study  of  some  area.  Among 
the  regions  where  such  investigations  were  in  progress  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1904  were  eastern  New  York,  central  Wisconsin,  the  Lake 
Superior  region.  The  valley  of  the  Mississippi  bordering  Ilhnois,  the 
Black  Hills,  the  Big  Horn  Mountains,  the  Colorado  Rockies,  the 
Great  Basin  ran<?;es  of  Nevada,  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the   Colorado 


19^  RESPONSE  TO  SURROUNDINGS  409 

River,  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  An  equally  thorough  training  for 
the  cadets  of  our  science  is  afforded  where,  as  at  least  in  four  states 
of  the  Union,  the  State  Geological  Survey  is  so  closely  connected 
with  a  university  that  capable  students  are  employed  on  the  field 
work  of  the  survey  during  the  summer  vacation. 

It  is  from  these  university  field  courses  and  from  work  on  the 
United  States  geological  survey,  the  geological  survey  of  Canada,  and 
the  various  state  surveys  that  young  American  geographers  are  now 
graduated. 


RESPONSE  TO  SURROUNDINGS— A  GEO- 
GRAPHIC PRINCIPLE 

BY    R.    H.    WHITBECK 
State  Model  School,  Trenton,  N.  J. 

PROFESSOR  J3A\'IS,  giving  a  modernized  extension  of  Ritter's 
view,  says:    "The  essential  in  geography  is  the  relation  between 
the  elements  of  terrestrial  environment  and  the  items  of  organic 
response.''    He  would  not  confine  geography  to  the  study  of  the  earth 
as  the  home  of  manj  but  would  carry  the  inquiry  so  far  as  to  include 
the  relations  between  the  earth  and  all  living  things. 

It  does  not  require  a  scientist  to  note  how  prevalent  is  the  prin- 
ciple that  living  things — plant  or  animal — are  singularly  adapted  to 
their  environment.  It  is,  however,  a  relatively  modern  view  to  look 
upon  all  organic  forms  as  a  response  to  that  en\dronment.  Once 
men  thought,  and  not  unnaturally,  that  all  living  creatures  are  made 
for  their  particular  surroundings.  We  now  see  that  they  are  as  truly 
made  by  those  surroundings;  nor  does  this  view  exclude  the  operation 
of  a  divine  intelligence  in  nature. 

Modern  geography,  w^hen  dealing  with  the  science  maturely,  is 
seeking  to  trace  and  establish  the  relations  which  exist  between 
living  things  and  their  physical  surroundings.  As  man  is  the  most 
important  and  most  interesting  of  earth's  inhabitants,  he  is  naturally 
the  center  of  interest  in  the  study  of  geography.  But,  owing  to  man's 
superior  intelligence  and  his  power  over  his  surroundings,  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  determine  how  far  his  activities  are  governed  by  his 
earth  surroundings  and  how  far  he  has  subjected  them  to  himself. 
The  oceans  and  the  mountains  w^ere  once  very  serious  barriers  to 


4IO  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

human  intercourse.  Now  man  has  largely  vanquished  these  bar- 
riers, as  such. 

With  creatures  lower  than  man,  however,  physical  environment 
amounts  almost  to  actual  control.  The  various  species  of  plants 
and  animals  have  each  responded  to  a  particular  set  of  surroundings; 
every  organ  is  delicately  adapted  to  just  these  surroundings.  They 
are  the  creatures  of  their  environment  and,  for  the  most  part,  they 
cannot  exist  outside  of  it. 

Life  seems  to  be  the  most  aggressive  and  insistent  thing  in  the 
world.  It  is  found  almost  everywhere,  in  the  cold  climates  and  in 
the  hot;  in  the  dry  and  the  wet;  in  the  earth,  under  the  earth;  in 
the  air  and  in  the  sea.  No  matter  what  the  conditions  may  be, 
some  creature  is  happy  there.  It  just  suits  him,  for  he  is  made  for 
and  by  just  such  a  place.  The  bird  lives  in  the  air  and  so  requires 
some  organ  to  get  the  oxygen  from  the  air  for  his  use;  hence,  lungs. 
He  moves  in  the  air,  hence  he  has  acquired  a  fluffy  coat  of  feathers, 
light,  hollow  bones  and  relatively  large  wings.  If  he  varies  his  habits 
and  swims,  he  has  webbed  feet.  If  he  wades,  he  has  long  legs  and 
neck.     If  he  scratches,  he  acquires  sharp  toes. 

The  fish  anatomy  is  a  response  to  a  different  kind  of  environment; 
not  air,  but  water — a  much  more  dense  and  buoyant  fluid.  The 
fish  doesn't  need  featherS;  and  hollow  bones,  and  feet;  so  his  epi- 
dermis develops  scales  in  place  of  feathers;  his  appendages  become 
fins  instead  of  wings  and  feet;  and  he  gets  oxygen  by  means  of  gills 
instead  of  by  lungs.  He  would  have  had  lungs  if  they  suited  his 
purpose  better  than  gills,  but  they  do  not.  The  bird  swims  in  air 
and  the  fish  in  water,  fluids  of  different  density,  hence  the  difference 
between  the  bird's  fins  and  the  fish\s.  Furthermore,  the  anatomy 
of  the  bird,  for  example,  is  not  simply  a  response  to  an  aerial  life, 
but  it  is  a  response  to  an  aerial  life  on  the  earth.  The  earth's  atmos- 
phere has  a  particular  composition  and  density.  Were  there  dif- 
ferent proportions  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the  air,  or  were  the  air  of 
<lifferent  density,  the  whole  bird  anatomy  would  have  been  different. 
So,  also,  in  the  case  of  all  breathing  things.  The  structure  of  birds 
on  \'enus  or  Mars,  if  birds  there  be  in  those  worlds,  is  a  response  to 
a  different  set  of  conditions  from  those  on  the  earth;  hence  those 
birds  are  not  like  the  ones  with  which  we  are  famihar. 

The  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun,  the  density  of  its  atmos- 
phere and  the  inclination  of  its  axis  largely  determine  the  intensity 
and  distribution  of  the  heat  that  we  get  from  the  sun.     In  these 


ig^H  RESPONSE  TO  SURROUNDINGS  4II 


particulars  no  other  planet  is  circumstanced  like  the  earth,  and  it 
follows  that  no  other  planet  supports  life  of  the  same  kinds  that 
flourish  here. 

But  not  alone  do  some  creatures  respond  to  aquatic  surroundings 
with  scales,  fins,  and  gills;  and  some  to  atrial  surroundings  with 
feathers,  wings,  and  lungs;  and  still  others  to  a  terrestrial  home, 
with  hair,  legs,  and  feet,  but  there  are  a  myriad  of  variations  in  these 
responses.  The  camel  has  fitted  itself  for  a  desert  life  with  padded 
feet,  calloused  breast  and  knees,  protected  eyes  and  nostrils;  with 
a  system  of  stomachs  marvelously  adapted  to  long  activity  without 
water,  and  a  hump  of  stored-up  fat  for  a  long  journey  with  little  food. 
Was  the  camel  made  for  the  desert  or  by  the  desert?     Both. 

The  tree  that  grows  in  the  open,  spreads  its  branches.  Its  trunk 
is  relatively  short  and  its  branches  broad.  The  same  tree  growing 
in  the  forest  is  tall,  with  branches  far  above  the  ground  and  relatively 
short.  In  each  instance  the  tree  is  developing  the  shape  that  best 
facilitates  its  efforts  to  get  light  and  air.  The  whole  plan  of  a  tree 
is  a  response  to  its  habitat.  It  gets  food  in  solution  from  the  soil, 
and  the  tree  adapts  the  number,  length,  and  distribution  of  its  roots 
to  the  kind  of  soil  in  which  it  lives.  That  it  may  expose  the  largest 
possible  amount  of  surface  to  the  light  and  air,  the  tree  sends  out  a 
million  leaves,  broad,  thin,  light,  and  so  disposed  as  not  to  shade 
one  another  to  an  unnecessary  extent.  If  the  tree  grows  far  up  on 
the  mountain  side,  it  is  exposed  to  winds  and  snows.  A  tall  tree 
with  wide  branches  would  invite  its  own  ruin,  so  the  tree  on  the  high 
mountain  slope  grows  short  and  gnarled  and  very  tough,  almost 
hugging  the  mountain  side.  Wherever  the  plant  grows  it  adjusts 
itself  to  the  conditions  in  which  it  must  live. 

The  cactus  lives  in  the  arid  lands.  At  the  best  it  can  secure  but 
little  moisture.  The  air  and  soil  are  dry  and  hot  most  of  the  year. 
A  little  rain  falls  and  the  cactus  must  make  this  little  go  a  long  way. 
It  must  contrive  to  hold  all  the  moisture  it  can  get.  Leaves  on 
plants  are  evaporating  surfaces,  so  the  cactus  will  have  no  leaves; 
it  dispenses  with  them;  its  stems  grow  thick  and  massive  and  they 
branch  but  little.  It  exposes  the  smallest  possible  amount  of  surface 
to  the  hot  sun  and  thus  the  cactus  lives  through  the  hot,  dry  season. 
It  has  responded  to  its  particular  environment. 

Man,  too,  feels  powerfully  the  influence  of  his  physical  surround- 
ings and  out  of  those  surroundings  he  develops  many  of  his  traits 
of  character.     One  type  of  man  lives  in  the  cities  of  the  plain  and 


412  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  Xovembcr 

quite  another  type  in  the  mountain  defiles  of  Switzerland  or  Scotland. 
The  sunny  skies  and  soft  air  of  Italy  nourish  music  and  poetry  and 
art,  but  the  rock-bound  coast  of  Norway  breeds  a  race  of  vikings. 
The  rocky  soil  and  the  cheerless  winters  of  New  England  intensified 
the  cold  philosophy  of  the  Puritan;  and  the  softer  air  and  warmer 
suns  of  the  South  had  a  part  in  creating  the  gentler  and  finer  manners- 
of  her  people.  The  tonic  force  of  our  northern  winters  has  not  a 
little  to  do  with  the  restless  energy,  the  dash,  and  the  push  of  northern 
enterprise. 

A  writer  in  this  journal  has  pointed  out  that  the  success  of  the 
English  and  Americans  on  the  sea  is,  in  part,  attributable  to  the  supe- 
rior skill  attained  by  their  seamen  in  the  uncertain  waters  of  the 
prevailing  westerlies;  while  the  disasters  which  have  so  often  attended 
the  navies  of  France  and  Spain  are  equally  attributable  to  the  inferior 
skill  of  their  seamen,  trained  more  largely  in  the  belt  of  the  trade 
winds,  where  conditions  are  more  uniform  and  less  trying  to  the 
sailors. 

Says  Professor  Geikie*  of  the  Scotch  Highlander:  "Placed  in 
a  glen  often  narrow  and  rocky,  and  separated  from  his  neighbors 
in  the  next  glens  by  high  ranges  of  rugged  hills,  he  has  had  to  contend 
wTth  a  scant  and  stony  soil  and  a  wet,  cold,  uncertain  climate.  .  .  . 
Like  his  own  granite  hills  he  has  grown  hard  and  enduring,  not  with- 
out a  tinge  of  melancholy  suggestive  of  the  sadness  which  lingers 
among  his  wind-swept  glens  and  that  hangs  about  the  birken  slopes 
of  his  lonely  lakes." 

It  is  true  that  man,  with  his  superior  intelligence  and  freedom  of 
movement,  may  choose  where  he  will  live,  and  then,  by  his  knowiedge 
of  the  arts,  he  may  greatly  modify  his  natural  surroundings — make 
a  Biltmore  in  the  mountain  wilderness  of  North  Carolina  or  irrigate 
the  desert  of  Southern  California  into  an  orange  grove  or  vineyard. 
Yet  he  can  never  get  away  from  the  influence  of  the  skies,  the  soil, 
the  climate,  and  the  scenery  amid  which  he  lives;  and  w^hen  these 
influences  have  borne  their  ripened  fruit  in  the  settled  character- 
istics of  the  people,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  people  that  has  lived  many 
generations  amid  any  set  of  surroundings  is  mentally  and  physically 
a  response  to  those  surroundings. 


The  Scenery  of  Scotland,  p.  436. 


TRANSPORTATION  4  I  3 


TRANSPORTATION 

PART  III 

BY    JOHN   THOM    HOLDSWORTH 
Professor  of  Commercial  Geography^  Drexel  Institute,  Pfiiladelpfiia 

THE    RAILROAD    ERA 

1"^HE  third  great  period  in  the  history  of  American  transportation 
is  the  railroad  era.  Extending  from  about  1830  to  the  present 
this  period  has  witnessed  one  of  the  most  striking  develop- 
ments in  the  entire  history  of  industry.  Though  it  covers  but  the 
span  of  a  human  lifetime,  yet  it  has  marked  the  working  out  on 
this  continent  of  industrial  and  commercial  achievement  more 
signal;  more  far-reaching  than  that  of  any  similar  period  in  modern 
times.  In  these  seventy  years  the  country  has  grown  from  a  few 
scattered  states  with  a  total  population  of  twelve  million  and  an 
annual  commerce  of  $134,000,000  to  an  empire  whose  80,000,000 
people  have  spread  over  the  entire  land,  pushing  the  railway  ahead 


Fig.  14,     The  Conestoga  wagon,  the  predecessor  of  the  freight  car  in  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States 

of  them  or  dragging  it  after  them,  and  exploiting  its  every  resource, 
animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral,  until  to-day  the  foreign  commerce 
totals  the  amazing  sum  of  $2,500,000,000,  and  the  domestic  trade 
almost  fifteen  times  as  much.  In  this  great  evolution  no  single  influ- 
ence or  agency  has  contributed  so  much  as  the  railway. 

An  English  observer  writing  of  our  transportation  says:  "It 
has  been  a  magician's  wand,  calling  towns  into  existence  on  the  naked 
prairie,  raising  towns  into  cities  and  cities  into  world-famous  hives 
of  wealth  and  industry.  It  has  conjured  up  fortunes  out  of  nothing 
and    multiplied    values    ten,    twenty,    aye,    often    a    hundredfold. 

The  cuts  and  maps  for  this  article  have  been  used  by  permission  of  D.  Appleton 
&  Co.,  New  York,  from  American  Railway  Transportation  by  Emory  R.  Johnson. 


4  I  4  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

Millions  of  well-fed.  well-paid  laborers  enjoy  its  blessings  wdthout 
ever  thinking  to  what  they  owe  them.  The  busy  factories  of  New 
England  and  the  mammoth  stores  of  Chicago  have  sprung  from  it 
as  directly  as  the  silver  mines  of  Colorado  or  Nevada.  The  wealth- 
creating'power  of  North  America  is  to  a  very  large  extent  the  product 
of  its  wealth-distributing  facilities.  But  for  the  capacity  of  the 
railways  to  carry  wheat  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the  Atlantic 
coast  for  a  few  cents  per  bushel  there  would  have  been  no  wheat 
farms  west  of  Chicago,  and  many  of  the  richest  agricultural  states 
in  the  Union  might  still  have  been  in  possession  of  the  buffalo  and 
the  red  Indian.*'  *'The  railway  is  the  best  measuring-stick  T^nith 
which  to  mark  the  industrial  advance  of  the  American  people."*  The 
writer  quoted  above  says  further:  ^'Not  only  did  American  railroads 
open  up  the  country  and  lay  the  foundations  of  a  prosperous  agri- 
culture, but  they  created  directly  or  indirectly  most  of  its  staple 
industries.  They  furnished  the  best  market  for  domestic  iron  and 
steel.  They  supplied  cheap  fuel  to  every  industrial  center.  They 
were  the  principal  importers  of  foreign  labor  and  capital.  They 
provided  the  materials  for  a  distinctively  American  stock  market, 
out  of  which  grew  in  its  turn  an  American  system  of  finance.  For 
years  the  history  of  the  railroads  was  the  history  of  the  country." 

The  influence  of  the  railway  in  the  development  of  our  vast  grain 
fields,  cotton  plantations,  slaughtering,  mining,  quarr}4ng,  and  lum- 
bering industries — in  that  great  territorial  division  of  industry  which 
has  given  this  country  first  place  among  the  industrial  nations  of 
the  world — may  be  traced  most  satisfactorily,  perhaps,  by  noting  the 
stages  in  our  railway  growth. 

The  history  of  American  railroads  may  be  divided,  roughly,  into 
four   periods: 

1.  Construction 1830-1850 

2.  Consolidation 1850-1870 

3.  Combination 1870-1896 

4.  Merger  or  community  of  interest  .  .  .  1896- 

THE    CONSTRUCTION    PERIOD 

The  tram  road  was  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the  railroad  in 
this  country.  The  first  of  these,  opened  in  1826,  was  used  for  haul- 
ing stone  for  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument  from  the  Quincy  granite 
quarries   to   a   wharf  on   the   Neponset   River.     The   Mauch   Chunk 

*  Lawson,  Americari  Industrial  Problems. 


1904  TRANSPORT ATIOX  4 1 5 

tramway,  opened  in  1827,  was  intended  for  the  transportation  of  coal. 
In  1828  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  Canal  Company  opened  the  Car- 
bondale  &  Honesdale  tramway  connecting  their  coal  mines  with  the 
D.  &  H.  Canal.  The  first  locomotive  seen  in  America  was  imported 
for  use  on  this  road. 

The  first  full-fledged  railroad  was  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  a  sec- 
tion of  which,  fifteen  miles  long,  was  opened  in  1830.  At  first,  horse 
power  and  even  sails  were  used,  but  in  1831  the  company  purchased 
an  American  locomotive  for  its  road.  The  system  was  slowly  extended 
until  in  1835  it  boasted  a  total  length  of  135  miles.  By  1834,  how- 
ever, the  Charleston  &  Hamburg,  a  South  Carolina  road  chartered 
in  1829,  had  137  miles  in  operation,  and  for  a  short  time  enjoyed 
the  distinction  of  being  the  longest  line  in  the  world  under  one  man- 


5-     The  stage-coach,  generally  used  for  passenger  travel  before  the  introduction 
of  the  railroad 

agement.  Pennsylvania  had  by  1835  about  200  miles  of  railroad, 
mostly  coal  roads;  New  York,  New^  Jersey,  and  Massachusetts  about 
100  miles  each,  and  Virginia  a  few  short  lines.  In  1836  a  line,  sub- 
sequently to  become  a  part  of  the  powerful  New  York  Central,  was 
opened  between  Albany  and  Utica,  and  six  years  later  Buffalo  was 
reached.  Meantime  lines  had  been  extended  from  Boston  and 
New  York  to  Albany,  so  that  railway  communication  was  effected 
between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  seaboard.  As  early  as  1834  the 
western  end  of  the  Camden  &  Amboy  road  was  opened,  and  in  1837 
regular  communication  between  New  York  and  Philadelphia  was 
established.  In  the  same  year  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  were 
connected  by  the  Philadelphia,  Wilmington  &  Baltimore.  The 
Philadelphia  &  Reading,  built  chiefly  as  a  coal  road,  was  completed 
in  1838.  Philadelphia  was  connected  with  Columbia  in  1834  by  the 
Columbia  road,  the  first  division  of  what  is  now  the  great  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  System. 


41 6  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

New  England  was  especially  active  in  railway  building  during 
this  period.  By  1835  three  lines  radiated  from  Boston;  one  to  Provi- 
dence, another  to  Lowell,  and  a  third  to  Worcester.  The  whole  line 
from  Boston  to  Albany  was  completed  in  1842,  and  constituted  the 
first  important  through  route  in  the  country.  Writing  of  railroad 
construction  in  this  period,  Hadley  says:  **If  we  look  at  the  railroad 
map  of  the  United  States  in  1850  we  find  that  the  New  England 
system  has  developed  its  main  outlines;  that  the  Middle  and  South 
Atlantic  States  have  seized  the  idea  of  their  lines  of  development, 
but  have  not  as  yet  carried  it  out,  while  the  States  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  are  just  making  their  first  experiments  in  railroad  construction. 
In  Ohio,  part  of  the  Cincinnati,  Sandusky  &  Cleveland  had  been 
built  about  1837.  But  it  had  for  a  long  time  stood  alone.  It  was 
not  until  1848  that  through  rail  communication,  by  any  route  what- 
ever, was  secured  from  Cincinnati  to  the  Lakes."  * 

The  railroads  of  this  period,  then,  were  for  the  most  part  local 
affairs,  carried  on  without  any  system.  Each  locality  operated  its 
own  road.  Geographically  it  may  be  noted  that  the  railways  con- 
structed in  the  first  ten  years  radiated  from  the  leading  seaports, 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  Boston — Philadelphia  leading  as  a  terminal 
city.  As  shown  by  the  accompanying  table,  railway  mileage  increased 
from  about  30  miles  in  1830  to  2,818  miles  in  1840,  and  at  the  end  of 
this  period  aggregated  a  little  over  9,000  miles. 


YEAR 

MILEAGK 

INCREASE 

1830 

23 

1835 

1,098 

1,075 

1840 

2,818 

1,720 

1845 

4,633 

1,815 

1850 

9,021 

4,388 

1855 

18,374 

9,353 

1860 

30,626 

12,252 

1865 

35,085 

4,459 

1870 

52,922 

17,837 

1875 

74,096 

21,174 

1880 

93,296 

19,200 

1885 

128,361 

35,065 

1890 

166,817 

38,456 

1895 

181,065 

14,248 

1900 

194,321 

13,256 

*  Railroad  Transportation,  p.  36. 


X90< 


TRANSPORTATION 


417 


THE    CONSOLIDATION    PERIOD 

The  financial  panic  of  1837  gave  a  severe  shock  to  railway  enter- 
prise and  there  was,  consequently,  a  marked  falling  off  in  the  annual 
mileage  increase  down  to  1848.  But  in  that  year  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  California  awakened  a  new  interest  in  railway  construction 
throughout  the  country.  During  this  period,  too,  the  South  and  the 
Middle  West  developed  rapidly,  thereby  creating  a  demand  for 
extended  and  improved  facilities  for  transportation.  Railways 
shared  in  the  marked  prosperity  of  the  first  decade  of  this  period. 

'^The  year  1850  marks  the  beginning  of  a  rapid  welding  of  short 
connecting  railroads  into  long  lines  under  a  single  ownership.'^     Dur- 


MAP  OF  THtUNinO  STATES   ^    ^ 
SHOW^NfifUIUtOAQS  * 

it  185a. 


Map  V.     Railroads  in  the  United  States  in  1850 

ing  this  period  many  new  lines  were  built,  especially  into  the  new 
West,  and  the  demand  for  uninterrupted  travel  and  shipment  resulted 
in  the  coalition  or  consolidation  of  local  lines  into  through  routes. 

Chief  among  these  through  lines  were  the  following: 

1851 — Erie  Railroad  reached  Lake  Erie. 

1852 — Michigan  Central  and  Michigan  Southern  lines  opened, 
connecting  Chicago  with  the  East. 

1854 — Chicago  &  Rock  Island  pushed  through  to  the  Mississippi. 

1855 — Chicago  &  Galena,  the  nucleus  of  the  Great  North-Western 
system,  opened,  followed  by  the  Chicago  &  Alton,  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington &  Quincy,  and  the  Illinois  Central. 


4 1  8  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

1858 — The  Hannibal  &   St.   Joseph  reached  the  Missouri  River. 

At  about  the  same  time  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  got  through 
connection  with  Chicago  by  the  extension  of  the  Pittsburg,  Fort 
Wayne  &  Chicago. 

This  rapid  extension  of  railroads  into  new  and  sparsely  settled 
regions  was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  policy  of  land  grants.  Vast 
areas  of  public  lands  were  freely  granted  by  State  and  National 
governments  to  induce  corporations  to  undertake  railway  construc- 
tion. This  policy  was  followed  for  nearly  thirty  years,  and  was 
responsible  for  the  construction  of  many  lines  in  the  West  earlier 
and  more  rapidly  than  otherwise  would  have  been  the  case.  State 
aid  to  the  railroads  took  various  forms.  Some  made  large  grants  of 
lands  received  from  the  National  Government;  some  gave  bonuses 
of  cash  or  securities.  A  few  states  undertook  the  construction  of 
railways  as  a  state  enterprise.  Most  often,  however,  assistance  was 
given  through  the  large  purchase  of  railway  stock. 

The  National  Government  was  even  more  generous  in  its  aid  to 
railway  building.  In  1850  the  first  large  grant  of  land  from  the 
public  domain  was  made,  the  Illinois  Central  being  the  recipient. 
The  railway  corporation  was  given  the  right  of  way,  200  feet  wide, 
and  also  alternate  sections  of  land  six  miles  back  on  each  side  of  the 
road.  During  the  next  few  years  similar  grants  were  made  to  com- 
panies in  ^lissouri,  Arkansas,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Florida,  Mississippi, 
and  other  states.  ^' Eight  million  acres  were  granted  under  Fillmore, 
nineteen  under  Pierce/'*  After  the  Civil  War,  economic  and  military 
reasons  alike  called  for  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific.  In  1862  Congress 
incorporated  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  granting  it  and  allied  com- 
panies a  money  subsidy  of  $30,000,000  and  land  grants  aggregating 
more  than  30,000,000  acres,  an  area  greater  than  the  entire  state  of 
Pennsylvania.  Congress  made  grants  to  over  twenty  companies 
during  the  next  ten  years.  The  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 
received  3,000,000  acres  in  1863,  and  a  little  later  the  Atlantic  & 
Pacific  received  a  grant  of  42.000,000  acres.  An  almost  equal  grant 
was  made  to  the  Northern  Pacific,  and  large  grants  to  the  Texas  & 
Pacific  and  the  Southern  Pacific.  Up  to  1871  these  grants  from  the 
public  domain  amounted  to  about  150,000,000  acres.  Parts  of  these 
lands  have  reverted  to  the  United  States  through  the  failure  of  the 
companies  to  comply  with  the  conditions  of  the  grant.  Professor 
Johnson,  summing  up  the  policy  of  land  grants,  says:     "Unquestion- 

*  Hadley,  p.  37. 


1904 


TRANSPORTATION 


419 


ably  the  United  States  was  more  L'beral  than  it  need  have  been,  and 
if  the  public  had  chosen  to  wait  twenty  years  the  railroads  in  the 
Central  West  and  between  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean  would  have  been  constructed  by  private  capital.  The  liberal 
donations  of  public  land  caused  the  railroads  in  that  section  of  the 
country  to  be  built  earlier  than  they  would  otherwise  have  been  con- 
structed, the  West  was  settled  up  more  quickly,  and  the  Government 
has  been  able  to  dispose  of  many  parts  of  the  domain  it  did  not  give 
away  at  an  earlier  date,  and  possibly  more  advantageously  than  they 
could  have  been  sold  had  none  of  the  land  been  given  to  the  railroad 
corporations.  ''*     Thus  rapidly  railroads  were  developed  in  the  upper 


% 

PDF  THE  UNITED  STATIS 
SHDWEHG  RAILROADS 

iNmro. 


Map  VI.     Railroads  in  the  United  States  in  1S70 

Mississippi  Valley,  particularly  in  the  five  years  following  1868. 
The  crisis'  of  1873  checked  railway  expansion  everywhere,  but  with 
the  revival  of  business  the  Southwest  and  Rocky  Mountain  regions 
experienced  a  similar  development.  The  increase  in  four  years  of 
the  mileage  in  the  southwestern  states  was  168  per  cent  as  compared 
with  an  increase  of  only  24  per  cent  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

While  these  transcontinental  routes,  backed  by  land  grants,  sub- 
sidies, and  local  subscriptions,  were  being  pushed  across  the  plains 
and  over  the  mountains,  the  earlier  roads  of  the  East  were  slowly 
being  shaped  by  consolidation  into  a  few  great  trunk  lines.     This 

♦  American  Railway  Transportation ^  p.  318. 


420  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

process  of  welding  short,  local  roads  into  through  lines  had  become  an 
economic  necessity.  As  through  traffic,  and  particularly  the  through 
grain  trade,  steadily  increased,  the  expense  and  delay  of  frequent 
transshipments  made  consolidation  imperative.  The  first  consoli- 
dation of  importance  was  in  1853,  when  eleven  different  roads  between 
Albany  and  Buffalo  were  united  to  form  the  New  York  Central. 
Gradually  the  system  thus  formed  acquired  control  of  numerous 
branch  lines.  In  1869  Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  who  had  foreseen  the 
great  future  of  this  road  and  had  become  its  dominating  genius, 
consolidated  the  Hudson  River  Road  and  the  New  York  Central,  and 
soon  afterward  gained  control  of  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  South- 
ern, the  Michigan  Central,  the  Canada  Southern,  and  other  roads, 
thus  uniting  under  one  management  over  4,000  miles  of  railroad 
between  New  York  and  Chicago. 

The  nucleus  of  the  present  Pennsylvania  System  was  made  by 
similar  consolidations  carried  out  largely  by  Thomas  A.  Scott,  who 
became  vice-president  of  the  road  in  1860  and  president  in  1874. 
During  the  twenty  years  of  his  executive  service  the  system  was 
extended  westward  to  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis,  northward 
to  Lake  Ontario,  eastward  through  New  Jersey,  and  southward  to 
Baltimore.  By  the  absorption  of  other  lines  it  gained  control  of 
over  7,000  miles  of  railroad,  comprising  properties  formerly  owned 
by  over  200  companies. 

By  1874  a  third  great  trunk  line,  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  under 
the  skillful  management  of  John  W.  Garrett,  had  been  extended 
to  Chicago.  Two  more  trunk  lines,  parallel  to  these,  soon  followed: 
the  Grand  Trunk  on  the  north,  and  the  Erie,  which  Vanderbilt  had 
sought  in  vain  to  bring  into  his  system.  Thus  by  1874  there  were 
five  great  trunk  systems  actively  competing  for  the  growing  business 
between  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  Atlantic  ports. 

Toward  the  end  of  this  period  jijreat  rival  systems  were  developed 
west  of  Chicago  and  St.  Louis.  These  systems,  instead  of  running 
parallel  like  tlie  great  trunk  lines  of  the  East,  radiate  from  common 
centers,  reaching  out  in  all  directions  for  the  grain  and  other  produce 
to  be  brought  in  to  the  primary  markets.  Thus  from  Chicago  radiate 
the  St.  Paul,  the  North-Western,  the  Rock  Island,  the  Chicago,  Bur- 
lington &  Quincy,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  the  Chicago 
&  Alton,  and  the  Illinois  Central.  The  railway  net  about  St.  Louis 
shows  a  similar  radiation. 

(7^0  be  continued.) 


WHAT  A  CHILD  SHOULD  GAIN  FROM  GEOGRAPHY         42  I 


WHAT  A  CHILD  SHOULD  GAIN  FROM 
GEOGRAPHY 

BY    R.    P.    IRELAND 
Principal  of  Grammar  School,  Gloucester,  Mass. 

A  NY  answer  to  the  question,  *'What  is  essential  in  geography?'* 
J^\^  or  **How  much  geography  should  a  pupil  know  at  the  end  of 
his  course?  must  be  viewed  rather  as  a  shot  at  a  moving 
target  and  not  as  an  attempt  to  put  a  fence  about  a  particularly 
fertile  bit  of  ground.  The  needs  of  pupils  another  year  and  at 
another  place  are  sure  to  differ  from  their  needs  here  and  now. 
Diplomatic  relations,  inventions,  explorations,  and  feats  of  engineer- 
ing are  some  of  the  factors  which  are  sure  to  place  a  new  emphasis 
on  some  product,  place,  or  people. 

At  the  outset  nearly  all  of  the  ordinary  facts  of  geography  must 
be  examined  and  their  importance  rigidly  questioned.  I  say  nearly 
all,  because  it  is  hardly  open  to  question  that  the  continents,  the 
oceans,  a  few  mountain  and  river  systems,  most  European  countries, 
and  half  a  dozen  great  cities  are  indispensable  facts.  The  rivers 
of  Siberia,  the  tunnels  through  the  Alps,  the  tides  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
and  the  capitals  of  several  countries  are  examples  of  various  classes 
of  facts  whose  worth  may  be  questioned. 

Then  we  may  proceed  according  to  time  and  place  to  select  much 
that  is  unessential  and  discard  it.  Thus  the  fact  that  Newfoundland 
is  a  crown  colony,  distinct  from  Canada,  is  of  vital  importance  to  this 
city  (Gloucester,  Mass.),  but  it  would  be  of  no  particular  value  in 
many  sections.  Whatever  tends  to  show  the  ^'causal  relation,'' 
the  reasonableness  of  things,  is  generally  worth  while.  Many  children 
may  prefer  memorizing  a  list  of  products,  for  example,  to  inferring 
what  should  be  produced  under  given  conditions,  but  this  cannot  be 
considered.  The  matter  has  too  much  bearing  upon  their  happiness 
and  usefulness  in  adult  years  to  be  decided  upon  such  a  basis. 

Pupils  can  hardly  be  grounded  too  thoroughly  in  home  geography. 
This  should  include  such  diverse  facts  as  the  differences  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  various  parts  of  near-by  fields  and  pastures,  and  the  relation 
between  the  primary  and  secondary  industries  of  the  town.  It  should 
include  to  a  considerable  extent  the  sources  of  the  commodities  used 
in  the  town  as  well  as  the  destinations  of  those  produced.  Enough 
physiography  should  be  given  that  the  present  appearance  of  local 


42  2  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

features  may  be  understood.  The  progress  of  minor  changes,  such 
as  the  variations  in  ponds  and  brooks  or  the  sliding  of  a  boulder  or 
a  tree  down  a  bank,  should  by  no  means  be  omitted.  When  more 
distant  regions  are  considered,  less  detailed  study  is  possible,  but 
there  should  be  nothing  magical  or  capricious  about  the  phenomena 
of  foreign  lands.  Certain  books  of  travel  and  some  teachers  seek  to 
interest  children  by  conveying  the  impression  that  in  China  or  Aus- 
tralia everything  in  nature  is  topsy-turvy.  This  is  entertaining;  but 
it  adds  nothing  to  scholarship.  The  **  wonders  *'  of  foreign  lands  are 
frequently  only  larger  examples  of  local  features.  The  hackneyed 
statement  concerning  the  leaves  of  certain  Australian  trees  is  brought 
to  an  everyday  basis  by  observing  the  behavior  of  corn  leaves  and 
some  others  in  time  of  drought.  Unless  some  such  association  can 
be  made  there  is  little  use  in  alluding  to  the  feature  at  all. 

Mathematical  geography  need  be  considered  only  so  far  as  it  is 
required  for  use  in  other  parts  of  the  subject.  A  true  conception  of 
much  of  it  is  unattainable  even  to  adults,  but  a  working  knowledge 
of  certain  features  may  be  acquired.  This,  plus  the  ability  to  avoid 
confusing  such  points  as  the  cause  of  the  change  of  season  with  the 
cause  of  day  and  night,  is  about  all  that  is  needed.  In  some  cases 
where  the  cause  as  a  whole  cannot  be  understood  certain  surface 
observations  may  be  used.  Thus  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  sun's 
path  from  the  eastern  horizon  to  the  western  horizon  is  shorter 
in  winter  and  longer  in  summer.  Most  children  have  learned  in 
some  form  that  there  are  astonishingly  long  periods  of  light  and 
darkness  and  of  daylight  at  the  poles.  Using  this,  a  fairly  correct 
inference  may  be  made  as  to  the  length  of  day  and  night  at  such 
points  as  Montreal  or  St.  Petersburg.  With  regard  to  latitude  and 
longitude  the  most  important  point  is  that  pupils  should  distinguish 
one  from  the  other,  and  the  next  point  is  that  a  given  reading  should 
suggest  some  position  on  the  earth  or,  what  is  more  likely,  on  a  globe. 
This  association  will  not  occur  unless  the  use  of  the  globe  is  habitual 
in  the  class  room. 

Just  how  nmcli  poHtical  geography  is  requisite  is  the  hardest  part 
of  our  question.  Certainly  no  question  relating  to  a  geography 
course  has  been  so  poorly  answered  at  times.  The  number  of  geo- 
gra{)hic  names  held,  ready  for  use,  by  the  average  well-educated 
adult  is  probably  much  less  than  is  commonly  supposed.  To  test 
this  let  almost  any  two  teachers  whose  work  for  a  few  years  has  con- 
cerned different  continents  give  each  other  a  fairly  sharp  quiz. 


WHAT  A  CHILD  SHOULD  GAIN  FROM  GEOGRAPHY 


423 


As  indicated  in  the  commencement  of  this  article  a  few  facts  may 
be  put  in  a  favored  class,  but  most  must  be  rigidly  questioned  and 
good  reason  found  for  including  them.  Most  countries  may  be 
included  without  question,  but  Montenegro,  Guatemala,  etc.,  might 
be  overiooked  without  loss.  A  few  years  ago  Korea  or  Abyssinia 
might  have  been  left  out.  National  capitals  may  be  divided  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  burden  of  memorizing  state  capitals  should 
be  dropped  as  that  of  state  boundaries  has  been.  The  amount  of 
possible  interest  a  place  has  for  a  pupil  will  determine  in  many  cases 
whether  it  is  to  be  studied  or  not,  even  though  the  interesting  feature 
may  not  be  of  great  importance  to  adult  minds.  It  ought  to  be 
unnecessary  to  suggest  here  that  the  possession  of  a  city  charter 
does  not  increase  the  importance  of  a  place   in  a  geography  course. 

As  we  reach  places  of  historic  importance  1  believe  we  should  do 
more  than  is  generally  done.  Brief  accounts  of  some  of  the  more 
important  events  of  foreign  history  may  well  be  included.  Warren 
Hastings  and  Lord  Clive  will  interest,  as  Cortez  and  Pizarro  do. 
The  stories  of  the  Roman  and  the  Mohammedan  conquests  of  Europe 
are  decidedly  worth  while.  Such  terms  as  Finn,  Syrian,  Bohemian, 
a  large  number  in  all,  are  in  everyday  use,  yet  ordinarily  neither  map 
nor  text  sheds  much  light  on  their  meaning.  This  omission  should 
be  remedied. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraphs  I  have  suggested  not  so  much  what 
a  pupil  should  know  as  what  standards  should  guide  the  teacher  in 
selecting  work  for  him.  Our  most  urgent  work  as  framers  of  a  course 
lies  rather  in  bringing  the  facts  into  close  relation  to  the  pupil's  life 
rather  than  in  the  selection  of  facts. 


424  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

WHAT  THE  CHILD  SHOULD  KNOWOFGEOG- 

RAPHY  AT  THE  END  OF  HIS 

GRADE  COURSE 

BY   AMOS    W.    FARNHAM 
Teacher  and  Supervisor  of  Geography,  State  Normal  and  Training  School t  Omoego,  N.  Y. 

PLACE.  Geography  is  pre-eminently  a  place  study.  Place  involves 
direction  and  distance.  The  child  should  know  the  use  of  the 
terms  right,  left,  nearer,  and  farther.  He  should  know  how 
to  determine  actual  directions  by  the  aid  of  noon  shadows,  the 
North  Star,  and  the  mariner's  compass;  and  to  determine  repre- 
sented directions  by  the  aid  of  parallels  and  meridians.  He  should 
know  how  to  determine  actual  distances  in  units  of  linear  measure, 
and  represented  distances  in  units  of  angular  measure,  which  units 
he  should  readily  translate  into  more  familiar  units  of  linear  measure. 
He  should  know  that  a  line  drawn  longitudinally  through  the  center 
of  a  noon  shadow  is  a  part  of  the  meridian  of  the  object  that  casts 
the  shadow;  that  a  line  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  meridian  and 
through  the  center  of  the  base  of  the  object  casting  the  shadow  is  a 
part  of  the  parallel  of  that  object;  and  that  the  exact  number  of  this 
parallel  may  be  known  by  determining  the  height  (in  degrees)  of  the 
North  Star  alcove  the  horizon  as  seen  by  an  observer  on  tliis  parallel. 
He  should  be  able  to  estimate  distances  in  units  of  time,  according 
to  the  means  of  travel,  whether  express  train,  trolley  car,  carriage, 
steamship,  etc.  He  should  be  able  to  make  a  practical  use  of  his 
place  knowledge,  wlion  occasion  recjuires,  by  giving  and  receiving 
clear  and  exact  information  regarding  the  location  of  streets,  roads, 
and  buildings  of  his  neighborhood;  the  location  of  the  towns  of  his 
county;  the  counties  of  his  state;  the  states  of  his  country;  and  the 
principal  countries  of  the  world.  He  should  know  the  location  of 
the  cities  of  his  state,  of  the  great  cities  of  the  world,  of  important 
land  and  water  forms,  and  of  the  noted  j)leasure  and  health  resorts, 
and  for  what  these  resorts  are  noted. 

GOVEKNMENT 

^The  child  early  learns  that  he  is  under  the  control  and  protection 
of  government,, — government  of  home,  school,  and  society.  He 
learns  that  the  boundaries  of  his  district  are  political  boundaries, 
and    that   certain    district    oiricers    control   the   district   schools.     A 


1904  WHAT  THE  CHILD  SHOULD  KNOW  OP  GEOGRAPHY  425 

knowledge  of  municipal  and  town  government  follows;  and  later, 
a  knowledge  of  state  and  national  control.  The  child  should  know 
that  public  highways  and  bridges  are  constructed  and  maintained 
by  government;  that  canals,  chartered  corporations,  penal  institu- 
tions, boards  of  health,  and  public  charities  are  under  governmental 
control.  He  should  know  that  his  government  constructs,  main- 
tains, and  controls  the  harbors,  harbor  lights,  breakwaters,  life-saving 
stations,  weather  bureaus,  custom  houses,  and  post  offices  of  his 
country,  and  he  should  know  the  relation  which  all  these  bear  to  the 
commerce  of  his  country.  He  should  know  the  various  kinds  of 
national  governments,  and  that  that  government  is  the  best  govern- 
ment that  is  ''of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people. '* 

EARTH    FORMS 

The  earth  is  composed  of  land,  water,  and  atmosphere.  Each 
of  these  earth  elements  contains  portions  of  the  other  two.  Each 
is  influenced  by  the  others.  All  are  necessary  for  the  existence  of 
plant,  animal,  and  man.  Hence  the  child  should  know  the  hills  and 
meadows,  the  streams  and  ponds,  and  the  atmospheric  phenomena 
of  his  neighborhood.  He  should  know  the  relation  of  liill  and  meadow 
to  the  run-off,  to  ground  water,  and  to  evaporation;  he  should  know 
the  relation  of  the  streams  and  ponds  to  drainage;  the  relation  of 
winds  to  rainfall,  and  of  rainfall  to  vegetation.  He  should  know 
what  soil  is,  how  to  tell  the  different  kinds  of  soil,  and  the  relative 
capacity  each  kind  of  soil  has  for  heat  and  moisture.  He  should 
know  what  soil  is  best  adapted  for  each  crop  raised  in  the  near-by 
fields,  the  time  of  sowing  and  harvesting,  and  the  use  made  of  each 
crop.  He  should  know  the  relation  of  local  relief  to  the  use  of  farming 
implements  and  machines,  as  well  as  to  the  different  modes  of  trans- 
portation. He  should  understand  map  representation  of  relief, 
drainage,  soil,  rainfall,  temperature,  winds,  land  and  water  trans- 
portation routes,  latitude  and  longitude.  From  given  data  he  should 
be  able  to  make  intelligent  deductions  regarding  the  industries  of  a 
given  place. 

THE    THREE    KINGDOMS    OF    MATTER 

The  child  should  know  that  all  matter  can  be  grouped  under  three 
heads,  namely:  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral.  He  should  be  able 
to  catalogue  under  these  three  heads  all  substances  with  which  he 
comes  in  contact.  He  should  know  from  what  kingdom  each  article 
of  his  food  comes,  each  article  of  his  dress,  of  the  furniture  of  his 


426  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

room,  and  each  part  of  the  house  that  shelters  him  from  the  weather. 
He  should  know  the  relation  of  each  kingdom  to  each  of  the  others. 

THE    EARTH    AS    A    PLANET 

The  child  should  know  the  shape  of  the  earth,  the  size,  the  moticns, 
and  its  relation  to  the  sun  and  moon.  While  none  of  this  is  geography, 
it  all  has  a  direct  bearing  on  geography.  He  should  know  of  what 
the  surface  of  the  earth  is  composed,  the  relative  amounts  of  land 
and  water,  and  what  the  effect  upon  life  would  be  if  these  relative 
amounts  should  be  greatly  changed. 

COMMERCE 

The  child  early  learns  that  if  he  prefers  a  ball  to  the  knife  he  owns, 
and  his  playfellow  prefers  a  knife  to  the  ball  which  he  owns,  that 
each  may  satisfy  his  want  by  making  an  exchange.  Or  the  child 
may  have  a  handful  of  marbles  but  no  top;  his  playfellow  may  have 
two  tops  but  no  marbles;  an  exchange  of  a  part  of  the  marbles  for 
one  of  the  tops  will  satisfy  a  want  of  each. 

He  knows  that  farm  produce  is  taken  to  the  city  and  exchanged 
for  sugar,  coffee,  cotton  cloth,  nails,  etc.;  that  strawberries  are  ex- 
changed for  bananas,  and  apples  for  oranges. 

He  should  know  why  rice  is  not  grown  in  New  York,  cotton  in 
Illinois,  and  wheat  in  Florida.  He  should  know  the  importance 
of  these  products,  the  conditions  which  favor  their  growth,  and  the 
great  demand  for  them;  and  that  where  they  can  be  grown  success- 
fully there  thoy  will  be  grown.  He  should  know  that  only  a  com- 
paratively small  area  of  the  continents  is  adapted  for  the  growth  of 
each,  and  that  each  product  is  needed  throughout  the  extent  of  every 
continent;  hence  the  need  of  extensive  cultivation,  and  of  means  of 
communication  and  transportation. 

He  should  know  that  the  increase  in  population  and  the  advance- 
ment in  ci\dUzation  demand  a  greater  quantity  and  better  quaUty 
of  food  and  shelter  materials;  that  the  demand  calls  for  improved 
machines;  and  that  improved  machines  and  manufacture  call  for 
the  exercise  of  inventive  power  and  skilled  labor. 

The  child  should  know  what  states  of  his  own  country  and  what 
countries  of  the  workl  lead  in  the  principal  productions  of  food  and 
shelter  commodities.  He  should  know  where  the  great  centers  of 
industry  are  and  why  they  are  there.  He  should  know  where  are 
the  great  shipping  and  receiving  ports,  where  are  the  great  commercial 
routes  on  land  and  on  sea.     He  should  know  what  irrigation  is  and 


1904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  42  7 

its  use,  from  his  own  kitchen  garden  to  the  great  systems  of  the  West, 
of  India,  and  of  Egypt.  He  should  know  the  relation  of  irrigation 
to  commerce. 

SOURCES    OF   INFORMATION 

The  child  should  know  the  use  of  his  text-book  on  geography: 
the  use  of  the  pictures,  the  diagrams,  the  various  kinds  of  maps 
(not  political  only),  the  text,  and  the  pronouncing  vocabulary.  He 
should  know  the  use  of  the  gazetteer,  the  dictionary,  the  encyclo- 
paedia, the  topical  index  of  standard  works  of  reference,  and  the 
card  catalogue  of  his  school  library.  He  should  know  how  to  use 
these  sources  of  information  that  he  may  read  the  daily  paper  and 
current  literature  with  interest  and  with  profit.  The  intelligent  use 
of  sources  of  information  should  develop  the  reading  habit,  and  make 
the  study  of  geography  lifelong. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Geographic  Features  of  Alaska. — An  examination  of  a  chart  of 
the  world  will  show  that  the  latitude  of  Alaska  corresponds  approxi- 
mately to  that  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  Point  Barrow,  the 
northernmost  cape  of  Alaska,  is  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  North 
Cape.  Dixon  Entrance,  which  marks  the  southernmost  point,  is 
nearly  on  the  same  parallel  as  Copenhagen.  Sitka,  the  capital  of 
Alaska,  is  in  the  latitude  of  Edinburgh,  in  Scotland. 

To  consider  the  longitude,  the  meridian  passing  through  the  most 
western  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  passes  near  the  New  Hebrides  and 
through  New  Zealand.  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  the  most  westerly 
point  of  the  mainland,  is  nearly  as  far  west  as  the  Samoa  Islands. 

Alaska  stretches  through  27  degrees  of  latitude  and  54  of  longitude. 
Its  east  and  west  dimensions,  measured  to  the  extreme  limit  of  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  is  almost  exactly  equal  to  the  distance  from  Savan- 
nah on  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Los  Angeles  on  the  Pacific.  Its  most 
northerly  and  southerly  points  are  as  far  apart  as  the  northern  and 
southern  boundaries  of  the  United  States. 

Alaska,  the  northwestern  extremity  of  the  North  American  con- 
tinent, forms  in  its  main  mass  a  peninsula  nearly  rectangular  in  out- 
line, cut  off  from  the  continent  by  Mackenzie  Bay  on  the  north  and 
the  Gulf  of  Alaska  on  the  south.     South  of  it  lies  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


428  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

On  the  west  it  is  bounded  by  Bering  Sea  and  Bering  Strait  and  west 
and  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  territory  is  extended  west  and  southwest  by  its  two  penin- 
sulas of  considerable  size — the  Seward  Peninsula,  with  which  the 
Chukchee  Peninsula  divides  Bering  Sea  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and 
the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  which,  continued  in  its  archipelagoes,  the 
Aleutian  Islands  and  Commander  Islands,  cuts  off  Bering  Sea  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  coast  of  Alaska  is  of  two  distinct  topographic 
types.  Northward  from  the  Alaskan  Peninsula  shallow-water  condi- 
tions usually  prevail,  the  coast  line  is  very  regular,  and  the  land 
slopes  gently  from  the  shore.  Eastward  and  southward  from  the 
Alaskan  Peninsula  the  shores  are  usually  abrupt,  with  many  embay- 
ments  and  islands.  This  Pacific  coast  region  is  included  in  the 
glaciated  area  of  Alaska,  while  along  the  western  and  northern  coasts 
glaciation  is  either  entirely  absent  or  only  of  local  character. 

The  Pacific  coast  line  forms  a  deep  reentrant  angle,  which  is 
occupied  by  the  Gulf  of  Alaska.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Panhandle  of  the  territory,  usually  called  Southeastern  Alaska,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Alaskan  Peninsula.  It  will  be  shown  that  the  axis 
of  the  dominant  mountain  chains  undergo,  too,  a  marked  change  in 
direction,  and  are  parallel  to  the  crescent-like  bend  of  the  southern 
coast  line.  A  study  of  the  geology  goes  to  show  that  this  is  the  topo- 
graphic reflection  of  an  important  structural  feature. 

A  clear  conception  of  the  main  features  of  the  topography  of 
Alaska  can  be  obtained  by  comparing  them  with  those  of  the  western 
United  States.  A  broad  mountainous  belt,  called  by  Major  Powell 
the  Pacific  iMountains,  including  the  Coast  Ranges  of  CaUfornia,  Ore- 
gon, and  Washington,  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
extends  along  the  western  margin  of  the  United  Stat^js  and  is  con- 
tinued by  other  ranges  northward  into  Canada.  East  of  this  lies 
the  Great  Basin  or  Central  Plateau  region,  which  also  finds  its  counter- 
part in  British  Columbia  to  the  north.  The  eastern  limit  of  the  plateau 
region  is  marked  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  again,  like  the 
western  Pacific  Mountains,  extend  into  Canada.  To  the  east  of  these 
the  (Jreat  Plains  extend  northward  to  Arctic  waters. 

Dr.  George  M.  Dawson  and  others  have  shown  that  these  four 
topographic  provinces  of  the  United  States,  which  are  fairly  well 
defined  throughout  western  Canada,  find  their  continuation  in  similar 
geographic  features  in  Alaska.  The  general  trend  of  the  highlands 
in  Alaska,  as  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  is  parallel  to  the  coast 


X904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  429 

line.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  great  southwest  bend 
of  the  Alaskan  shore  line  near  latitude  60.  The  orographic  features 
of  the  mainland  experience  a  similar  change  in  direction,  continuing 
parallel  to  the  shore  line. 

Alaska  is  thus  divisible  into  the  same  four  geographic  provinces 
as  those  of  western  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The  lines  of 
demarkation  between  these  pro\nnces  are  usually  sharply  drawn. 
Each  is  of  a  predominant  topographic  type,  though  each  may  be 
subject  to  many  minor  topographic  subdivisions. 

A  mountainous  belt  skirting  the  Pacific  coast  of  Alaska  and  British 
Columbia,  extending  inland  from  50  to  200  miles,  forms  the  most 
western  of  the  four  provinces,  which,  in  conformity  \\'ith  Major  Pow- 
eirs  classification,  1  will  call  the  Pacific  Mountain  system.  It  properly 
includes  the  mountainous  Alexander  Archipelago  and  Aleutian  Islands, 
and  a  number  of  other  island  groups  which  lie  adjacent  to  the  coast. 
The  Pacific  Mountains  belt  is  made  up  of  four  distinct  ranges:  The 
Coast,  St.  Elias,  Alaskan,  and  Aleutian.  These  are  often  separated 
by  broad  valleys  or  indentations  of  the  coast  line,  and  while  the 
topography  of  the  system  is  mainly  rugged  and  mountainous,  it 
includes  several  large  basins,  like  that  of  the  Copper  River. 

East  and  north  of  the  Pacific  Mountains  is  the  Central  Plateau 
region,  limited  on  the  north  and  east  by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  cor- 
responding with  the  Great  l^asin  region  of  the  western  United  States. 
The  term  plateau  can  only  be  assigned  to  a  part  of  this  province, 
and  not  even  that  by  strictest  usage.  Its  dominating  topography 
is  a  gently  rolling  upland  of  low  relief,  compared  with  the  mountain 
systems,  in  which  the  rivers  have  trenched  broad  channels.  The 
inter-stream  areas  mark  a  former  plateau  surface,  which  the  erosive 
agents  have  dissected.  This  plain  slopes  gently  toward  the  axis  of 
the  basin,  and  the  axis  is  tilted  to  the  north  and  w^est.  Its  surface 
is  interrupted  by  a  number  of  mountains  and  mountain  groups,  which 
rise  above  the  general  level.  Within  this  belt  are  also  a  number  of 
lowiand  areas  of  considerable  extent,  which  lie  below  the  upland 
surface.  Among  these  the  flat  of  the  middle  Yukon  is  notable. 
The  lowlands  which  extend  along  Bering  Sea  adjacent  to  the  Kus- 
kokwim  and  Yukon  rivers  are  included  in  this  province. 

To  the  east  and  north  is  a  broad  mountain  system  but  little 
explored,  which  forms  the  third  of  the  geographic  provinces.  It  is, 
as  has  been  shown,  the  northern  extension  of  the  Rockies.  These, 
like  the  Pacific  Mountains,  also  undergo  a  marked  change  in  direction. 


430  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

Trending  northwestward  from  the  United  States  and  Canada,  they 
swing  to  the  southwest  at  the  Arctic  shore,  which  they  touch  again 
north  of  Bering  Strait.  The  system  is  represented  in  Alaska  by  the 
Endicott  Mountains,  and  probably  by  several  other  ranges  as  yet 
unsurveyed. 

The  fourth  province  is  that  of  the  plains  lying  east  of  the  Rockies, 
which  in  Alaska  is  represented  by  the  Arctic  Slope  region,  lying 
between  the  western  extension  of  the  Rockies  and  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
This  province,  like  that  of  the  western  United  States,  is  really  a 
slightly  elevated  plateau,  dissected  and  more  or  less  rolling,  which 
slopes  to  the  north  from  the  footliills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A 
featureless  coastal  plain,  of  varying  width,  separates  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  plateau,  which  is  marked  by  a  scarp,  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean. 

About  one-fifth  of  the  drainage  of  Alaska  is  toward  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  nearly  one-half  toward  the  Bering  Sea,  and  the  rest  toward 
the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  map  shows  the  Yukon  to  be  the  master  stream,  and  the  out- 
lines of  its  basin  correspond  in  a  general  way  with  the  boundaries  of 
the  Central  Plateau  province.  The  headwaters  of  this  mighty  river, 
the  fifth  in  size  of  the  North  American  continent,  lie  in  British  Co- 
lumbia far  to  the  southeast  of  Alaska,  where  they  fight  for  mastery 
on  one  hand  with  the  water  courses  flowing  into  the  Pacific  and  on 
the  other  with  those  belonging  to  the  Mackenzie  drainage  basin,  flow- 
ing into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  general  course  of  the  upper  Yukon 
and  its  tributaries  is  northwest  as  far  as  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  then 
makes  a  great  southwest  bend  and  pours  its  great  volume  of  muddy 
waters  into  Bering  Sea,  nearly  3,000  miles  from  the  source  of  its 
longest  tributaries.  The  valley  of  the  Yukon  occupies  the  medial 
line  of  the  plateau  province,  and  with  it  makes  the  same  great  bend 
to  the  southwest  parallel  to  the  swing  of  the  two  mountain  systems 
to  the  north  and  south.  The  relief,  which  is  measured  by  the  altitude 
of  the  remiumts  of  the  i)lateau  above  the  floor  of  the  valley,  is  greatest 
near  the  international  boundary  and  decreases  both  above  and  below. 
A  narrow  valley  characterizes  the  upper  Yukon  proper,  which  broad- 
ens out  at  the  so-called  Yukon  Flats,  near  the  big  bend,  and  contracts 
again  below  in  the  Ramparts,  and  then  broadens  out  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Tanana. 

The  northern  and  eastern  limits  of  the  catchment  basin  are  gen- 
erally defined  by  the  crest  Hne  of  the  inland  frontal  ranges  of  the 


GEOGRAPHICAL    NOTES  43  I 


Rocky  Mountain  system,  but  this  does  not  always  hold  true,  for  the 
Peel  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Mackenzie,  has  its  source  west  of  the 
Rockies.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Macmillan  River  finds  outlet  in 
the  Yukon  drainage  after  traversing  one  of  the  ranges  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  system.  The  southern  and  eastern  divide  of  the  Yukon 
basin  is  even  of  greater  irregularity.  On  one  hand  some  of  its  tribu- 
taries find  their  sources  to  the  south  of  the  ranges  of  the  Pacific  Moun- 
tain system,  and  on  the  other  a  number  of  large  rivers  emptying  into 
the  Pacific  have  their  headwaters  inland  of  this  barrier. 

The  Yukon  River  forms  the  great  natural  highway  of  Alaska. 
In  summer  3,000  miles  or  more  of  navigable  waters  are  found  wnthin 
its  basin,  and  in  winter  the  frozen  surface  of  the  river  affords  a  route 
of  travel  for  dog  teams.  It  was  along  the  rivers  that  the  pioneer 
could  best  journey,  for  on  his  crude  rafts  or  boats,  built  of  the  timber 
which  grew  on  the  banks,  he  could  transport  necessary  supplies, 
and  later  the  steamboat  succeeded  to  that  propelled  by  hand. 

The  Kuskokwim,  flowing  into  Bering  Sea,  is  second  only  to  the 
Yukon  among  Alaskan  rivers,  and  includes  probably  upward  of 
1,000  miles  of  waters  which  are  navigable  for  steamers.  Its  basin 
lies  west  of  the  Alaskan  range  and  entirely  within  the  plateau  prov- 
ince. 

The  Pacific  drainage  embraces  two  classes  of  rivers  :  First,  those 
whose  catchment  basins  lie  entirely  within  the  coastal  zone  of  moun- 
tains, and  second,  those  whose  courses  reach  into  the  interior  region 
and  traverse  the  mountains  on  their  way  to  the  sea.  Of  the  first 
the  Sushitna  and  Copper,  and  of  the  second  the  Alsek,  Taku,  and 
Stikine  are  the  most  prominent  examples. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  receives  the  waters  of  a  small  part  of  the  plateau 
provinces  through  short  rivers  draining  the  northern  part  of  the 
Seward  Peninsula  and  some  larger  ones  flowing  into  Kotzebue  Sound. 
Much  of  the  larger  part  of  the  Arctic  drainage  consists  of  that  received 
from  the  interior  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  ranges  and  from 
their  northern  slopes.  Under  the  former  are  comprised  the  drainage 
basins  of  the  Noatak  and  the  Kobuk,  both  streams  including  navi- 
gable waters  which  are  bounded  both  north  and  south  by  the  moun- 
tains of  the  northern  system.  The  second  class  of  waterways 
includes  the  northerly  flowing  streams  which  receive  the  drainage 
from  the  seaward  slope  of  the  Rockies.  The  Colville,  the  largest  of 
these  streams,  properly  belongs  to  both  classes,  for  its  source  lies 
well  within  the  front  ranges,  w^hich  it  traverses  in  a  narrow   valley, 


432  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

and  it  also  receives  a  large  amount  of  drainage  from  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. — National  Geographic  Magazine^  May, 
1904. 

A  Great  Tunnel. — During  the  life  of  the  present  generation  the 
Alps  have  been  pierced  four  times  by  tunnels,  the  latest  of  these 
being  the  greatest  of  them,  the  tunnel  under  the  Simplon  Pass.  Work 
on  this  great  enterprise  began  in  1898,  and  a  French  geographical 
journal,  quoted  by  the  New  York  Sun^  announces  that  on  the 
fourth  day  of  May  the  Swiss  and  ItaUan  workmen,  who  have  been 
approaching  one  another  from  the  opposite  ends  of  the  tunnel,  knocked 
down  the  slight  barrier  of  rock  which  still  separated  them.  The 
Jura-Simplon  Company  agreed  to  have  the  tunnel  ready  for  use  in 
five  and  a  half  years.  They  have  spared  neither  time,  money,  nor 
skill  in  the  endeavor  to  fulfill  their  contract,  but  the  diflSculties  they 
have  met  have  been  enormous,  and  the  Swiss  Government,  rightly 
taking  these  difficulties  into  account,  has  extended  the  time  for  the 
completion  of  the  tunnel  to  April  30,  1905,  and  has  given  the  com- 
pany a  supplementary  credit,  increasing  the  payment  for  the  tunnel 
from  $14,000,000  to  $15,600,000.  The  first  of  these  great  Alpine 
tunnels  in  point  of  time  was  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  in  France,  which 
is  nearly  eight  miles  long  and  was  fourteen  years  in  construction, 
being  finished  thirty-four  years  ago.  Next  came  the  St.  Gothard, 
nine  and  a  (juarter  miles  long,  which  was  nine  and  a  half  years  in 
construction,  and  was  completed  twenty-four  years  ago.  Then  came 
the  Arlberg,  six  and  a  half  miles  long,  three  and  a  half  years  in  build- 
ing, and  completed  twenty-one  years  ago.  The  Simplon  is  twelve 
and  a  half  miles  long,  its  greatest  altitude  above  the  level  of  the  sea 
being  2,314  feet,  while  the  altitude  of  Mont  Cenis  is  4,248  feet.  The 
work  has  been  done,  as  all  work  of  the  kind  is  done  on  the  continent, 
with  artistic  completeness.  The  station  at  Brieg  was  finished  some 
time  ago  and  is  an  admirable  structure.  The  valley  which  approaches 
the  tunnel  from  the  Italian  side  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in 
northern  Italy,  but  has  been  hopelessly  scarred  by  excavations,  cuts 
through  the  rock,  and  the  litter  and  disfigurement  attendant  upon 
railroad  building,  to  say  nothing  of  a  great  village  of  Italian  work- 
ingnien  which  has  grown  up  near  the  entrance  to  the  tunnel.  This 
entrance  is  approached  by  a  series  of  smaller  tunnels  which  extend 
all  the  way  from  Lake  Maggiore.  The  greatest  obstacles  which  the 
enterprise  has  been  compelled  to  meet  have  been  water  and  heat. 
During  the  first  three  months  of  1902  the  work  on  the  Italian  end 


lyn  GEOGRAPHICAL    NOTES  433 

advanced  only  fifty  feet,  so  many  were  the  springs  that  were  met 
and  so  great  was  the  volume  of  water  which  had  to  be  cared  for.  .  The 
heat  has  been  in  many  places  prostrating,  the  temperature  ranging 
from  95  to  107  degrees.  It  was  necessary  to  shorten  the  hours  of 
work  and  to  provide  buildings  with  facilities  for  hot  and  cold  baths, 
so  that  when  the  miners  came  out  of  the  tunnel  they  should  not 
be  at  once  exposed  to  the  keen  Alpine  air.  The  completion  of  this 
tunnel  will  give  direct  communication  between  Milan  and  Paris  and 
London  and  points  all  the  way  to  Brindisi.  The  Mont  Cenis  furnishes 
the  shortest  and  quickest  route  from  France  and  northwestern 
Europe  to  Genoa.  The  chief  route  between  Central  Europe  and 
Italy  is  that  through  the  St.  Gothard,  and  travel  from  Paris  and 
Genoa  to  Austria  passes  largely  through  the  Arlberg.  With  the 
completion  of  the  Simplon  tunnel  the  Alps  have  been  practically 
annihilated  for  purposes  of  travel  and  traffic.  —  The  Outlook^  June 
11,  1904. 

British  India. — Agricultural  Conditions. — The  peninsula  of  India, 
which  in  area  is  about  one-half  the  size  of  the  United  States,  has  a 
population  of  nearly  300,000,000,  about  200,000,000  of  whom  depend, 
directly  or  indirectly,  for  a  livelihood  on  agricultural  employment. 

The  area  of  the  holdings  is  on  an  average  exceedingly  small,  seldom 
more  than  a  few  acres  and  often  mere  gardens.  Of  course  there  are 
some  exceptions.  Zemindars  and  a  favored  few  having  larger  holdings. 

The  holdings  are  held  by  different  kinds  of  tenures,  generally 
leasehold;  seldom  in  fee  simple.  The  fee  being,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
presidency  of  Bombay,  in  the  government,  the  tenant  is  not  per- 
mitted to  alienate  or  encumber  his  title. 

The  farmer  of  India,  or  ^^ryot,^'  as  he  is  called,  is  in  utter  darkness 
as  regards  education,  and  is  poor  and  underfed.  He  is  industrious 
and,  under  the  circumstances,  outside  of  famine  years  gets  good 
returns  from  the  soil.  He  lacks  ambition  or  desire  to  improve  his 
material  condition  or  methods  of  labor.  He  cuts  his  crops  according 
to  the  signs  of  the  moon  or  the  custom  practiced  by  his  forefathers. 
Oftentimes  the  grain  is  overripe,  and  grass  or  fodder  has  lost  its 
nutriment  and  turned  to  straw  on  the  stock  before  it  is  harvested. 
The  system  of  timely  cutting  and  curing  grass  and  fodder  is  quite 
unknown  to  him. 

He  has  little  knowledge  of  green  manures.  Much  of  the  excrement 
of  the  bullocks  is  used  for  smearing  waUs  and  ground  floors  of  their 
houses  and  for  making  cakes  for  fuel. 

3 


434  'THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

Life  in  the  villages  has  been  modified  but  little  since  the  most 
ancient  times.  All  ryots,  or  farmers,  live  in  villages,  and  to  them 
one  must  go  to  understand  the  life  of  the  Hindoo. 

Hand  Labor  vs.  Machinery. — Farm  labor  is  plentiful  and  cheap, 
and  is  paid  from  2  to  4  annas  (4  to  8  cents)  per  day.  The  farm 
is  so  small  and  the  ryot  so  poor — taxes  and  famine  years  claiming  all 
his  savings — that  he  is  generally  in  debt  to  the  money  lender  for 
marriage  ceremonies  for  his  children  or  memorial  celebrations  to  his 
Ancestors. 

Agricultural  Implements  in  Use. — The  agricultural  implements 
used  by  the  ryot  are  of  the  most  primitive  and  ancient  patterns. 
Hand  sickles  are  universally  used  to  cut  the  crops;  grain  cradles  are 
never  and  scythes  seldom  seen  in  India. 

The  grain  is  thrashed  by  pounding  with  a  club  or  tramping  by 
cattle,  and  winnowed  by  being  tossed  in  the  air  so  that  the  wind 
may  blow  out  the  chaff. 

With  a  few  exceptions  in  large  cities,  the  grinding  of  grain  is  done 
by  women  on  hand  mills,  after  the  manner  shown  in  Biblical  pictures 
of  the  time  of  Abraham. 

The  plow  consists  of  an  upright  piece,  made  from  a  curv^ed  limb 
of  a  babul  tree,  with  an  iron  point,  having  mortised  into  it  a  beam 
lengthening  into  a  tongue,  and  which  is  tied  by  a  rope  on  the  yoke 
of  the  oxen.  The  y)low  is  made  by  the  village  carpenter,  at  a  cost 
of  3  or  4  rupees  ($1  or  $1.30).  The  plow  is  drawn  by  one  or  two 
yoke  of  oxen,  and  it  simply  stirs  the  ground.  The  monsoon  rains  do 
the  rest. 

Water  is  drawn  from  wells  for  irrigation  purposes  by  bullocks 
pulling  down  an  incline.  The  water  is  raised  in  leather  bags,  con- 
nected to  the  ox  yoke  by  a  rope  running  over  a  pulley. 

An  implement  universally  in  use  on  the  farm  and  generally  for 
all  sorts  of  digging,  scraping,  and  raising  of  dirt  is  the  **pharwa." 
It  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  hoe;  the  blade,  however,  is  broader, 
thicker,  and  deeper.  It  is  hammered  out  by  the  village  blacksmith, 
and  has  a  short,  straight  handle. 

If  earth  is  to  be  moved  any  distance  it  is  dug  up  by  the  pharwa 
and  scraped  into  a  shallow,  round,  bamboo  basket,  w^hich  is  then 
placed  on  the  head  of  a  coolie  *' woman,"  who  carries  it  to  place  or 
dum])s  it   into   a   bullock  cart. 

S})a(les  are  not  in  use  because  the  native,  being  barefooted,  can- 
not ])ress  it  into  the  ground.     Shovels,  which  require  more  strength 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  435 


to  shove  them  than  to  pull  the  pharwa,  are  likewise  never  used  by 
the   native. 

How  to  Increase  American  Trade. — Under  the  foregoing  condi- 
tions we  cannot  expect  to  sell  in  India  mowers,  reapers,  binders, 
steam  separators,  gang  plows,  and  such  agricultural  machinery  as 
prove  of  great  value  on  an  American  thousand-acre  farm. 

There  is,  however,  no  doubt  but  that  there  is  a  considerable  open- 
ing for  hand  machinery,  farming  implements,  and  other  labor-saving 
devices,  such  as  hand  fanning- mills,  cheap  plows,  ox  yokes,  dump 
carts,  horse  powers,  feed  or  fodder  cutters,  small  thrashing  machines, 
carriages,  cultivators,  cane  mills,  oil  engines,  belting,  iron  hand-pumps, 
brick  machinery,  grindstones,  sickles,  wind-mills,  pumps  and  towers, 
carpenters'  tools,  safes,  hardware,  electrical  supplies,  and  cotton 
machinery. 

Roads,  Animals,  and  Vehicles. —  The  main  highways  and  city 
streets  are  well  made,  usually  of  macadam,  thoroughly  drained,  and 
rolled  by  heavy  steam  rollers  imported  from  England.  Famine 
labor  has  been  utilized  in  their  making.  India,  being  tropical,  is 
never  disturbed  by  the  upheaval  process  of  frosts  and  ice. 

The  vehicle  of  transportation  is  the  bullock  cart.  It  is  native- 
made,  simple,  heavy,  and  clumsy.  The  tongue  is  mortised  into  the 
axle,  and  upon  this  T  the  rack  or  box  is  permanently  fastened ;  the  end 
of  the  tongue  is  bound  stiffly  to  the  ox  yoke.  The  latter  is  a  simple, 
round  piece  of  timber  three  or  four  inches  thick  and  about  four  feet 
long.  It  rests  on  the  neck  of  the  bullock,  wooden  or  iron  pins  being 
run  through  its  ends  to  keep  it  from  slipping  off  the  neck  of  the  animal. 
The  load  on  the  cart  is  balanced  so  that  the  yoke  is  held  down,  and 
a  rope  around  the  neck  of  the  ox  takes  the  place  of  an  oxbow  and  keeps 
the  cart  from  tipping  backward.  The  cart  is  dumped  by  simply 
unfastening  the  rope  around  the  neck  of  the  oxen. 

The  oxen,  being  of  the  high-hump,  sacred  variety,  are  peculiarly 
fitted  for  this  barbarous  yoke,  which  conveys  every  motion  and  jolt 
of  the  cart  to  the  neck  of  the  oxen.  A  Yankee  ox-yoke  would  be  a 
blessing  to  these  dumb  brutes,  and  at  the  same  time  it  would  increase 
their  efficiency.  These  ox  carts,  or  "  bail-ghari,"  are  universally 
used  in  the  cities  as  well  as  in  the  country  for  all  kinds  of  draying  and 
hauling  grain,  hay,  dirt,  brick,  stone,  bales  of  cotton,  steel  construc- 
tional beams,  or  teakwood  logs  forty  feet  in  length;  everything  and 
anything  is  carried  upon  them. 

The  native  ^^reckla,"  or  covered  two-wheeled  cart,  drawn  by  trot- 


436  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

ting  oxen,  is  much  in  use  in  the  cities  for  the  transportation  of  natives. 
In  the  cities  a  ^Wictoria/'  or  *Hicca-ghari/'  drawn  by  one  horse, 
is  generally  used  by  the  Europeans  and  better  class  of  natives  as  a 
hired  street  conveyance.  It  is  native-made,  the  springs,  axles,  and, 
perhaps,  some  other  parts  being  imported  from  England.  In  Bombay 
it  is  fitted  with  rubber  tires  and  forms  a  convenient  and  cheap  mode 
of  street  conveyance. 

In  the  country  and  interior  towns  the  conveyance  for  Europeans 
is  the  '*  tonga,"  a  two-wheeled  cart  with  a  seat  facing  the  rear  for  two 
persons,  who  ride  with  back  to  the  driver.  They  are  drawn  by  two 
small  native  horses,  with  a  kind  of  yoke  fastened  on  the  back  or  neck. 
The  European  in  India  generally  supplies  himself  with  a  fine  \Hictoria 
imported  from  England.  It  is  drawn  by  a  span  of  Persian  or  Aus- 
tralian horses. — Monthly  Consular  Reports,  December,  1903. 

The  Practical  Use  of  the  Globe  in  Teaching  Geography. — I  pro- 
pose to  describe  a  series  of  lessons  that  I  have  given  during  the  last 
term  to  a  form  of  boys  whose  average  age  is  fourteen  years.  If  the 
illustrations  that  follow  appear  to  you  to  be  exceedingly  elementary 
and  self-evident,  please  remember  that  the  whole  object  of  this  paper 
is  to  show  how  these  elementary  ideas  may  be  arrived  at  in  a  practical 
way,  and  to  indicate  briefly  the  method  adopted  in  the  course  of 
lessons  I  have  mentioned.  1  did  not  therefore  deal  with  those  ab- 
struse mathematical  calculations  which  are  so  dear  to  the  hearts 
of  mathematical  masters,  but  confined  myself  to  those  broad  principles 
which  are  so  necessary, 

I  need  hardly  point  out  the  necessity  of  constantly  using  a  globe 
in  geographical  teaching.  Some  people  still  ask  with  surprise  whether 
we  wish  to  revert  to  the  system  of  the  old-fashioned  ladies'  school, 
in  which  ''deportment  and  the  use  of  the  globes"  figured  as  impor- 
tant items  on  the  prospectus.  Meditrval  pedants  are  always  depicted 
with  a  globe,  but  in  recent  times  globes  have  almost  disappeared  from 
our  schools.  This  is  very  remarkable  and  perhaps  can  only  be 
accounted  for  by  the  great  improvement  that  has  taken  place  in 
the  production  of  wall  maps  and  atlases.  The  excellence  and  cheap- 
ness of  maps  account  perhaps  for  their  almost  universal  use,  while 
the  greater  cost  of  globes  and  the  difficulty  of  using  them  with  large 
classes  tend  to  make  globes  less  popular.  Geography  is  a  subject 
peculiarly  suited  to  the  training  of  the  powers  of  observation  and 
imagination.  How  can  we  expect  a  boy  to  realize  that  the  parts  of 
the  earth   he  is  studying  are  curved  surfaces  when   we   constantly 


GEO(iRAPHICAL  NOTES 


437 


put  them  before  him  as  flat  surfaces?  It  is  of  little  use  to  ask  a  ques- 
tion occasionally  in  an  examination  paper  (perhaps  once  a  term  or 
once  a  year)  as  to  the  shape  of  the  earth,  and  then  to  ignore  the  sub- 
ject as  if  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  work  of  ordinary  geography 
lessons.  What  is  absolutely  necessary  is  to  have  a  globe  always  in 
view  so  that  it  may  be  constantly  referred  to.  Any  kind  of  globe 
is,  of  course,  better  than  none,  but  the  most  useful  kind,  and  the  one 
which  I  myself  use,  is  a  globe  with  a  slate  surface  on  which  the  out- 
lines of  the  continents  only  are  marked  in  white  paint,  while  the 
circles  of  latitude  and  longitude,  at  intervals  of  15°,  the  tropics  and 
the  Arctic  circles,  are  incised.  This  globe,  twenty  inches  in  diameter  an 
mounted  with  the  axis  inclined,  w^as  made  by  Messrs.  Philip  &  Son 
of  prleet  Street,  and  is  excellently  adapted  for  the  lessons  described 
in  this  paper.  Each  lesson  was  studied  with  the  globe  at  considerable 
length,  the  boys  having  to  observe  and  find  out  as  much  as  possible 
for  themselves;  no  text-books  were  used,  but  after  each  lesson  a 
description  of  the  work  was  written  out  and,  w^here  possible,  dia- 
grams were  drawn.  I  am  very  anxious  that  the  method  that  w^as 
followed  should  be  clearly  understood,  because  I  am  obliged  to  intro- 
duce, as  I  go  along,  much  that  was  only  taken  at  the  end  of  the  term 
when  revising  what  had  been  done.  No  lantern  slides  were  shown, 
except  for  purposes  of  revision  at  the  end  of  the  course. 

In  the  first  lesson  the  boys  examined  the  globe  and  noted  such 
facts  as  the  following:  (a)  That  all  the  lines  drawn  on  the  globe 
are  circles,  (b)  That  the  equator  and  all  circles  passing  through 
the  poles  divide  the  globe  into  hemispheres,  (c)  That  all  the  other 
circles  divide  the  globe  into  une(iual  parts,  (d)  That  the  land  masses 
are  nearly  all  north  of  the  eciuator. 

In  the  next  place,  taking  an  unmarked  globe  to  represent  the 
earth,  we  found  that  the  position  of  the  poles  depended  on  the  axis  of 
rotation.  On  being  asked  how  the  axis  of  rotation  should  be  inclined, 
boys  are  generally  ready  to  reply:  ''At  an  angle  of  23^°  to  the 
vertical,"  instead  of  to  the  vertical  to  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit. 
Simpler  than  this  is  to  point  the  axis  toward  the  north  polestar. 
Here  one  naturally  asks:  ''How  can  the  position  of  the  north  pole 
be  found  on  a  starlight  night?''  Many  boys  when  asked  do  not 
know  at  all,  and  of  those  w^ho  can  sketch  the  seven  stars  in  the  con- 
stellation of  the  Great  Bear  very  few  have  ever  actually  seen  the 
constellation.  One  boy  who  said  he  had  seen  it  explained  the  position 
as, '*  Above  the  left-hand  fence  of  our  back  garden."     He  had  so 


438  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

far  never  realized  that  he  had  been  looking  toward  the  north,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  showed  a  lamentable  lack  of  power  to  describe 
what  he  had  seen  in  a  definite  and  intelligent  way. 

We  now  drew  a  circle  around  the  globe  midway  between  the  poles 
to  represent  the  equator.  If  a  place  is  40°  north  of  the  equator 
it  must  lie  somewhere  on  a  circle;  but  this  is  all  we  know%  unless  we 
are  further  told  its  distance  east  or  west  of  a  given  circle  passing 
through  the  poles.  Hence  the  following  facts:  (a)  That  the 
equator  and  the  prime  meridian  are  the  only  circles  necessary  to 
determine  positions,  (b)  That  all  other  circles  are  drawn  on  globes 
simply  for  convenience  in  measuring  positions,  (c)  That  all  these 
circles  depend  on  the  rotation  of  the  globe.  Here,  then,  follow  exer- 
cises in  finding  positions  on  the  globe  when  the  latitude  and  longitude 
are  known,  reading  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  given  place,  finding 
the  difference  of  time  at  given  places,  and  so  on.  The  boys  take  great 
interest  in  doing  this;  in  fact,  they  will  often  practice  by  themselves, 
and,  if  the  class  is  small,  it  is  always  possible  to  let  them  stand  round 
the  globe  and  do  these  exercises,  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

In  order  to  fix  the  cardinal  points  in  the  class  room,  the  boys 
themselves  should  find  the  north-south  line  by  means  of  equal  altitudes 
of  the  sun  from  the  shadow  of  a  stick,  and  then  draw  this  line  on  the 
floor  of  the  class  room.  The  determination  of  this  line  took  us  a 
fortnight  to  accomplish;  that  is,  we  began  and  tried  day  after  day 
for  a  fortnight.  We  then  got  a  magnetized  needle  and  found  the 
direction  of  the  magnetic  north,  and  on  measuring  the  angle  between 
this  direction  and  the  geographical  north,  it  was  found  to  be  about 
15°,  a  sufliiciently  accurate  result  for  1903. 

The  globe  was  then  placed  so  that  its  axis  was  pointing  toward 
the  north  polestar,  and  it  was  decided  that  the  globe  must  be  revolved 
from  west  to  east,  and  never  from  east  to  west.  The  room  having 
been  darkened,  the  light  of  a  small  lantern  was  next  turned  on  to  the 
globe,  and  it  was  seen  that  the  line  dividing  the  dark  from  the  light 
side  was  a  vertical  circle.  On  revolving  the  globe,  the  phenomena 
of  sunrise,  sunset,  meridian  altitude  of  the  sun,  etc.,  were  roughly 
demonstrated,  and  after  this  diagrams  were  drawn  to  show  the  length 
of  day  and  night  throughout  the  year  for  any  latitude.  Having 
drawn  a  scries  of  diagrams  for  various  latitudes,  we  at  last  came  to 
90°  N.,  and,  while  drawing  the  figure  in  the  usual  way,  viz.,  observer 
in  center,  horizon,  N.,  S.,  E.,  W.  points,  and  so  on,  one  boy  sug- 
gested that  in  this  case  these  points  might  be  omitted  on  the  ground 


GEOGRAPHICAL    NOTES  439 


that  an  observer  of  the  north  pole  would  be  looking  south  in  what- 
ever direction  he  turned. 

By  holding  the  axis  of  the  globe  vertical  and  allowing  the  light 
of  the  lantern  to  fall  directly  on  the  equator  and  carrying  the  globe 
round  the  light,  it  is  at  once  seen  that  under  these  conditions  the  sun 
would  be  always  vertical  on  the  equator,  and  the  days  and  nights 
would  be  equal  throughout  the  year.  But  from  experience  we  know 
that  the  sun  is  only  vertical  on  the  equator  twice  a  year;  that  it  is 
vertical  over  places  23^°  N.  on  June  21st,  and  over  places  23^°  S.  on 
December  22d,  and  that  the  length  of  day  and  night  varies  through- 
out the  year.  To  account  for  these  phenomena  it  is  necessary  to 
incline  the  axis  66^°  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  Having  placed  the 
globe  with  the  north  pole  turned  away  from  the  light,  and  having 
noted  the  northernmost  point  reached  by  the  light,  we  turned  the 
globe  around  and  found  that  we  had  traced  a  circle,  viz.,  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  that  in  this  position  all  places  within  it  were  in  darkness. 
Similarly,  all  places  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  were  illuminated. 
As  the  globe  was  moved  round  the  lantern  through  an  angle  of  90° 
the  light  was  seen  to  creep  gradually  into  the  Arctic  Circle  and  to 
reach  the  north  pole,  while  the  direct  rays  of  light  were  at  that 
moment  vertical  on  the  equator.  Similar  observations  were  made 
as  the  globe  was  slowly  moved  into  other  positions  in  its  course  round 
the  illuminating  body.  Here  it  is  most  important  to  insist  that  the 
equator.  Tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  and  the  Arctic  Circles 
are  not  drawn  on  maps  and  globes  arbitrarily  but  are  due  to  the 
apparent  motion  of  the  sun,  i.  e.,  to  the  varying  positions  of  the 
earth  in  its  annual  revolution  round  the  sun.    Boys  rarely  realize  this. 

We  next  considered  the  effect  of  parallel  rays  of  light  striking  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  hence  accounted  for  the  fact  that  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere  we  have  the  summer  season  when  the  earth  is 
farthest  from  the  sun.  By  using  a  small  globe  to  represent  the 
moon,  eclipses  may  be  shown  very  effectively,  as  also  the  phases  of 
the  moon. 

I  have  as  yet  only  described  those  lessons  in  which  the  globe  has 
been  the  most  prominent  object;  but  in  ordinary  geography  lessons 
a  globe  is  indispensable.  We  can  at  once  compare  the  area  of  one 
country  with  other  countries,  for  all  are  drawn  to  one  scale.  The 
position  of  one  country  A\ith  regard  to  other  countries  can  be  seen 
at  a  glance.  Trade  routes  can  be  pointed  out,  and  distance  by  alter- 
native routes  can  be  compared.    While  agreeing  with  Professor  Reclus 


440  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  November 

that  projections  on  flat  surfaces  should  be  banished  from  our  schools 
and  that  only  maps  drawn  on  curved  surfaces  should  be  used  as 
being  more  in  accordance  with  nature,  it  seems  to  me  that  for  the 
present  we  must  be  content  to  compromise  matters  by  using  the 
most  up-to-date  maps  in  conjunction  with  a  globe;  so  that,  by  con- 
stant comparison  between  the  two,  boys  may  become  accustomed, 
when  looking  at  a  map,  to  picture  in  their  imaginations  the  curved 
form  of  the  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  they  are  studying. — The 
Geographical  Teacher,  June,  1904. 

First  Lessons  in  Geography. — Within  the  last  decade  or  two  great 
changes  have  taken  place  in  methods  of  teaching  geography.  The 
results  of  modern  geography  teaching  must  correspond  to  modern 
methods  as  shown  in  the  pupil's  idea  of  the  earth  on  which  he  lives. 
To  study  geography  in  olden  time*was  to  learn  the  contents  of  the 
text-book.  To  study  geography  in  the  present  day  is  to  gain,  as  far 
as  possible,  an  objective  knowledge  of  the  earth  and  to  imagine  and 
reason  from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

In  country  schools  there  is  fine  opportunity  for  pupils  to  learn 
by  observation  the  natural  forms  of  land  and  water.  The  brook, 
the  river,  the  pond,  the  lake,  the  slope,  the  hill,  and  other  features 
of  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school,  are  in  them- 
selves object  lessons  if  the  minds  of  the  pupils  are  trained  to  see  for 
themselves. 

The  first  lessons  in  geography  are  properly  nature  stories  without 
the  use  of  a  text-book.  Such  lessons  in  nature  study  are  usually  found 
in  the  courses  of  study  for  city  schools.  In  ungraded  schools  all  the 
pupils  who  arc  not  studying  the  printed  book  in  geography  may  be 
placed  in  one  class.  Even  the  youngest  pupils  need  not  be  excluded 
from  the  simplest  lessons,  particularly  those  which  are  objective,  for 
they  can  gain  practical  ideas  which  will  create  a  taste  for  the  further 
study  of  the  earth. 

The  teacher  of  oral  geography  may  select  from  the  natural  features 
of  the  district  some  one  prominent  for  study.  When  possible,  study 
slope  first,  for  a  hill  is  an  object  of  interest  pleasurable  when  connected 
with  the  play  of  the  children. 

Flowing  waters  are  also  objects  of  interest  to  children,  affording 
them  sport.  The  teacher  may  illustrate  the  terms  source,  course, 
and  mouth  of  a  stream,  in  the  schoolroom,  and  take  her  class  for  field 
study  later,  or  she  may  give  the  first  lesson  from  Nature's  book,  and 
follow  with  oral  lessons  in  the  schoolroom.     Lessons  on  a  stream  may 


1904  GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  44 1 

be  succeeded  by  lessons  on  a  watershed.  In  the  meantime,  instruction 
should  be  given  on  the  points  of  the  compass.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  pupils  know  the  directions  north,  south,  east,  and 
west,  outside  of  the  schoolroom  as  well  as  in  it.  This  result  can  be 
accomplished  by  questioning  the  class  about  the  direction  of  the  road 
or  street  in  front  of  the  school,  or  the  direction  from  the  schoolhouse 
of  another  school  building,  or  of  the  homes  of  individual  pupils.  lics- 
sons  in  map  reading  may  be  given  by  the  teacher  placing  a  line  on  the 
board  from  south  to  north,  and  another  north  to  south,  the  two 
lines  being  continuous  but  for  a  little  space  intervening.  These 
lines  are  to  represent  rivers,  the  space  between  the  lines  the  height 
of  land  where  each  river  has  its  source.  Each  stream  may  be  named 
after  some  pupil  in  the  class.  Questions  will  test  the  pupil's  abiUty  to 
imagine  slope.  They  may  be  sent  to  the  board  to  point  to  the  source, 
the  mouth,  to  show  which  river  flows  north,  which  south.  In  a 
similar  way  forms  of  land  may  be  taught,  as  valley,  plain. 

When  features  of  the  earth  not  found  in  the  neighborhood  are  to 
be  taught,  the  good  teacher  of  geography  will  have  a  supply  of  pictures 
to  illustrate  the  subject.  Frye's  Brooks  and  Brook  Bamns  is  a  most 
helpful  book  for  the  teacher  commencing  oral  geography. 

In  the  winter  months  when  field  studies  cannot  be  pursued,  the 
teacher  may  read  from  Seven  Little  Sisters.  This  is  a  book  most 
interesting  to  all  children,  as  it  gives  them  the  first  glance  at  children 
differing  from  themselves  living  on  other  parts  of  the  globe.  It  is  a 
known  fact  that  the  children  they  study  about  become  real  person- 
ages to  the  pupils  who  learn  of  their  habits  and  customs.  The  teacher 
reads  and  the  pupils  afterward  reproduce,  either  orally  or  in  writing. 
However,  before  this  part  of  oral  geography  is  taken,  some  ideas 
must  be  gained  by  pupils  about  the  shape  of  the  earth.  Any  com- 
mon sphere  may  be  used  to  lead  up  to  the  globe.  On  the  globe  locate 
the  point  where  they  live.  To  some  children,  even  bright  ones,  it  is  a 
wonder  that  we  live  on  the  outside  of  the  earth.  No  definite  size  of 
the  earth  should  be  given  thus  early,  only  that  it  is  very  large. 

In  the  spring-time  lessons  in  market  gardening  and  farming  may  be 
given,  covering  the  kind  of  products  raised.  A  few  lessons  on  some  of 
the  products  may  be  taught.  Such  lessons  illustrate  one  occupation 
of  man.  A  game  may  be  used  which  is  imaginative,  as  are  some 
lessons  in  the  kindergarten,  in  which  the  products  of  the  garden  or 
farm  are  sold  and  other  products  bought.  Such  a  game  would  illus- 
trate another  occupation  of  man. 


442  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

If  there  are  manufactories  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school,  one  or 
more  talks  may  be  given  on  what  is  made  in  these,  and  an  exercise 
follow  in  which  all  articles  in  the  schoolroom  which  are  manufactured 
may  be  named.  This  exercise  illustrates  a  third  occupation.  After- 
ward pupils  may  name  persons  whom  they  know  who  are  engaged  in 
agriculture,  in  manufacture,  in  commerce. 

After  such  preparation  in  studying  real  objects  in  geography  as 
slope,  stream,  plain,  the  points  of  the  compass,  the  shape  of  the  earth, 
stories  of  other  children  who  live  on  the  earth,  and  what  kinds  of 
work  men  and  women  do,  we  may  commence  the  study  of  a  map. 
Let  the  children  make  a  map  of  the  district  or  the  part  of  it  in  which 
the  school  is  located.  It  will  mean  more  at  first  to  the  children  if 
made  on  the  floor,  or  on  paper  or  cloth  placed  on  the  floor,  as  the  points 
of  the  compass  can  be  kept  true.  If  made  on  paper  or  cloth,  it  may 
afterward  be  hung  against  the  wall,  telling  the  children  that  men  have 
agreed  to  call  the  top  of  the  map  north.  When  the  first  map  is  under- 
stood the  teacher  is  ready  to  begin  the  study  of  the  state  in  which  the 
class  live,  as  Ohio.  If  the  pupils  live  near  one  of  the  limits  of  the 
state,  commence  with  that  boundary,  as  in  the  northern  section  we 
should  begin  with  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie;  in  the  southern 
section  with  the  Ohio  River.  The  teacher  may  place  the  outline  of 
the  state  on  the  board.  If  she  can  do  it  in  the  presence  of  the  class 
much  more  interest  will  be  aroused.  After  the  outline  is  drawn, 
pupils  may  travel  from  the  school  north  to  Lake  Erie,  south  across 
the  Ohio  River  to  West  Virginia  or  Kentucky,  east  to  Pennsylvania  or 
West  Virginia,  and  west  to  Indiana.  Such  exercises  must  be  frequent. 
The  teacher  may  tell  the  children  that  these  are  our  neighbors  and 
we  must  know  their  names  and  which  way  to  go  to  visit  them.  The 
class  may  next  study  the  flowing  streams.  They  may  commence 
in  the  part  of  the  state  in  which  they  live;  that  is,  all  living  south 
of  the  watershed  would  first  study  the  Muskingum,  the  Scioto,  or 
the  Miami  rivers.  Which  one  of  these  to  study  first  would  depend  . 
on  the  location  of  the  pupils  studying.  The  study  reviews  the  idea 
of  slope.  The  study  of  rivers  flowing  in  the  opposite  direction  develops 
another  slope,  and  the  fact  that  here  is  a  watershed.  At  the  proper 
time  the  Ohio  River  is  studied,  and  Lake  Erie.  If  the  surface  of  the 
map  is  colored,  brown  being  used  for  high  land  and  green  for  low 
land,  the  surface  of  the  state  can  be  well  shown.  The  teacher  should 
develop  the  idea  of  a  state.  No  better  lesson  can  be  given  com- 
bining civics  and  geography  than  Sir  William  Jones*  poem,    *^What 


Constitutes   a    State?''     ChiWrtMi    shouKI    u^0MU\^i«i^    l\^i^    \\\M    \\is\\ 
ending    with 

**Men  who  their  duties  know. 

But  know  their  rights,  and,  knowing*  diuv  nm(hUM»\ /' 

I^essons  may  follow  on  Ohio,  its  olininto,  hoII,  |>roi|\iol«>.  \  1*^1*1  ♦»l»l»» 
and  mineral,  the  occupation  of  its  inhnltitunt^,  \\n  \vi\\\\\\^  oilioQ,  inil 
roads,  and  canals.     If  an  electric  roiul  pnw^ci*  \m\V  \\\v  mA\\\\\\^  lln' 
pupils  might  study  about  the  townn  it  comitM'li*.  or  Ir  pmsmImI  *siillMl» 
ban  lines  enter  the  town  where  the  mcIiooI  \n  locnteil  m  hiiip  MIMV  liH 
made  of  these.     In  the  meantime  pupiln  mny  ihiiw  iIim  iMillhiii  iit  lh»» 
state,  its  principal  rivers,  atnl  locate  itn  IcimIImi/  I'HIno      TIimv  IMMV 
also  model  in  sand.     Mol(h'r*M  Miind   \h   H\\\\n\iU*  for  h\uiM\hii       Mill 
children  have  made  a  mo(h*I  of  Ohio  ifi  the  pl»yt/roiMMl  wMImmH  Mm* 
presence  of  the  teacher,  becaune  they  were  po  mmmIi  hih'M'tth^'l  )M  llM•l^ 
lessons  in  geography.     When  Miich  nlndien  in  nrn\  i/«o|/Mi|/ht   hwv** 
been  pursued,  pupil>4  are  ready  io  lake  n  le/J  boot  mtti  m^'I-  M  )hh'\ 
ligently. 

I  cannot  V>eliev*'  but  th^at  in  u^*'tiff^tSty  Mm'  i:^i$i^)uy  \tH)h^  )**  h^ 
home.  Working  i»ith  youi^ff^-T  |/M|/i)*  Uoth  ^Us  hs  i4t  t4hfi  hi*r^h, 
interest  i»  de\'*fUfif^l  \u  tb<r  Um  Jtt^i/Jy  //f  t^o^fH^fhj/  tih)^it  ^///V"" 
with  their  gf^mlb,     <//*<//  K^hM^tiorftJii  f/w/////// 

Affliniitirartkwi  ^  tlM  Wlwl«  IUm;  Hiy  tiMP  '//^fM4  y/^^><  ^frA 
views  Q|>  tuo.  liUR  %vu^  ry.^Xyy}  ^^'*\  f^^^4\-^*  y  ^^<a  j^aa-^m^^a^/^^^ 
Two  ♦nr&iMr  ■^its.tv.-^fugr.i'*  *:**    tiv**    '^-^"/    ••4//.^/.     v/    «**-<   V  Vvy  V"^ 

iB5pn*?^i»  5vr -**uv       ^t  >\r^v\  ^^a    ^V/     Wi^  /  X     i*^tfV,Mt  ^wi    1^     1^ 

iP!Ul»iI    •31U«»^    l<»i5fcKi-     »fjj*^'«ju^*«^     f     Usi    0>-«iV,A. 
lilUWl.     «^I#^     <#k»frt«»'      t-i^     *Mrr./ ^ /./»*       ^#./«      V.>* 


^«>vtl*« 

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<*••> 

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v,^ 

^J^i-           •^■/. 

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t,* 

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446  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  November 

region  should  not  merely  follow  the  plan  of  their  school  course  of 
study,  but  should  go  deeper  and  attack  the  problem  as  a  problem  in 
geography  primarily,  and  in  geography  teaching  only  when  they  have 
mastered  the  geography.  Workers  in  this  field  would  do  well  to  take 
as  a  guide  a  little  book  like  Herbertson's  Man  and  His  Worky  or  like 
Professor  Davis'  article  on  Home  Geography  in  the  Journal  of 
School  GKOfjRAPHY  for  January,  1897,  for  both  of  these  are  full  of 
suggestions  as  to  how  to  see  relationships  in  the  geography  about 
one. 

The  topic  of  home  geography  is  so  new.  that  it  is  not  yet  under- 
stood and  there  is  much  work  to  be  done.  It  cannot  all  be  done 
by  remote  geographers.  The  local  students  must  help  themselves 
by  adapting  the  suggestions  of  others  to  their  own  localities,  and  in 
so  doing  will  gain  vigor,  interest,  and  a  love  for  nature  as  well  as 
geography. 

REVIEW 

North  America.     Bv  Israel  C.  Russell.     Pp.  x  and  435.     Appleton's  World  Series. 

New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1904. 

Russell's  North  America  is  primarily  a  volume  for  the  general  reader  and  does 
not  form  as  valuable  a  book  of  reference  as  could  be  desired.  It  includes  extended 
accounts  of  the  topography,  climate,  plant  and  animal  life,  geolog>''  and  al)origines 
of  North  America,  but  is  extremely  deficient  on  the  political,  social,  and  economic 
sides.  This  lack,  however,  is  not  due  to  the  author,  but  to  the  fact  that  the  volume 
was  planned  to  cover  the  whole  continent  and  hence  all  part.s  of  the  geography 
could  not  l)e  included  in  the  space  provided.  This  is  particularly  unfortunate, 
for  the  portions  of  the  subjects  treated  are  more  readily  available  in  the  existing 
literature  of  geography  than  are  the  subjects  omitted  or  seriously  condensed. 

Although  all  th(i  chapters  are  extremely  readable  (except  where  fine  writing  is 
indulged  in)  the  most  valuable  for  teachers  are  those  on  the  plants,  animals,  and 
aborigines.  In  the  chapter  on  topography  and  climate  Professor  Russell  has  not 
followed  the  classifications  usually  adopted  by  workers  in  these  subjects.  Hence 
teachers  who  want  to  pass  from  the  book  to  the  detailed  literature  will  find  the 
chapters  less  u.sable  than  they  might  be. 

The  illustrations  are  few,  nmch  fewer  than  they  might  well  be,  a  lack  which  has 
l)ecn  thus  far  characteristic  of  the  series.  The  maps  are  well  drawn  and  executed 
and  are  valuable  adjuncts  to  the  text. 

Though  the  volume  is  not  of  the  standard  teachers  have  long  needed,  it  is 
extremely  valual)le  for  reference  and  should  be  in  evcrv  school  librarv. 

R.  E.  D. 


EDITORIAL  445 


being  reached,  and  the  effect  of  the  transpiration  of  water  vapor, 
are  noted.  It  is  only  through  the  constant  reiteration  of  the  right 
view  of  the  position  of  the  forest  in  relation  to  climate  that  the  com- 
mon and  highly  erroneous  ideas  of  the  climatic  influences  of  forests 
can  be  successfully  combated. — R,  DeC,  W. 


EDITORIAL 

HOME  GEOGRAPHY 

HOME  Geography,  now  recognized  as  being  the  fundamental 
phase  of  any  rationally  ordered  course  of  study  in  geography, 
is  based  upon  the  well  established  principle  of  teaching, 
that  a  child  must  begin  wdth  that  which  is  near  and  personal  and 
work  out  to  the  remote  and  unfamiliar  features  of  the  world  which 
cannot  be  personally  seen  and  directly  studied.  Home  geography 
as  taught,  however,  is  not  always  made  as  foundational  as  it  might 
be  for  the  reason  that  teachers  do  not  choose  the  topics  to  be  pre- 
sented with  sufficient  care,  and  do  not  draw  out  the  relations  between 
the  many  features  of  their  geographic  environment  so  as  to  make 
the  study  thought-  and  question-inspiring. 

Home  geography  should  not  include  all  the  features  of  the  home 
region  just  because  they  can  be  seen  from  the  school  window.  For 
then  home  geography  becomes  a  mere  catalogue  of  facts  taken  in 
a  chance  order  and  is  deadly  as  a  subject  for  provoking  interest 
and  observational  study. 

The  difficulties  of  teaching  the  subject  are  many,  for  no  phase  of 
geography  is  so  complicated  and  difficult  to  present  understandingly 
as  that  great  complex  of  physical,  biological,  and  social  facts  which 
make  up  the  geography  of  the  home  region.  A  great  step  in  advance 
can  be  made  if  interested  teachers  \\'ill  get  together  and  study  the 
home  geography  of  their  own  locality,  and  prepare  an  abstract  or 
even  a  paper  of  some  length  for  their  colleagues  to  whom  geography 
teaching  is  a  bugbear. 

The  home  geography  of  no  two  regions  is  alike,  and  the  subject 
cannot  be  presented  in  exactly  the  same  way  in  two  different  places. 
The  relationships  to  be  seen  and  the  points  to  work  for  are  practically 
the  same,  but  the  details,  the  flesh  to  clothe  the  skeleton  of  principles, 
vary  according  to  the  locality. 

Teachers    who    care   to   organize   the    home   geography   of   their 


An  Important  Book  of  Travel 


AFRICA 

FROM  SOUTH  TO  NORTH 
THROUGH    MAROTSELAND 

By  MAJOR  A.  St.  H.  GIBBONS,  F.  R.G.  S. 

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graphs, and  Maps,     /;     ::     Octavo.    2  vols*    $7-50  n^t. 


Major  Gibbons^  description  of  his  trat^eis  ikrouFk  ike  ^koie  i^ngik  of 
ih£  African  coniineni  is  amongsi  ike  m&si  jfoiuahie  contribuitons  ia 
ikis  c/ass  of  iiicniture  pubiisktd  iti  recefii  years.  AtHOHgsi  otker 
important  features  in  tke  work  is  an  account  of  ike  iracing  of  th^ 
Zambesi  River  to  Us  source,  wkich  kadhilkerto  remained  undiscovered. 


JOHN   LANE,  Publisher,  %^^^,  New  York 


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7-/&^JOURNAI^: 
GEOGRAP 


VOLUME  III. 


DECEMBER,  1904 


Jin  illu^trat^b  tnonttjlD  tmxgaiint  b^vot^b  to  th^ 


Edited  by  RICHARD  E.  DODGE,  Professor  of  Geog- 
raphy, Teachers  Colleg^e,  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City,  and  EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS,  Professor  of 
Geography,  State  Normal   School,  Winona,  Minnesota 


Cfpontntte  for  ^^c^tnbiev 

PACK 

Fiud  Remits  in  the  Study  of  Geography    .     .     .  JACQUES  W.  REDWAY    447 

Results  of  an  Elementary  Course  in  Geography  .     .     .  PHILIP  EMERSON    450 

Foundational  Experiences ARTHUR  P.  IRVING    454 

What  Should  Graduates  from  Elementary  Schools  Know  About  Geography 

ISAAC  O.  WINSLOW    458 

Commercial  Importance  of  ConUnents    ....  GEORGE  D.  HUBBARD     462 

Later  Geographies CLIFTON  JOHNSON    467 

Geographical  Notes: 

Trade  and  Qmirncrcf  in  Persia,  4.S6. 

Editorial: 

What  a  Child  Should  Gain  from  His  Schonl  Course  in  Ge<^«:raphy.  487. 

Reviews : 

Handbf^ok  of  Commercial  Gco^Traphv      Chisht.ilm  ((ji.'o.  G).  .%>,■; — Stories  of   Discovery 
Hale  (Edward  Ej.  4SS. 

News  Notes 488 

Authors  are  personally  responnible  for  opinion  <  .n,:'  statements  expres-ed  in  the  JOURNAL 


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The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

PUBLISHED  MONTHLY,  EXCEPT  JULY  AND  AUGUST 

An  iUustrated  Magajtine  Devoted  to  the  Interests  of  Teachers  of  Geographp  in 
Etementarp,  Secondary,  and  formal  Schools 

Successor  to  th^  Journal  of  School  Gcof:rraph\\  Vol.  V.,  and  the  Bulletin  of  the 
American  Bureau  of  GeOf^raphy\  Vol.  II. 


EDITORS 

RICHARD  E.  DODGE, 

Professor  of  Geography^  Teachers  Colle/j'ey  Columbia  University^  Neur  York  City, 

EDWARD  M.  LEHNERTS 

Professor  of  Geography^  State  Normal  School^  Winona^  Minnesota, 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

CYRUS  C.  ADAMS Gco/p-apliical  Editor,  X.  Y,  Sun 

OTiS  W.  CALDW  ELL  .  Professor  of  Botany^  S/ale  Normal  School,  Charleston,  JlL 
JAMES  F.  C  H  AM  BERLAIN,  Prof  ofGeofrraphy,  State  Normal Sclwol,  Los  AngeUs^  Cul. 
HENRY  C.  COW  LES  .  .  .  Associate  in  Botany,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  Jll. 
WILLIAM  M.  DAVIS.  Professor  of  Geology,  Harvard  University, Cambridge,  Alass. 
N.  M.  FENNEMAN.  .  Professor  of  Geology,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 
J.  PXVLijOOTiYj,  Assistant  Professor  of  Geography,  University  of  C/ucagc.  Chicago,  /,L 
GEORGE  a  IIOLLISTER,  Ilydrographer,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washing/on,  D,  C. 
M.  S.  W.  }KVV\lR\r>OK,  Professor  of  Geography,  Stale  Normal  School,  Ypsilanri,  Mich. 
EMORY  R.  JOHN'SON,  A.ist.  Prof  of  Transportation  and  Commerce,  Univ.  of  Penna. 
I^DW.  D.  JOKES,  As<t.  Prop,  of  Commerce  and  Jndu'^/ry,  Univ.  op  Mich.,  Ann  Arbor 
VERN'OX  L.  KELLOGG,  Prof,  of  Entomology,  Lcland  Stanpordjr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

CHARLES  F.  KING Mast<r  oj  Dearborn  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

S.  J.  Maclean,  AssI.  Prof.of  n.onomics,  Leland  Stanford  fr.  Univ.,  Palo  Alto,  Cal. 
FOREST  R.\V  MOULTON,  Assis/uut  Professor  of  Astronomy,  University  of  Chicago 

JACQUES  W.  REDWAY Autlwr,  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y, 

ELLEN  C.  SEMPLE Writer  in  Anthropogeography,  Louisville,  Ky, 

FREDERICK  STARR,  Associate  Prof  of  Anthropology,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  JlL 
RALPH  S.  TARR,  Professor  of  Physical  Geography,  Cornell  University,  Jthaca,  N.  Y. 

SPENCER  TROTTER Professor  of  Biology,  Stvarthmore  College,  Pa. 

ROBERT  DkC.  ward   .    .  Assistant  Professor  of  Climatology,  Harvard  University 

ASSOCIATE  EDITORS  FOR  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  CANADA 
A.  J.  IIERBERTSON,  Lecturer  in  Regional  Geography,  Oxford  University,  England 
JOHN  A.  DRESSER Prince  Albert  School,  St.  Henry  de  Montreal,  Quebec 

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The  JOURNAL  of 
GEOGRAPHY 

Vol.  III.  DECEMBER,  1904  No.  10 


FINAL  RESULTS  IN  THE  STUDY  OF 
GEOGRAPHY 

BY   JACQUES    W.    REDWAY,    MOUNT   VERNON,    N.  Y. 

THE  American  boy  begins  the  study  of  geography  at  the  age  of  five 
or  six  years ;  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen  he  closes  his  text- 
book and  makes  an  end  to  the  systematic  study  of  the  subject 
so  far  as  his  school  course  is  concerned.  During  the  first  three  years 
of  this  course  the  work  is  mainly  to  develop  the  perceptive  faculties, 
and  he  becomes  familiar  with  geographic  forms,  earth  substances, 
form  factors,  etc.  He  may  or  may  not  be  old  enough  to  comprehend 
that  these  are  either  topographic  or  climatic  in  character.  It  is  of 
very  little  use  to  attempt  to  force  this  categorical  classification 
upon  him  unless  he  can  understand  it,  and  the  understanding  of  it 
is  a  matter,  not  of  *' brightness"  but  of  mental  development. 

During  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years  he  undertakes  the  system- 
atic study  of  geography.  During  this  period  he  gets  a  superficial 
knowledge  of  peoples  and  the  countries  in  which  they  live;  the  chief 
thing  accomplished  is  the  acquisition  of  a  vocabulary  of  geographic 
names.  From  three-fourths  to  four-fifths  of  all  the  place-names 
he  becomes  familiar  with  he  learns  at  this  time.  And  a  reason 
therefor  is  not  hard  to  find ;  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  twelve  the 
memory  faculty  is  stronger  and  more  active  than  at  any  other  time 
of  life.  A  moment's  reflection  is  sufficient  to  show  that  this  sort  of 
work  is  not  the  real  study  of  the  subject,  but  only  a  preliminary  prep- 
aration for  it.  In  its  intrinsic  value  it  is  not  equal  to  the  knowledge 
gained  in  the  first  three  years  of  field  work.  The  unfortunate  part 
of  it  is  the  fact  that  not  far  from  three-fourths  of  the  public  school 
pupils  never  pass  this  stage  of  geography  study. 

In  the  seventh   and   possibly  in  the  eighth  year  the  pupils  who 


448  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 

remain  in  school  take  the  subject  upon  a  basis  that  ought  to  be  nat- 
urally broader.  They  are  supposed  to  learn  not  only  about  countries 
and  industries,  but  they  should  also  know  that  those  same  industries 
depend  mainly  upon  either  climate  or  on  topography,  or  on  both 
climate  and  topography.  The  boy  should  know  it  not  only  in  the 
abstract,  but  in  the  concrete  as  well.  He  should  know  it  by  discovery, 
and  the  discovery  should  result'  from  the  study  and  investigation 
made  in  his  own  neighborhood.     Let  us  take  several  illustrations. 

Suppose  the  locality  is  the  prairie  region  of  Illinois:  Wheat  is 
the  staple  product.  The  wheat-farming  is  there  because  the  staple 
foodstuffs  can  be  cultivated  and  harvested  on  a  level  plain,  covered 
with  alluvial  or  diluvial  soil,  more  economically  than  in  any  other 
locality.  That  is,  topography,  a  geographic  feature,  has  controlled 
a  great  human  activity. 

Suppose  the  locality  embraces  the  corn  belt:  The  corn  does  not 
thrive  best,  we  will  assume,  south  of  the  latitude  of  Oklahoma 
because  the  days  are  not  long  enough  to  bring  about  the  high  tem- 
perature which  corn  requires.  It  does  not  thrive  in  the  latitude  of 
Minnesota  because,  in  spite  of  the  long  days,  there  are  occasional 
cold  nights  in  August  that  arrest  the  process  of  fructification;  that 
is,  a  crop  of  tremendous  importance  is  controlled  by  climatic  conditions. 

Suppose  we  consider  the  coal  regions:  In  this  case  climatic  con- 
ditions were  the  proximate  causes  of  the  growths  of  vegetation  that 
nov/  constitute  the  coal.  Geologic  and  physiographic  forces  of  a 
complex  character  resulted  in  the  topography  that  now  makes  the 
coal  available  as  a  source  of  energy.  The  old  denuded  Huronian 
ranges,  their  present  topography  resulting  from  physiographic  process, 
3deld  their  contents  of  iron  ore.  The  (Ireat  Lakes,  a  natural  basin, 
constitute  a  line  of  such  low  resistance  that  upon  their  surface  the 
ore  may  be  hauled  very  cheaply.  Because  of  all  these  conditions 
iron  ore  fit  for  making  the  best  Bessemer  steel  may  be  delivered  at 
the  smelteries  at  a  cost  varying  from  $1.75  to  $3.25  per  ton.  As  a 
result  of  these  fortuitous  conditions  this  region  has  become  a  center 
of  steel  manufacture  that  practically  fixes  the  price  of  steel  rails  for 
the  world.  So,  also,  the  cotton  region,  the  grazing  region  of  the 
plains,  the  mining  region,  and  the  humid  lowlands  of  the  Pacific 
coast  offer  excellent  illustrations.  An  inspection  of  a  good  relief  map 
of  the  country,  beginning  \rith  the  Sound  Valley  and  ending  with 
the  lower  flood  plain  of  the  Colorado  River,  is  sufficient  to  show  that 
this  is  an  area  destined  to  become  one  of  the  great  food-producing 


FIXAL  RESULTS  IX  THK  STmV  OF  <;K\>tiKAn<V 


,M0 


regions  of  the  world.  In  other  wonis,  to|H>}j:ra|>hy  }^\\\\  oliiuwfo  «<>^ 
the  chief  factors  that  control  a  certain  hunuin  aouvity  an^l  nmko 
both  economic  and  political  history. 

Let  us  consider  a  foreign  country,  the  conditions  of  \vh<v*o  polilioid 
organization  are  unique — Austria-Hungary:  The  pupil  learn?<  of  it« 
general  surface  features  and  what  may  l)e  expected  of  it?*  product vity 
so  far  as  latitude  permits.  He  also  learns  that  the  popidiUion  of  thi» 
country  consists  of  races  that  are  very  diverse  in  charmMer.  Thi» 
Czechs  hate  the  Huns  and  the  Huns  hate  tlu»  (V.echH;  they  l»olh 
unite  in  most  cordially  hating  the  (Jermans  f)f  A\istri«.  \Vhy,<hi<n. 
are  they  held  together  under  a  single  politicnl  nrgani/.iitlon?  \'u\\\ 
the  pupil  knows  this  he  is  not  armed  witli  th<»  knowledge  of  the  geogin 
phy  of  Austria-Hungary  that  he  ought  to  luive.  11»c»  chief  nxplrtii«- 
tion  of  the  political  entity  of  the  empire  is  to  he  fouiul  in  the  VMJley 
of  the  Danube  River.  On  the  Houtlieast  and  east  nrc*  ihn  grwhi  flehU 
of  Roumania  and  Bulgaria;  on  the  west  and  north weF»l,  jp  the  den^e 
population  of  the  manufacturing  centern  of  I'iurope.  The  Mannbrs 
a  line  of  least  resistance  becauHc  <»f  itn  topogriiphy,  Ip  one  of  Wit* 
great  trade  routes  of  Europe.  So  inifMirtant  i^  it  tlnit  thn  Ir-on  ^hit*^ 
the  water  gap  in  which  the  river  hn^akn  through  thf  C!arp«fh)«n 
Mountains,  is  controlled  by  an  int.<'rnuiional  conitniwion.  Now  i\i$* 
commerce  of  this  region  is  W)  exU'nmve  ihatihec#iinnMinitvof  lnt«'M*ttf 
overbalances  race  hatred.  Hence  A  nutria- 11  nnii /try  liold*  UfUf'ih^t 
because  of  commercial  iuU^UTHin  miiiiml  Ui  the  divere^*'  tft*'*^. 

In  the  case  of  Germany  we  rn«y  *w*i'  ih'*  effi'/f  of  ft  *'otnfftMrf')Hi 
product  in  relation  to  jreojo'aphi'wnvjrorirrM'rii  on  Wn'  nt^  h«^id  hwS 
to  political  hi.«tory  on  th#-  other,  Th/r  ^awSy  \Ui\Ui'  \i\h)u  h««  «  ^^f\^*t- 
raphy  that  has  re^uh^-<i  U'tUi  ^uU^rt-^Uuv  phyj^i'/jr^'^phM'  \ffin'Mmnt  Jf 
is  indifferent  land  ior  rh^  f'uhr/f%iiou  ffi  ntfUtittry  food  ^m/|/»,  >fO^  lot 
the  production  of  'i^-'iz^r  \ft^M.  %)^'  «//»)  is  m^f^rti.]^  ^-/^o^M  i-)«rf.tyhi./i. 
So  weD  tAspUrfl  i*  t^;^  Uri/J  i*ff  ih}*  ''f/p  Wtft^  tfiHtty  ^i^Ht*-  ttnU-if 
formerly  derr/Uid  Vy  otk^^  *yoi^  In  Up4^  ^fm^tt  ft^y/  ^i^ttt*  h*t*r^  )H^it  ^)  ^t-t* 
up  to  the  enkivari/yf.  //  ♦f^  « /3f;»f  f^^  /^/J^-id.  of*^-  nnifh^  hm/  yr)*h 
but  Kttle  «tt^3EftT**i//r.  V.^r  *f^  1^/,f^li$*i^/r**  //f  O^'-  *m\iit^  nt^  h^^^ 
sugar   mzwi    fes>rt^r?r..^r  **^^*       tr/ff.  ♦f^   *)i-  ft.\^f^ft4fi'tf^  '/f   ></•/•*  ^^-t^ht 

and  the  Spanaftr.-A.a-uMrV*/',  %'*^ 

we  shall  fijui  *.iia^,  xx^^^%  yA^^'^*  ''^/;»^'*.va%**''^',  ,>    Mf»/   i^j»;/^v/  f/^ 


450  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 

industries  of  a  people ;  that  is,  production,  manufacture,  and  commerce. 
Furthermore,  these  industries  in  the  main  are  very  largely  controlled 
by  the  conditions  of  geographic  environment;  that  is,  by  climate  and 
topography.  These  are  the  fundamental  propositions  in  the  study 
of  geography  and  if  the  pupil  may  have  forgotten  everything  else 
that  he  has  learned  in  his  school  course,  he  can  easily  rebuild  a  good 
working  knowledge  of  the  subject  upon  them.  Without  an  under- 
standing and  comprehension  of  these  principles  his  knowledge  of  the 
subject  is  incomplete,  imperfect,  and  fragmentary. 

There  remains  to  be  considered  the  way  in  which  the  inculcation 
of  these  fundamental  principles  can  best  be  accomplished.  To  com- 
prehend them  a  certain  maturity  of  mind  that  comes  only  with  years 
is  essential.  The  German  schoolboy  has  this  sort  of  knowledge 
because  he  has  about  four  more  years  of  work  in  the  systematic 
study  of  geography  than  the  American  pupil.  Indeed,  as  a  rule, 
his  knowledge  of  the  subject  much  surpasses  that  of  the  American 
boy  even  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  geography  of  the  United  States. 
The  American  boy  closes  his  study  of  the  subject  usually  in  the  eighth 
year.  In  many  schools,  notably  those  of  New  York,  he  quits  it  at 
the  end  of  the  seventh  year,  just  about  the  time  he  is  old  enough  to 
begin  these  fimdamental  principles.  In  many  cases,  more  especially 
in  the  elaborately  graded  schools,  the  conduct  of  the  study  is  bent 
mainly  to  the  work  of  preparing  for  the  examinations.  '^He  studies 
to  pass  and  not  to  know;  he  does  pass  and  he  does  not  know." 


RESULTS  OF  AN  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN 
GEOGRAPHY 

BY    PHILIP    EMERSON 
Principal  of  Cobbetl   School,  Lynn,  Mass. 

NO    more  important  consideration   concerning  the   teaching  of 
geography  exists   than  the  question  as  to  what  results  the 
course  in  this  study  should  secure  to  pupils.     The   content 
of  text-books  and  the  methods  chosen  by  the  teacher  are  dependent 
upon  its  decision.     It  is  fundamental  to  the  construction  of  a  coiu*se 
of  study. 

The  graduate  of  a  grammar  school  should  have  definite  knowledge 
of  the  most  important  facts  concerning  the  earth  and  its  peoples  as 
a  result  of  his  work  in  geography.     Most  boys  and  girls  may  forget 


Z9(H  RESULTS  OP  AN  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  GEOGRAPHY  45  I 

the  facts  of  mathematics  they  learned  after  the  fifth  or  sixth  grade 
and  rarely  miss  the  knowledge.  If  they  fail  to  remember  the  essen- 
tials of  geography  presented  in  upper  grades  they  are  poorly  prepared 
to  read  newspapers  and  periodical  literature  or  to  converse  confi- 
dently on  current  events.  They  should  be  equipped  with  the  knowl- 
edge requisite  to  enable  them  to  share  in  the  larger  life  and  thought 
of  their  times. 

In  years  agone,  and  in  belated  schools  of  both  city  and  country 
extremely  close  to  the  present  day,  too,  about  the  sole  result  of  the 
geography  course  was  a  summary  knowledge  of  many  brief,  unrelated 
facts  as  to  location,  products,  and  the  like.  How  many  capes  and 
capitals,  distant  bays,  and  little  rivers  pupils  pored  over  their  maps 
to  find!  Happily,  ere  long  most  were  forgottten,  because,  having 
little  life  importance,  they  were  but  lumber  in  the  mind.  In  some 
school  systems  reaction  from  such  teaching  has  resulted  in  a  general 
failure  to  learn  the  locations  of  places  having  prime  importance. 

We  may  agree  that  a  graduate  should  know  the  location  of  the 
countries  of  the  world,  perhaps  a  hundred  of  its  important  cities 
definitely  and  in  similar  manner  the  larger  physical  features  and 
those  of  great  influence  on  life,  not  forgetting  really  leading  produc- 
tions. Much  more  will  be  known  in  a  rather  general  way,  for  instance 
that  SheflSeld  is  somewhere  in  the  industrial  district  of  England. 
The  class  of  facts  first  mentioned  should  be  so  known  that  the  pupil 
will  habitually  picture  in  his  mind  any  continent  and  locate  country, 
city,  or  river  upon  it  so  as  to  consider  it  in  its  true  geographical  rela- 
tions. The  ability  to  draw  a  good  sketch  map  rapidly  is  proof  of  the 
mental  picture  and  its  degree  of  accuracy.  There  should  be  built 
up  in  a  pupil's  mind  broad  general  outlines  of  the  continents  and 
their  life,  accurate  so  far  as  they  go,  but  with  no  attempt  to  elaborate 
details.  This  latter  aim  would  prevent  accomplishing  the  main 
purpose. 

But  what  cities  and  mountain  ranges  should  be  well  known?  some 
teachers  ask.  Why,  those  that  the  teachers  themselves  have  found 
referred  to  again  and  again  in  papers,  magazines,  and  books — by  trav- 
elers, historians,  and  the  commercial  world.  Geography  studies  the 
relations  of  man  to  his  environment,  and  facts  are  important  accord- 
ing to  the  closeness  of  their  relation  to  man's  life.  There  is  no  need 
that  some  authority  should  make  a  list  of  the  places  of  first  importance. 
Were  a  hundred  people  to  make  lists  of  the  hundred  cities  of  the 
world  that  a  pupil   should   be   able   to   locate   closely,    they  would 


4^2  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 

certainly  agree  in  their  choice  of  the  majority.  Most  text-books 
emphasize  rightly  the  facts  of  prime  importance. 

Geography  secures  to  the  pupil  more  than  knowledge  of  mere 
facts;  it  gives  knowledge  of  the  relations,  the  causal  connections, 
between  facts  concerning  man  and  those  as  to  his  natural  environ- 
ment. A  pupil  should  not  only  have  knowledge  of  successive  instances 
of  relations  between  man's  life  and  the  earth ;  such  knowledge  should 
be  organized  into  the  more  fundamental  general  truths  of  geographic 
relations.  In  this  direction  results  are  as  yet  unsatisfactory.  The 
textrbooks  state  few  general  principles  clearly;  geography  in  its 
higher  reaches  has  not  been  fully  developed  as  a  science.  Naturally 
the  pupil  has  only  indefinite  conceptions  of  the  fundamental  laws 
illustrated  by  the  specific  cases  he  has  learned. 

The  relations  of  man  to  the  earth  have  been  slowly  established 
through  the  changing  reactions  of  history.  These  relations  are  often 
intricate  and  hard  to  comprehend.  Even  the  simpler  truths  of 
geographic  relations  that  are  taught  can  be  better  understood,  per- 
haps alone  understood,  when  relations  are  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  their  development.  One  result  of  an  elementary  course  in 
geography  should  be  some  knowledge  of  geographic  facts  and  relations 
of  past  time — history  if  you  \vill,  yet  not  history  in  its  central  purpose. 
The  pupil  will  know  the  world  not  merely  as  the  sum  of  present 
facts  and  relations,  but  as  having  developed  from  a  different  past 
toward  a  more  perfect  future.  These  larger  general  truths  of  the 
evolution  of  the  relations  of  the  different  peoples  to  their  home  lands 
are  of  at  least  as  much  importance  as  the  actual  facts  taught  con- 
cerning present  geography.  When  the  child  has  become  a  man  or 
woman  of  middle  life,  the  facts  he  learned  at  school  will  have  become 
in  considerable  part  untrue;  capitals  and  boundaries  change,  new 
centers  of  life  develop,  areas  of  production  and  routes  of  distribution 
wonderfully  change.  Principles  of  geographic  evolution  true  for 
past  development  control  present  changes,  and  knowledge  of  such 
general  truths  of  the  science,  geography,  constitutes  a  guide  to  the 
understanding  of  current  events  of  the  world  and  one's  home  com- 
munity that  should  be  furnished  in  some  measure  to  every  graduate 
of   our  schools. 

It  is  even  more  important  that  graduates  should  know  how  to 
study  for  themselves  than  that  they  know  certain  life  facts  and  general 
truths  as  to  their  earth  relations.  Geography  provides  the  earliest 
and  best  opportunity  of  the  elementary  school  to  train  children  to 


i'«»fr"mf     "LlsSLii  ila**if       :i     >^  iTii.      >4.V'«vm.n      *.       ..■..\  ^^,-.  *.\ 

riT   T-  .rfT   ■±li^  i^   ITA.V^.'^'.v-    >>>,:    .. -vVNs  ?    >%"    VS  ■!:■■.'■■  ,\       *    .^-.^.SiV     -.       \n   v 

pan  .>:  even-  yosr.  m^w  to|\\oH  \v\  s»>>,  hn^*^*  •U>^»0\^  \\>  n*^^\" '^^\^^^^  \  \ 
class  study,  or  liisoussiou,  ol  \unj^>  p^^  n»^>  -  .\\\A  >m\\n\  a,m\\\\  'S 
knowledge,  under  the  tertrher*^  nrn\»\  »ih**l»uu>  ,^  \\\\  \\^'\\^  |'\^*\\^'l 
and  pupils  pereeive  its  Npirii  nhd  nu  Hh*^!*  \\\y  \  \\s\\\\A  |^  ..\  \u\\vl 
subjects  for  indepeiuliMH  nHhh,  ohd  \\  "\  \\)\\a\\\'\\  \\\^\  |"||">^ 
^-ithout  preliminary  leiH'liiiip  rHhhliMl..  m.n  \U\\  \\\  holm 'M"  |*||..^» 
how  to  study  the  pictiirr^,  iiui)i^,  tiihl  ii  ^1  h|  |i>ih|«  •  w  \\\  w  \\\\  )  « \\\^  \ 
the  secondary  school  or  Inivi'  m  ln»i»l  hit  hh    ^m»iI» 

Geography  ufTordn  u  hi  I'f/r  II  h'l   nifdiiii'l   m)i)mi|  imhm  v    ).  )    ||,i))i)|i). 
children  to  um;  tiicir  t-yt-i-  uml  mOih   • »  h'n>   \n    lirii/rliliMl     |i|>h    •! 
objects.     Field  Ieh>r<;ij.-  ^}|'/^iJd  l/i   ii/iH)nj|*ij  ih/M'i/Ji  i|m   j,//i|«      m/'HI 
pupils  will  naturally  '^ij<v-noii  l^^/w  i|m   innhttn  hh    '-^  *')».v  /"     /.    )/• 
sented  c>ODjnjujiity  ij-  i<;J«U;*j  »>y  lU-  *  i»vi^i,iJi/i>  j>i^  /  .m-  j^  i)n  .  •/"/»'  »  .. 
certaiiJy  qu<:?^■1ivTJ  Kvw  u*iy   u<w  ili.ijMi     ,,.i      ;(.'.•)•  !••)    i.,     hmI'm 
foroe§-     Ijb.^/'.inx v^i y    < v.*^* <'i.v<  i-     rv» 1 1 .     „!...!,     .  i . . .  .  . .     , .<  . I     .  i  j i I j '  J i  ^ 

HIThJXiS^fid    M^l'^    'jl    ^J/<.-<'li*4Mi.-     «i1     Ii.  „      II  ,.  i>i  J  I..1.     .,,.1     t  i..    1  <  <l    j.;i.ili|il. 
ffUOld  ih^    leiuliOiif    u""    •^♦i.i.-   I .•>  I.'     /,'■'''       '    ■•      '■•"'■i' 

st'UCiy   ill    ut'y**i*t\ni,^'    'i,*    i-{ii,«.»(  o  .     \,'..*i    ■-    •/■'«■     ■'■    ^i-J  »ii. 

Wudenl^-      *fllli**ilif       'lit        :..^':        ..<■:,/'*        .  '   w   I.*       ,  I   '    ..       ■■■     •/'■    '*,' 

It'  rtiutty  tiii  f?a*'lj    iiii'    'ftji.i  ...     .-/'^t    J 


moJ-*     tJiiJJ     1;  J 

'  :»* 

f.,, 

iic<('iinu*»;    '. 

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r^U'.»i    1'    fii?.' 

.  .  , 

■      ;- 

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.,<; "  »  / 

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JL-riiwr  iij;     a<i 

^* 

if«--itu-.«^l./           ,:^^. 

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.-. 

til*    !'  =  ■  :/*.      *j*-  V 

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Ji>./i  ^  '> 

, 

454  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 

earnest  and  broad  patriotism,  intelligent  devotion  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  economic  and  social  possibilities  of  the  home  community, 
comprehension  of  the  resources  and  relations  of  the  nation  that  shall 
complete  the  work  of  history  in  securing  wdse  citizenship,  apprecia- 
tion of  fellow  lands  and  peoples  that  shall  make  patriotism  broad 
enough  to  know  the  rights  of  other  nations  and  the  duty  of  our  people 
toward  other  races. 

In  summary:  the  knowledge  gained  during  an  elementary  course 
in  geography  should  be  so  limited  and  systematized  as  to  be  definite 
and  permanent;  it  should  be  so  gained  as  to  open  attractively  a 
limitless  field  of  knowledge  and  to  inspire  an  earnest  and  practical 
effort  to  relate  one's  own  life  to  its  environment. 


FOUNDATIONAL  EXPERIENCES 

BY   ARTHUR    P.    IRVING 
Buckingham  School,  Springfield,  Mobs. 

AT  the  opening  of  the  last  school  year  all  of  our  classes  took  up 
£^^  geography  work  and  we  determined  if  possible  to  lift  the  study 
above   the  merely  word  work  so  often  found.     To  make  the 
study  more  real  to  the  pupils  was  our  aim. 

The  first  step  was  to  find  out  what  the  children  offered  us  to  build 
upon,  not  in  the  way  of  previous  book  knowledge  but  in  actual  obser- 
vation and  experiences.  We  also  noted  that  ideas  of  the  oceans, 
lakes,  rivers,  and  mountains  predominate  in  geography.  Therefore 
we  set  out  to  learn  just  what  the  children  knew  at  first  hand  of  these 
fundamental  features  by  having  them  write  answers  to  the  following 
questions.  Some  of  these  questions  are  necessarily  local,  covering 
prominent  features  of  this  section: 
Ocean — 

1.  Have  you  been  on  the  shore  of  the  ocean? 

2.  Have  you  tasted  of  the  water  of  the  ocean? 

3.  Have  you  waded  into  the  water  of  the  ocean? 

4.  Have  you  seen  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide? 

5.  Have  you  sailed  on  the  ocean? 
Lake — 

6.  Have  you  seen  a  lake? 

7.  Name  the  largest  lake  you  have  seen. 

8.  What  is  the  taste  of  lake  water? 


1904 


FOUNDATIONAL  EXPERIENCES 


455 


River — 

9.     What  large  river  besides  the  Connecticut  have  you  seen? 

10.  Have  you  seen  falls  in  a  large  stream? 

11.  Where  are  these  falls  you  saw? 
Mountain — 

12.  Have  you  been  on  Mount  Tom? 

13.  Have   you   seen    a   greater    mountain    than    Mount    Tom  ? 

Name  it. 

14.  Have  you  ever  lived  outside   of    the    Connecticut   Valley  ? 

If  so,  where? 
The  answers  of  the  children  are  tabulated  by  grades  and  rooms. 
In  the  following  chart  the  total  number  of  each  grade  is  given  except 
for  the  seventh  grade,  which  for  our  study  is  given  in  detail.  Many 
of  the  questions  could  be  answered  by  yes  or  no.  The  upper  number 
of  the  fractional  form  in  the  chart  signifies  yes  and  the  lower  number 
no.     The  results  of  some  of  the  questions  do  not  appear  on  the  chart. 

Foundation  Experiences  in  Geography 


1 
1 

IK'KAJ! 

LAKK 

1 
1 

t 

1 

RfVKU 

MOUN- 
TAIN 

1 

1 

1 
1 

{- 

s 

1 

iJi 

1 

J 

1 

1 

1 

** 

1 

m 

i 

1 
1 

1 

s 

1 

i 

0 

S 

i 

3 

VI 

4 
5 

H 

f!lH 

n  !i 

n  u 

8 
0 

1  s 

5 
5 

15 

jis 

22 

16 
10 
15 
5 

46 

IS 

4 
9 

1 
4 

18 

H 
H 

*f 

« 

H'H 

VI] 

3 
2 
1 
7 

H 
H 
H 
V 

H 

n 

H 

H 
iV 
H 
H 

H 
H 
H 

H 

Total 

H 

U 

H 

H  H 

'w\fh 

H 

VIII 

8,9, 
10 

12 

H\H 

a 

« 

18 

16 

1 

« 

IX 

H  H 

¥ 

H 

7 

U 

^ 

Upper  number  of  frnrtion  In  nnmber  of  piipiln  aneweririK  Vt'S, 
Lower  nmnb^  of  fraction  w  number  of  papib  antiwering  No. 


456  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 

While  considering  these  answers  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  Spring- 
field is  about  a  hundred  miles  from  the  ocean;  that  no  lake  of  any 
size  is  very  near  us,  the  nearest  ponds  even  being  so  situated  that 
many  of  the  children  do  not  see  them;  that  Mount  Tom  (1,218  feet) 
is  ten  miles  away,  easily  reached  by  electric  cars  and  clearly  seen 
from  most  parts  of  the  city;  and  that  the  Connecticut  River  is  at 
our  door,  although  not  much  of  a  factor  in  the  business  of  the  city, 
as  in  Hartford  and  Holyoke.  Again,  these  children  are  all  in  the 
upper  grades  and  from  pretty  well-to-do  families. 

In  grade  VI  over  half  of  the  pupils  have  no  first-hand  knowledge 
of  the  ocean  and  eighteen  have  none  of  lakes  either.  About  half 
have  not  seen  falls  of  any  size  and  a  large  number  have  not  been 
much  above  the  common  level  of  the  land  hereabouts. 

I^t  any  teacher  think  over  her  geography  outline  and  consider 
such  facts  of  the  mental  condition  of  her  pupils  and  she  must  sit  down 
in  blank  discouragement  or  spring  up  with  a  grim  determination  to 
overcome  these  difficulties  so  far  as  possible  by  good  teaching.  One 
of  our  teachers  expressed  it  when  she  said  she  realized  for  the  first 
time  how  dim  were  the  visions  which  the  children  had  from  her  teach- 
ing, for  she  had  taken  too  much  for  granted. 

A  little  better  condition  is  shown  in  grades  VII,  VIII,  and  IX,  but 
in  every  grade  and  room  the  per  cent  of  those  lacking  fundamental 
concepts  is  large,  very  large,  and  must  be  reckoned  with  in  class  pre- 
sentation. 

In  grade  VII  are  given  the  statistics  of  each  room  to  show  that  the 
deficiencies  are  everywhere  present  and  not  confined  to  the  highest 
or  lowest  divisions  of  a  grade. 

The  statistics  of  this  school  as  such  are  of  little  use  to  teachers 
of  other  schools.  They  merely  suggest  that  every  teacher  must  know 
her  own  class  and  present  to  her  a  simple  way  of  getting  such  knowl- 
edge. It  would  be  interesting  and  helpful  to  have  such  a  study  of 
the  whole  city,  yet  after  all  each  teacher  is  concerned  chiefly  with  her 
own  class.  By  the  conditions  herein  presented  the  teacher  is  chal- 
lenged to  do  good  work.  The  first  step  is  to  know  the  conditions; 
the  next  is  to  govern  ourselves  accordingly.  That  the  teachers  of 
this  school  have  overcome  these  difficulties  would  be  far  too  much 
to  say.  But  different  and  more  thoughtful  teaching  has  been  going 
on.  We  are  right  in  the  stage  where  we  would  like  to  have  some 
show  us  how  to  do  more.  The  way,  however,  is  not  all  so  dark  as  one 
might  think.     We  can  make  use  of  well  known  devices,  well  selected 


X904  FOUNDATIONAL  EXPERIENCES  457 

pictures,  and  good  word  pictures  from  any  source.  Talks  by  chil- 
dren who  may  have  seen  different  places  are  of  great  interest  to 
the  others.  For  illustration,  in  room  7  we  found  a  number  of  pupils 
who  had  seen  lakes  ranging  from  Forest  Lake,  Whalom,  Quinsigamond 
to  lakes  Champlain,  Erie,  Michigan,  and  Great  Salt  Lake.  And  for 
rivers  we  got  experiences  from  the  Chicopee  and  Westfield  to  the 
Nashua,  Charles,  Penobscot,  and  Mississippi.  Several  had  seen 
Niagara  Falls.  Seventeen  had  lived  outside  of  the  Connecticut 
Valley,  as  in  New  Hampshire,  Montreal,  Providence,  Long  Island, 
Buffalo,  and  in  England.  For  mountains  we  ranged  from  Wachusett 
and  Greylock  to  Mount  Washington  and  the  Catskills. 

I  am  fully  aware  that  our  course  of  study  calls  for  North  and 
South  America  in  grade  VI  and  for  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  in  grade 
VII,  etc.  But  how  can  children  ever  know  and  visualize  anything 
of  these  remote  places  until  they  know  what  is  about  home?  Those 
children  whom  Doctor  Hall  mentions  who  thought  of  berg  as  a 
place  of  amusement,  from  Pefferberg,  the  name  of  a  saloon  in  their 
neighborhood  in  the  city  of  Berlin,  were  better  off  in  the  use  of  a 
geographical  term  than  some  of  our  upper  grade  children.  They 
had  at  least  a  concrete  idea  under  the  word.  We  hope  also  to  see  the 
time  when  we  can  ask  the  pupils  of  the  ninth  grade  to  point  out  a 
plain  or  plateau  without  having  them  charge  up  and  down  a  streaked 
map  of  remote  Asia  or  Africa  while  all  the  time  our  own  city  is  largely 
situated  on  such  a  form. 

So  at  last  we  drop  into  a  plea  for  and  a  trial  of  a  broader  study 
of  local  and  neighboring  conditions.  Not  that  local  geography  is 
meant  which  confines  itself  to  the  fourth  grade  and  then  forgets 
that  the  pupils  ever  had  a  local  habitation.  We  might  as  well  study 
phonics  in  grade  II  and  then  never  require  it  again. 

A  distant  and  foreign  land  must  be  interpreted  in  the  thought 
and  terms  of  the  home  country.  Understand  the  Connecticut  River 
and  you  understand  all  rivers.  This  thought  applied  in  every  grade 
must  help  overcome  some  of  the  difficulties. 


458  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  December 

WHAT  SHOULD  GRADUATES  FROM  ELEMEN- 

TARY  SCHOOLS  KNOW  ABOUT 

GEOGRAPHY 

BY   ISAAC    O.    WINSLOW 
Principal  of  Thayer  Street  School^  Providence,  R.  I. 

THE  determination  of  the  course  in  geography  for  elementary 
schools  is  a  process  of  selection  and  elimination.  In  the  rapid 
development  of  the  subject  in  recent  years  a  great  amount  of 
the  **new  geography '^  has  been  added,  while  but  little  of  the  old 
has  been  abandoned.  The  result  is  that  we  have  an  impossible 
amount  of  subject-matter  included  in  the  course  and  in  the  text- 
books, and  the  attempt  to  accomplish  the  whole  leads  to  confusion. 
The  necessity  of  selecting  imposes  an  unnecepsary  burden  upon  the 
ordinary  teacher  and  requires  greater  ability  than  she  possesses. 
The  few  artist  teachers  are  able  to  shape  their  own  work,  but  while 
we  are  theorizing  about  the  few  we  are  neglecting  the  many. 

Of  all  the  work  that  might  be  regarded  as  belonging  in  the  geograph- 
ical sphere  of  education,  to  determine  what  parts  are  of  greatest  worth 
to  the  average  child  as  a  preparation  for  life  is  the  task  that  lies 
before  us.  There  ought  to  be  a  more  general  agreement  with  regard 
to  the  several  divisions  of  geography — astronomical,  mathematical, 
physical,  historical,  political,  descriptive,  and  economic — upon  the 
question  what  there  is  in  each  division  that  for  its  practical  utility, 
or  its  value  in  culture,  the  average  child  should  be  expected  to  know 
at  the  time  of  leaving  the  elementary  schools. 

With  regard  to  astronomical  and  mathematical  conceptions,  too 
much  is  generally  expected  of  young  children  and  but  little  is  accom- 
plished. By  the  simplest  forms  of  illustration,  wdth  the  globe  and 
a  diagram,  and  by  observations  of  the  sun,  the  most  elementary 
'  notions  of  the  motions  of  the  earth  and  its  relative  positions  should 
be  thoroughly  established  in  the  mind  of  the  child  as  a  permanent 
possession.  Upon  this  basis  he  should  be  able  to  understand  the 
causes  of  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  the  alternation  of  day  and  night, 
and  the  variation  in  the  length  of  the  days.  A  little  practice  in 
thinking  where  the  sun  would  appear  to  be  in  the  heavens,  at  noon, 
to  one  situated  at  the  equator,  at  the  tropical  circles,  at  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  in  various  countries  of  the  world,  at  different  seasons  of 


I904  WHAT  SHOULD  GRADUATES  KNOW  ABOUT  GEOGRAPHY  459 

the  year,  will  serve  to  effect  a  transition  from  the  artificial  illustra- 
tions to  an  imagination  of  the  realities. 

There  is  great  clanger  of  attempting  too  much  in  physical  geogra- 
phy and  of  teaching  it  at  the  wrong  time.  Pupils  of  the  high  school 
grade  may  find  interest  in  this  part  of  the  subject,  when  pursued  for 
its  own  sake  and  with  extended  applications  in  detail,  but  for  ele- 
mentary pupils  this  is  wearisome  and  unprofitable.  It  is  not  difficult, 
however,  to  awaken  an  interest  in  scientific  principles  and  facts 
which  can  be  easily  understood  and  which  have  an  evident  relation 
to  human  welfare.  A  good  understanding  of  such  elementary  prin-^-^ 
ciples  is  necessary  as  a  general  basis  for  causal  explanations.  In 
setting  forth  these  principles  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  all  the  causes 
that  produce  a  given  effect.  A  clear  idea  of  one  cause  is  better  than  a 
confused  notion  of  several,  and  satisfies  the  demand  for  explanation. 

We  should  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  cause  of  the  movement  of  the  *^ 
air,  in  general,  and  of  some  particular  applications,  such  as  sea  breezes 
and  land  breezes.     The  latter  part  of  the  course  should  include  an 
explanation  of  the  prevailing  winds  of  the  earth  and  their  changes 
with  the  seasons. 

With  regard  to  temperature,  two  points  are  important,  the  differ- 
ence due  to  elevation,  and  the  difference  between  inland  regions  and 
those  near  large  bodies  of  water.  An  explanation  of  the  curves  in 
isothermal  lines,  at  various  seasons,  furnishes  good  practice  in  the 
application  of  these  principles. 

The  child  should  be  able  to  give,  first,  the  general  causes  of  the  ^ 
appearance  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  fog,  mist, 
clouds,  and  rain,  and  secondly,  the  most  common  of  the  particular 
causes,  as  when  a  body  of  air  rises,  or  passes  over  mountains,  and 
when  the  trade  wind  meets  the  land.  These  points  should  be  so 
thoroughly  understood  that  an  application  may  be  readily  made 
under  any  specified  conditions. 

A  causal  explanation  of  the  physical  features  of  the  earth  requires  ^^ 
a  brief  account  of  geological  history,  including  the  formation  of  the 
earth's  crust  by  cooling,  the  principal  agencies  of  erosion,  the  forma- 
tion of  new  strata,  the  effects  of  upheaval  and  depression,  volcanic 
action,  the  effects  of  rivers  in  wearing  down  their  beds,  transporting 
detritus,  and  forming  flood  plains  and  deltas,  the  work  of  waves  on 
the  coast,  and  the  principal  effects  of  the  Ice  Sheet.  It  is  impossible 
to  avoid  an  elementary  consideration  of  these  principles  without 
abandoning  the  attempt  to  give  explanation  and  reverting  to  a  static 


460  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 

treatment  of  geography,  or  mere  description.  On  the  other. hand 
it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  the  temptation  to  enter  into  details 
too  minutely.  Brief  and  simple  explanations,  if  clear  and  correct 
as  far  as  they  go,  are  not  open  to  the  charge  of  superficiality. 

The  aspect  of  supreme  importance,  to  which  mathematical  and 

physical  considerations  are  subordinate  and  in  which  the  highest 

^  interest  of  children  centers,  is  the  treatment  of  the  people  of  the 

earth,  of  the  geographical  reasons  for  their  activities,  and  of  the 

causes  and  results  of  their  abode  in  the  various  regions. 

As  an  introduction  to  the  life  of  the  people  of  a  country  and  as  a 
/means  of  awakening  interest  in  them,  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  give 
a  brief  account  of  their  origin  and  of  the  development  of  their  leading 
characteristics.  A  brief  statement  of  the  great  national  facts  in  the 
history  of  the  Swiss  people,  for  example,  an  account  of  their  patriotism 
and  their  struggle  for  liberty  and  independence,  arouses  an  interest 
in  their  present  conditions  as  nothing  else  can. 

The  culmination  of  both  interest  and  value  is  in  the  customs  and 
occupations  of  the  people,  especially  as  resulting  from  natural  condi- 
tions. Children  are  eager  to  learn  what  manner  of  life  the  people  of 
a  country  are  leading,  what  they  are  doing  and  why  they  are  doing  it. 
A  strict  regard  for  the  limits  of  the  field  would  confine  us  to  such 
activities  of  the  people  as  are  geographically  determined,  but  it  is 
unnecessary  to  bo  greatly  troubled  upon  that  point.  The  objection 
to  passing  beyond  the  boundary  lines  has  a  stronger  basis  in  the 
question  of  economy  of  time,  than  in  that  of  sinning  against 
principles.  The  teacher  himself  should  have  so  clear  a  view  as  to 
know  the  boundaries  of  the  field,  but  should  not  hesitate,  at  times, 
to  pass  beyond  them.  The  production  of  wheat  in  the  Dakotas  and 
Minnesota  is  a  fact  geograpliically  determined.  Routes  of  trans- 
portation of  the  wheat,  if  affected  by  geographical  conditions,  are 
also  legitimate.  The  water  power  at  Minneapolis  may  furnish  an 
excuse  for  mentioning  the  bare  fact  that  wheat  is  there  converted  into 
flour.  Precise  geographers  of  a  certain  type  are  ready  to  cry  out 
against  anything  further,  and  yet  the  practical  teacher  who  fails  to 
weave  in  details  by  briefly  describing  the  methods  of  handling  the 
wheat  and  the  process  of  manufacturing  flour,  misses  an  easy  oppor- 
tunity to  clothe  the  subject  with  life  and  to  strengthen  the  memory 
by  vividness. 

The  commercial  phases  of  geography  belong  preeminently  in  the 
elementary   course.     To   account  for   the   leading  productions  of  a 


X904  WHAT  SHOULD  GRADUATES  KNOW  ABOUT  GEOGRAPHY  46  I 

country  without  explaining  what  becomes  of  them  is  to  leave  the 
thought  in  suspense.  A  study  of  the  system  of  exchanges  of  the  great  ^ 
staple  products  among  the  various  countries  is  as  easy  and  interesting 
as  the  spontaneous  play  of  childhood.  Thorough  practice  in  thinking 
out  the  leading  commercial  routes  and  the  products  transported  over 
them  serves  as  the  best  kind  of  final  review  and  fixes  in  mind  a 
most  concise  knowledge  of  world  relations.  Recently  there  has  been 
a  tendency  to  enlarge  upon  physical  geography  in  the  elementary 
schools  while,  on  the  other  hand,  commercial  geography  has  generally 
been  regarded  as  a  high-school  subject.  There  are  good  reasons  for 
reversing  this.  The  graduate  from  the  elementary  schools  should 
be  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  practical  world  of  the  present  day 
to  have  in  mind  a  fairly  complete  scheme  of  commercial  relations 
and  exchanges.  On  the  other  hand,  with  a  good  understanding  of 
the  simplest  elements  of  physical  geography  he  can  afford  to  postpone 
an  elaborate  treatment  of  that  subject. 

Such  an  industrial  and  commercial  view  of  the  world  will  serve 
to  emphasize  the  most  important  part  of  *^  sailor  geography."  Mere 
convenience  requires  one  to  be  familiar  with  minor  localities  in  the 
vicinity  of  his  home  and  within  the  circuit  of  his  practical  life,  but 
aside  from  this  the  indiscriminate  cramming  of  names  and  locations 
is  worse  than  useless. 

Since  the  capital  cities  are  not  always  the  largest  cities  of  countries 
and  states,  there  is  neither  practical  nor  disciplinary  value  in  the 
ability  to  recite  them.  The  memory  should  not  be  burdened  with  ^ 
the  names  of  more  cities  than  are  often  mentioned  in  the  newspapers 
or  in  books  commonly  read.  Every  city  of  this  class  should  be  asso- 
ciated, in  the  child's  mind,  with  some  special  industry  or  attraction 
for  which  it  is  noted. 

Great  exactness  should  not  be  required  in  the  matter  of  locations  ^ 
or  boundaries,  except  in  the  case  of  the  home  state  or  country.  The 
ability  to  name,  in  order,  the  succession  of  states  along  the  border  of 
the  country  or  along  a  river,  or  those  through  which  one  would  pass 
in  traveling  from  a  given  point  in  a  given  direction,  embraces  all  that 
is  of  much  value  in  this  kind  of  knowledge.  If  children  can  give  the  ^ 
countries  and  the  parts  of  the  countries  in  which  the  important  moun- 
tain ranges  and  rivers  are  situated,  there  is  little  additional  advantage 
in  more  exact  details.  The  knowledge  of  capes,  gulfs,  and  bays  and 
other  forms  on  the  coast  should  be  confined  to  those  whose  names 
are  of  frequent  occurrence.     The  most  effectual  means  of  fixing  locations 


462  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


December 


in  the  memory  is  practice  in   filling  outline  maps,  or  making  maps 
quickly  from  memory. 

The  suggestions  herein  set  forth  may  seem  to  propose  a  course 
unnecessarily  brief  and  simple,  but  they  will  be  appreciated  by  those 
who  have  had  experience  in  ascertaining  how  little  of  all  the  geography 
that  is  studied  in  school  is  retained  in  after  life.  It  is  true  of  many 
subjects  of  study  that  much  is  gained  from  what  has  been  once  learned 
and  for  the  time  forgotten,  but  in  geography  facts  forgotten  are 
nearly  a  total  loss.  In  this  department  it  is  best  to  strive  to  know 
the  few  things  well. 


COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE  OF  CON- 
TINENTS* 

BY    GEO.    D.    HUBBARD 
Cornell  University 

AFRICA  has  been  styled  by  a  leading  traveler,  *'The  Coming 
^  Continent. ''  In  what  sense  may  it  be  thus  named?  Perhaps 
because  of  its  rapid  development;  perhaps  because  many 
European  nations  rushed  precipitously,  less  than  two  decades  ago, 
to  possess  themselves  of  a  portion.  Certainly  not  as  a  place  into 
which  the  peoples  of  temperate  climes  may  overflow,  since  most  of 
the  great  continent  is  climatically  unfitted  to  be  their  home.  Cer- 
tainly not  for  its  people,  because  its  unnumbered  millions  belong  to 
low,  savage,  restless,  workless,  or  nomadic,  marauding  types.  And 
certainly  not  on  account  of  its  mineral  wealth,  although  the  output 
of  gold  and  diamonds  is  something  prodigious,  because  these  minerals 
never  have  been  the  basis  of  the  permanent  development  of  any 
country,  nor  indeed  can  be.  The  nations  whose  greatness  is  due  to 
mineral  industries  base  them  on  coal  and  iron.  Certainly  not  as  a 
market  for  manufactured  articles  because  most  of  the  natives,  who 
constitute  a  large  percentage  of  the  130,000,000t  souls,  make  all 
the  clothing  and  tools  for  which  they  have  use.     Wherein,  then,  lies 

♦Note. — After  the  continents  have  all  been  studied  it  is  well  to  sum  up  the  work 
in  various  ways,  and  to  introduce  comparisons  and  contrasts  between  them  as  to 
size,  population,  position,  and  other  characteristics.  The  theme  of  the  accompany- 
ing paper  may  be  suggestive  along  this  line.  The  countries  of  a  continent  or  states 
of  a  nation  may  serve  as  a  basis  for  a  similar  study. 

t  A  mean  of  the  estimates  for  Africa's  population. 


COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE  OF  CONTINENTS  463 


the  importance  of  this  massive,  dark  continent?  It  really  has  great 
possibilities.  Can  we  not  find  them  in  the  relation  to  the  other 
continents,  which  it  is  destined  to  bear  in  the  business  world?  This 
discussion  is  opened  in  order  to  set  forth  the  geographic  conditions 
upon  which  is  based  the  economic  interdependence  of  continents  and 
of  zones. 

The  loudest  cry  of  all  the  leading  life  centers,  agricultural  as  well 
as  manufactural,  has  come  to  be,  ^*A  market  for  our  products  or  we 
pertsh."  With  this  in  view,  let  us  look  at  the  field.  The  market 
hunter  seeks  primarily  for  people.  This  is  the  first  element  in  a  mar- 
ket, for  wherever  the  density  of  population  is  high,  there  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  various  commodities  are  used.  It  is  because  some 
writers  have  gone  no  farther  than  this  that  an  error  has  been  made. 

A  second  element  includes  the  needs  of  the  people  unmet  by  home 
productions.  Regions  differ  immensely  in  this  factor.  Climate, 
occupation,  and  customs  established  by  constant  or  repeated  contact 
with  elements  of  the  environment  help  to  determine  the  needs.  For 
example,  a  resident  of  central  western  Europe  must  have  cotton, 
woolen,  and  silken  clothing,  gold  rings,  feathers,  books,  elegant 
carriages,  and  tempting  viands  with  beautiful  pottery  upon  which 
to  serve  his  menu.  The  central  African  native  uses  but  little  cot- 
ton, no  wool  or  silk;  ornaments  of  iron,  bone,  or  even  wood,  make 
very  good  substitutes  for  the  costly  golden  treasures.  A  chicken^s 
feathers  equal  those  of  an  ostrich.  And  as  for  ''tempting  viands" 
and  the  associated  chinaware — native,  uncultivated  fruits  and  vege- 
tables eaten  uncooked  from  the  hand  are  all  that  could  be  desired. 
For  books  he  knows  no  use,  and  when  he  takes  his  outing  he  walks. 
Since  what  little  work  he  does  is  hand  work,  machinery  is  not  in 
the  list  of  his  needs.  Therefore^  the  wants  among  these  people  are 
extremely  few. 

The  third  element  consists  of  the  present  products  of  the  region. 
Notice  the  last  two  regions  mentioned.  The  European  can  make 
all  his  clothing  and  to  spare,  if  he  only  has  the  raw  materials.  He 
grows  the  wool-bearing  sheep  and  tends  the  tiny  silk  spinner,  but 
his  climate  forbids  the  growing  of  cotton,  hence  he  must  buy  that. 
His  feathers  and  furs  must  be  imported.  The  gold  he  can  dig  in 
many  places,  but  in  insufficient  quantities;  so  that,  too,  must  come 
to  him.  He  has  learned  to  collect  the  raw  materials  of  his  food 
from  all  the  corners  of  the  earth,  and  in  them  he  has  built  up  a  great 
commerce.  The  clays  and  sands  of  his  own  hills  and  valleys  and 
2 


464 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


December 


the  coal  of  his  mines  enable  him  to  make  his  own  chinaware  and 
ornaments.  The  wants  unmet  by  the  home  products  or  by  goods 
made  from  the  latter  are  practically  all  raw  materials.  Hence  we 
say  France  and  Germany  are  manufacturing  nations.  But  the 
African  finds  a  strip  of  homemade  grass  cloth  sufficient  for  all  his 
clothing.  The  feathers  in  his  hair  or  hanging  from  his  girdle  are 
from  native  wild  birds  or  from  his  own  poultry  y^rd.  His  orna- 
ments have  always  been  homemade  from  native  products  until 
Europeans  taught  him  different.  Now  he  wants  strips  of  calico, 
green  or  red  cotton  parasols,  and  all  sorts  of  gewgaws  from  abroad. 
These  flummeries  constitute  his  great  unmet  wants.  In  almost  all 
other  respects  the  products  of  his  land  are  sufficient. 

With  these  principles  in  mind,  turn  to  the  several  continents  and 
see  what  part  to  expect  them  to  play  in  the  world's  great  commercial 
system,  for  by  virtue  of  commerce  and  commercial  centers  all  other 
life  centers  are  united  and  vivified.  In  the  following  table  the  items 
are  brought  together  for  comparison: 


Continents,  Etc. 

Density 

OF  Pop.  per 

Sg.  Mile 

Needs  or  Wants 

Beside  Those  Met 

AT  Home 

Surplus  Products 

i 
Europe |           97 

Many ;  highly  specialized ; 
foods,  and  raw  mate- 
rials for  factories. 

Many  classes  of  manu- 
factures. 

Asia    

48 

Many;    less    specialized; 
all  sorts  of   manufac- 
tures   and     machines, 
some  food. 

Many  raw  materials;  sjx?- 
cial  food  stuffs,  a  few 
types  of  manufactures. 

Pacific  Isles 42 

Oniaments,    civilization, 
development  and  asso- 
ciated machinery  and 
equipment. 

Oniaments,    civilization, 
development  and  asso- 
ciated machinery-  and 
equipment. 

Mineral  and  agricultural 
raw  materials. 

Africa    

15 

Raw   materials. 

North  America    . 

12 

Many;     highly     special- 
ized;   foods    and    raw 
materials. 

Manufactured  goods  and 
raw  products,  as  grains, 
cotton,  etc. 

South  America  .  .  . 

« 

Many;    less   specialized; 
manufactures  and  ma- 
chines. 

Raw  materials,  especially 
tropical  agricultural 
products. 

Australia 

'' 

Manufactures. 

Agricultural  and  mineral 
products — grains,  wool, 
and  gold. 

X9(H  COMMERCIAL  IMPORTAN'CE  OF  CONTINENTS  465 

From  the  table  it  appears  that  Europe  is  most  densely  settled, 
and,  judged  on  this  point  alone,  should  be  the  best  market.  It  is 
true  that  its  people  use  by  far  the  most  manufactured  goods  per 
capita  as  well  as  per  unit  area,  but  they  also  make  the  most.  Their 
special  need  is  for  raw  materials  to  be  made  into  foods  for  home  use, 
and  into  textiles,  hardware,  and  machinery  for  use  and  for  export. 
Asia  is  a  continent  only  half  as  densely  settled,  but  by  a  people  whose 
wants  are  many  and  whose  productive  power  is  good,  especially 
along  agricultural  and  certain  manufactural  lines.  Hence  their 
need  is  for  general  manufactures  and  their  surplus  is  raw  materials. 
And  since  Asia\s  area  is  several  times  greater,  the  actual  number  of 
consumers  is  millions  above  that  of  Europe.  These  people  should 
meet  those  of  Europe  and  exchange  commodities.  Asia  is  pre- 
eminently characterized  as  a  market  for  manufactures,  hence  to  a 
manufacturing  nation  it  must  seem  like  "the  coming  continent.^' 

The  Pacific  Isles,  however,  with  nearly  as  high  a  density  of  pop- 
ulation, have  very  few  unmet  needs,  while  they  possess  facilities  for 
turning  out  a  large  quantity  of  tropical  food  products  and  raw  mate- 
rials to  supply  the  manufacturing  industries  of  Europe  and  America. 
These  islands  should  be  looked  to,  not  as  markets  for  manufactures, 
but  as  sources  of  raw  materials.  It  is  true  they  buy  almost  nothing 
but  manufactured  goods,  but  the  list  is  mostly  made  up  of  machinery, 
carriages,  beer,  flour,  and  petroleum,  and  the  total  is  very  small 
compared,  for  example,  with  the  Australian  colonies.  All  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  imported,  in  1901,  goods  to  the  value  of  $2.50  per  capita, 
while  in  1902  the  Australian  commonwealth  imported  to  the  value 
of  $54  per  capita.  The  continent  of  Africa  belongs  in  the  same 
category.  The  people  of  both  countries  lack  all  urgent  needs,  a  lack 
due  to  the  hot,  enervating  climate,  the  uncultured  condition  of  the 
mass  of  the  population,  and  to  the  prodigious  productivity  of  the  soil. 

In  North  America  great  nations  occupy  broad  tracts.  The  people 
are  extremely  progressive;  the  invigorating  climate,  by  its  severity, 
creates  wants  for  clothing,  fuel,  houses,  and  food.  The  people  have 
developed  manufacturing  to  an  extent,  in  many  localities,  compara- 
ble with  that  in  Europe.  The  country  is  not  thickly  settled,  hence 
there  is  magnificent  opportunity  for  the  production  of  raw  materials. 
North  America  produces  as  much  of  this  class  of  commodities  as  it 
uses,  but  ships  some  out  and  buys  others  to  meet  special  manufactur- 
ing demands,  then  makes  up  much  more  goods  in  many  lines  than 
are  needed.     Therefore  the  continent  may  be  classified  as  a  producer 


466  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  December 

of  raw  materials  and  also  of  mill  products.  For  this  reason  Europe 
is  invaded  to  sell  goods  of  the  first  class  and  Asia  to  sell  those  of  the 
second,  while  our  merchants  join  hands  with  the  Pacific  Isles  and 
Africa  in  order  to  purchase  raw  materials. 

South  America  and  Australia,  with  their  sparse  populations  and 
broad  acreage,  are  prel^minently  producers  of  raw  materials  and 
purchasers  of  manufactures.  But  they  differ  between  themselves 
so  much  in  climate  that  as  continents  they  must  always  differ  in 
the  general  character  of  the  products.  The  former  will  supply, 
largely,  tropical  fruits,  vegetables,  and  forest  products,  while  the 
latter  will  produce  sheep  and  wool  wdth  southern  South  America; 
and  gold  and  wheat,  by  means  of  which  it  can  buy  the  needed  manu- 
factures. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  said  that  the  climate,  soil,  density  of 
population,  and  the  social  and  economic  conditions  of  the  people 
differ  widely  in  the  several  continents,  and  disclose  the  basis  for  inter- 
continental commerce  and  exchange.  Goods  must  cross  the  merid- 
ians from  one  temperate  country  to  another  because  of  the  enforced 
difference  in  output  and  in  the  respective  needs  of  the  people;  and 
for  the  same  reason  they  must  cross  the  tropics.  Temperate  coun- 
tries, while  great  producers  of  raw  materials,  are  preianinently  the 
manufacturers  of  the  world.  Tropical  lands,  while  making  nearly 
all  that  they  need,  are  preeminently  producers  of  raw  materials 
which  must  waste  unless  sent  to  factories  in  the  temperate  zone. 
Just  as  our  continued  prosperity  depends  upon  our  finding  a  market 
for  our  specialties  (manufactures),  so  the  development  of  tropical 
lands  depends  upon  their  finding  a  market  for  their  specialties  (raw 
materials). 


1904 


LATER   GEOGRAPHIES  467 


LATER  GEOGRAPHIES* 

BY  CLIFTON  JOHNSON 

THE  old-time  geographies  until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  were  never  larger  than  12mos  and  some  of  them  were 
diminutive  32mos.  Up  to  1820  they  were  as  a  rule  iKiund 
in  full  leather,  but  occasionally  the  wood  or  binder's  board  of  the 
sides  was  covered  with  dull  blue  or  marbled  pajxT.  Buff -tinted 
papers  i^ith  the  title  and  more  or  less  other  printing  on  them  were  sul>- 
stituted  on  nearly  all  the  later  books.  Illustrations  also  l>egan  to  l>e 
used,  at  first  sparingly,  but  soon  very  generously;  an<i  instead  of 
being  designed  for  the  older  pupils  the  books  were  ma<ie  ^lith  sf>ecial 
reference  to  the  needs  of  the  younger  children. 

For  a  score  of  years  after  ge^>graphies  began  to  \)e  introduced 
into  the  schools  they  dej>ended  largely  on  the  use  of  a  globe  to  make 
clear  the  di\'isions  of  the  earth.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before 
nearly  ever}'  book  was  accompanied  by  an  atlas,  and  this  continued 
customar\'  to  about  1850.  Not  many  of  these  atlases  have  survived. 
They  were  fiimsily  made,  with  paj>er  covers,  and  the  wear  and  t-cr'ar 
of  daily  use  made  an  end  of  them.  The  usual  size  was  either  alxjut 
six  by  nine  inches  or  nine  by  eleven  inches.  Conjparatively  little 
color  was  used  on  the  maf>s,  and  even  at  their  newest  the  atlases 
must  have  looked  dull  and  uninteresting.  To  niodern  eyes  the 
oddest  features  of  the  maps  are  the  vacant  or  mistaken  outlines  of 
the  northern  coasts  of  tWs  continent,  and  the  general  blankness  of  all 
its  w€*stem  pcrxiou,  with  Mexico  ma^cing  a  great  sweep  up  into  tfie 
present  domains  of  our  republic.  S<^me  of  the  African  maps,  Um).  are 
given  a  strange  ap]>earanc^  by  the  jxjrtrayal  of  an  immense  line  of 
mountains — the  ''Jibbel  Kumra  (*r  Mts.  of  the  Mocjn '' — extending  id 
a  continuous  and  j>»erfeetly  straight  chain  fronj  ea%t  to  west  entirely 
across  the  broadest  part  of  the  continent. 

Jedidiah  Morse  was  the  pioneer  among  American  authors  of  schcxJ 
geographies,  as  I  have  explained  in  the  previous  ehajiter.  Tlie 
earEeet  rival  to  contest  the  field  with  Morse's  lx>oks  was  a  small  vol- 
ume of  quesiions  and  answers  compiled  by  Xathaniei  liwight  and 
published  at  Hartford  in   1795.     Our  own  continent  is  confined  to 

^Keprioted  by  peniuwkiti  from  *H>id-TiixK'  Schoc^  and  BchouHiciakfc,"  jmU- 
liflbed  by  The  MftrnmUwi  CompaDr,  Kew  Yofk. 


468  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  December 

the  final  third  of  Dwight's  Geography,  while  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
have  the  first  two-thirds.  How  very  remote  and  unfamiliar  many 
portions  of  the  globe  still  were  can  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
most  of  the  capital  cities  in  Africa  and  some  even  in  Asia  and 
Europe  are  located  by  giving  their  distance  and  direction  from  Lon- 
don. ThuS;  ^'Petersburgh  the  capital  of  Russia  is  1140  miles  north- 
east from  London.  Pekin  the  capital  of  China  stands  eight  thousand 
and  sixty-two  miles  south-easterly  of  London. ''  Monomotapa,  the 
capital  of  a  country  of  the  same  name  '*on  the  sea-shore  in  the 
southern  part  of  Africa,  is  built  with  wood,  covered  with  plaster 
and  stands  about  5,200  miles  south-easterly  from  London.'*  Other 
curious  bits  from  the  geography  follow: 

Q.     What  are  the  Russian  funeral  ceremonies? 

A.  They  are  singular:  The  priest  prays,  and  sprinkles  the 
corpse  for  eight  or  ten  days;  it  is  then  buried  with  a  passport  to 
heaven,  signed  by  the  bishop  and  another  clergyman,  which  is 
put  between  the  fingers  of  the  deceased,  and  then  the  people  return 
to  the  house  whence  they  went,  and  drown  their  sorrow  in  intoxica- 
tion. This  they  commonly  do  for  about  forty  days,  during  which 
time  the  priest  says  prayers  over  the  grave. 

Q.     Are  there  any  lakes  in  Scotland? 

A.  There  are  many;  but  two  are  very  remarkable:  One  near 
Lochness  is  on  the  top  of  a  hill  almost  two  miles  high.  This  lake  is 
small,  but  it  has  never  been  sounded,  nor  does  it  ever  freeze.  About 
seventeen  miles  distant  is  another  lake  which  is  frozen  all  the  year. 

Q.     What  are  the  persons  and  characters  of  the  Scots? 

A.  They  are  generally  lean,  raw-boned,  and  have  high  cheek- 
bones, which  is  a  characteristical  feature. 

Q.     What  are  the  diversions  of  the  Scots? 

A.  They  are  all  of  the  vigorous,  athletic  kind;  such  as  dancing, 
goff  and  curling.  The  gofT  is  a  species  of  ball-playing  performed  with 
a  bat  and  a  ball,  the  extremity  of  the  bat  being  loaded  with  lead, 
and  the  party  which  strikes  the  ball  with  fewest  strokes  into  a  hole 
prepared  for  the  purpose  wins  the  game. 

Q.     What  are  the  customs  and  diversions  of  the  Irish? 

A.  There  are  a  few  customs  existing  in  Ireland  peculiar  to  this 
country.  These  are  their  funeral  bowlings  and  presenting  their 
corpses  in  the  streets  to  excite  the  charity  of  strangers,  their  con- 
vivial meetings  on  Sunday,,  and  dancing  to  bag-pipes,  which  are  usually 
attended   with  quarreling. 


LATER    GEOGRAPHIES  469 


Q.     What  curiosities  are  there  in  France? 

A.  A  fountain  near  Grenoble  emits  a  flame  which  will  burn 
paper,  straw,  etc.,  but  will  not  burn  gun-powder.  Within  about 
eight  leagues  of  the  same  place  is  an  inaccessible  mountain  in  the 
form  of  a  pyramid  reversed. 

Q.     What  are  the  animal  productions  of  Poland? 

A.  Buffaloes,  horses,  wolves,  boars,  gluttons,  lynxes  and  deer. 
Besides  these  there  is  elk,  which  is  said  to  be  destroyed  in  the  winter 
by  flies  who  get  into  his  ears  and  live  upon  his  brain. 

Q.     What  curiosities  are  there  in  Portugal? 

A.  There  are  lakes  into  which  a  stone  being  cast  causes  a  rumb- 
ling Uke  the  noise  of  an  earthquake. 

Q.     What  do  you  observe  of  the  inhabitants  of  Guinea? 

A.  They  are  chiefly  pagans  and  idolaters.  In  Eyo,  where  the 
people  are  governed  by  a  king  who  is  not  absolute,  when  they  are 
tired  of  him,  a  deputation  waits  on  him  and  informs  him  that  it  is 
fatiguing  for  him  to  bear  the  burden  of  government  any  longer, 
advising  him  to  take  a  little  rest.  He  thanks  them  and  retires  to 
his  apartment  as  if  to  sleep,  and  directs  his  women  to  strangle  him; 
and  after  he  expires  they  destroy  all  things  which  belonged  to  him 
or  to  themselves,  and  then  kill  one  another.  His  son  succeeds  to 
the  government,  and  on  the  same  terms. 

Q.     Give  a  concise  description  of  the  Giages  and  Annians. 

A.  The  first  inhabit  a  part  of  the  Congo  coast;  the  latter  live 
in  the  Macaco.  The  people  are  cannibals.  They  kill  and  eat  their 
first-born  children;  and  their  friends  who  die  are  eaten  by  their 
relations.  The  king  of  Macaco  resides  in  Monsol,  where  there  is  a 
market  in  which  human  flesh  is  sold,  although  other  meat  exists  in 
plenty.  They  esteem  it  a  luxury,  and  it  is  said  an  hundred  prisoners 
or  slaves  are  daily  killed  for  the  king's  table. 

Q.     What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Hottentots? 

A.  They  are  the  most  abject  of  the  human  race.  They  besmear 
their  bodies  with  soot  and  grease,  live  upon  carrion,  old  leather, 
shoes,  and  everything  of  the  most  loathsome  kind;  dress  themselves 
in  sheep's  skins,  untanned,  turning  the  wool  to  their  flesh  in  the 
wdnter,  and  the  other  side  in  the  summer.  Their  dress  serves  them 
for  a  bed  at  night,  for  a  covering  by  day,  and  for  a  winding-sheet 
when  they  die. 

Q.     What  is  the  temper  of  the  New  England  people? 

A.     They  are  frank  and  open,  bold  and  enterprising.     The  women 


470  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  December 

are  educated  to  house- wifery,  excellent  companions,  and  house- 
keepers; spending  their  leisure  time  in  reading  books  of  useful  infor- 
mation. 

Q,     What  are  their  diversions? 

A.  Dancing  is  a  favorite  one  of  both  sexes.  Sleigh-riding  in 
winter,  and  skating,  playing  ball,  gunning,  and  fishing  are  the 
principal;  gambling  and  horse-jockeying  are  practiced  by  none  but 
worthless  people  who  are  despised  by  all  persons  of  respectability, 
and  considered  as  nuisances  in  society. 

Q.     Are  there  any  slaves  in  Massachusetts? 

A.     NONE. 

One  geography  that  had  a  marked  individuality  of  its  own  was  a 
thick  little  volume,  mostly  in  verse,  entitled  The  Monitor's  Instructor^ 
published  at  Wilmington,  Delaware,  in  1804.  Speaking  of  himself 
in  the  third  person  in  the  introduction  the  author  says,  **  Unpractised 
in  poetry  in  a  great  degree,  he  has  ventured  thereupon  supposing 
it  to  be,  in  general,  rather  more  taking,  with  youth,  than  prose;  and 
though  not  the  most  flowery  cast,  it  will,  he  hopes,  answer  the  end.'' 

Now  let  the  muse  some  incense  bring. 
As  we  the  works  of  nature  sing, 

is  the  way  he  begins,  and  below  are  extracts  culled  here  and  there 
from  succeeding  pages: 

America   (our   native)    streams, 
Shall  first  awhile  become  our  themes. 
Both  lakes  and  rivers,  great  and  small. 
Which  in  th'  Atlantic  Ocean  fall. 

After  naming  the  more  important  coast  rivers,  the  book  remarks: 

Now  o'er  these  streams  thus  havmg  glanc'd. 
And  hastily,  thus  far  advanc'd, 
Not  having  left  the  sounding  shore, 
Next  their  main  sources  shall  explore; 
And  on  the  wing  which  poets  feign. 
Soar  to  each  mount,  skim  o'er  the  plain, 
To  find  the  Uttle  purling  rill. 
And  which  the  largest  rivers  fill. 


One  river,  of  enormous  size. 
To  west  of  Mississippi  lies.  .  . 
The  river  this  call'd  Missouri, 


LATER    GEOGRAPHIES  47  I 


And  tow'rd  south-east  its  courses  lie, 

This  river,  from  what  I  can  see, 
Can't  less  than  the  Ohio  be. 

Skipping  to  where  the  book  is  describing  leading  towns,  we  find 
these  lines: 

An  island  is  well  known  to  fame, 
Manhattan  is  this  island's  name.  .  .  . 
On  sou'west  end  New  York  doth  stand, 
Investing  all  that  point  of  land.  .  .  . 
Not  fully  regular  it's  plann'd, 
Yet  very  elegant  and  grand.  .  .  . 
The  streets  present  diversity, 
And  suited  to  conveniency, 
The  Broadway  has  still  more  of  taste 
Than  any  street  in  all  the  place.  .  .  . 
A  street  three-score  and  ten  feet  wide, 
And  gently  rising  from  the  tide, 
Its  edifices  bold  and  grand, 
Present  themselves  on  either  hand; 
The  most  magnificent  of  all, 
Known  by  the  name  of  Fecl'ral  Hall, 
For  pleasantness,  it  is  agreed, 
And  health,  few  places  this  exceed. 
In  summer  come,  on  every  side, 
The  cooling  breezes  from  the  tide. 
For  winter  mildness  few  excel 
This  city,  of  same  parallel. 

In  the  prose  portion  of  the  book  are  several  curious  *' paradoxes." 
Here  is  one  of  them: 

Three  men  went  on  a  journey,  in  which,  though  their  heads  trav- 
elled 12  yards  farther  than  their  feet,  all  returned  alive,  with  their 
heads  on. 

The  Solution  explains  that  *'If  any  person  should  travel  round 
the  globe,  the  space  travelled  by  his  head  will  exceed  that  his  feet 
travelled  "  by  about  the  number  of  yards  mentioned. 

The  next  geography  from  which  I  make  selection  is  by  Benjamin 
Davies.  It  was  published  in  1813.  The  first  two  paragraphs  quoted 
come  under  the  heading  **New  Holland."  This  was  the  accepted 
name  of  Australia  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
Dutch  discovered  the  continent  in  1616,  but  its  size  and  shape  were 
only  vaguely  known  until  Captain  Cook  explored  most  of  the  coast 
in  1770. 

Some  suppose  that  this  extensive  region,  when  more  thoroughly 


472  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  December 

investigated,  will  be  found  to  consist  of  two,  three  or  more  vast  islands 
intersected  by  narrow  seas. 

Inhabitants.  The  black  bushy  beards  of  the  men  and  the  bone 
or  reed  which  they  thrust  through  the  cartilage  of  the  nose  gives 
them  a  disgusting  appearance ;  which  is  not  improved  by  the  practice 
of  rubbing  fish  oil  into  their  skins  as  a  protection  from  the  air  and 
moskitos;  so  that  in  hot  weather  the  stench  is  intolerable.  The 
women  are  marked  by  the  loss  of  the  two  first  joints  of  the  little 
finger  of  the  left  hand;  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  in  the  way  when 
they  coil  their  fishing  lines. 

Manners  and  Customs  in  the  United  States.  Travellers  have 
observed  a  want  of  urbanity,  particularly  in  Philadelphia;  and  in 
all  the  capital  cities,  an  eager  pursuit  of  wealth,  by  adventurous 
speculations  in  commerce,  by  land-jobbing,  banks,  insurance  offices, 
and  lotteries.  The  multiplication  of  inns,  taverns  and  dram  shops, 
is  an  obvious  national  evil  that  calls  loudly  for  legislative  interfer- 
ence; for  in  no  country  are  they  more  numerous  or  more  universally 
baneful.  Schools  are  spread  everywhere  through  the  well-settled 
parts  of  the  country,  yet  the  domestic  regulation  of  children  and 
youth  is  not  duly  regarded. 

Language.  The  English  language  is  the  general  one  of  the  union, 
and  is  cultivated  with  great  assiduity  in  all  the  principal  cities  and 
towns.  All  the  classical  authors  in  the  English  language  have  been 
reprinted  in  America,  many  of  them  have  passed  through  several 
editions,  some  with  great  elegance  and  correctness. 

Boston  is  built  in  a  very  irregular  manner,  on  a  peninsula,  at  the 
bottom  of  Massachusetts  bay. 

Southern  Manners  and  Customs.  The  inquisitive  traveller 
as  he  progresses  southward  no  longer  beholds  so  great  a  proportion 
of  hardy,  industrious  and  healthy  yeomanry,  living  on  terms  of 
equality  and  independence;  their  domestic  economy  neat  and  com- 
fortable; their  farms  well  stocked;  and  their  cattle  sleek  and  thriving. 
On  the  contrary  he  discovers  the  farmhouses  more  thinly  scattered, 
some  of  them  miserable  hovels;  the  retreats  of  small  proprietors, 
who  are  too  indolent  or  too  proud  to  labor;  here  and  there  a  stack  of 
corn-fodder,  and  the  cattle  looking  as  miserable  as  their  ow^ners. 
A  few  miles  distant  perhaps  he  finds  a  large  mansion  house,  the  prop- 
erty of  the  lord  of  two  or  three  thousand  acres  of  land,  surrounded 
by  50  or  100  negro-huts,  constructed  in  the  slightest  manner;  and 
about  these  cabins  swarms  of  black  slaves.  But  it  is  just  to  observe 
that  many  of  the  gentry  are  distinguishable  for  their  polished  manners 
and  education,  as  well  as  for  their  great  hospitality  to  strangers. 

Cummings's  Geography,  1814,  apologizes  in  its  preface  for  adding 
another  ''to  the  number  of  geographies,  already  so  great  as  to  obstruct, 
rather  than  promote  improvement.''     This  preface  is  very  long,  and 


X904 


LATER  GEOGRAPHIES  473 


is  chiefly  made  up  of  directions  "designed  to  assist  teachers,  who 
have  had  but  imperfect,  or  no  geographical  instruction."  It  advises 
them  to  **let  the  pupils  always  set  with  their  faces  towards  the  north.'* 
Then  with  their  maps  before  them  they  will  be  in  pro[)er  pi>sitJon  to 
get  the  points  of  the  compass  straight  in  their  minds. 

Early  in  the  lessons  we  are  informed  that  the  **Alleganies  are  in 
some  places  immense  masses  of  rocks,  pileil  one  above  another  in 
frightful  precipices,  till  they  reach  the  height  of  more  than  lO.(HH) 
feet  above  a  level  with  the  ocean."  In  reality  not  a  peak  reaches 
7,000  feet. 

During  the  previous  decade  Lewis  and  Clark  had  made  their 
journey  across  the  continent,  and  we  now  find  mention  of  the  **  Stony 
Mountains."  It  was  a  number  of  years  before  the  name  Rocky  wi\s 
substituted  for  Stony.  On  the  maps  they  were  sometimes  labelled 
the  Chippewan  Mountains,  and  Workman's  Geography,  in  1805,  says 
the  ranges  **that  lie  west  of  the  river  St.  Pierre  are  called  the  Shining 
Mountains,  from  an  infinite  number  of  chrystal  stones  of  an  amazing 
size  with  which  they  are  covered,  and  which,  when  the  sun  shines 
full  upon  them,  sparkle  so  as  to  be  seen  at  a  very  great  distance." 

In  the  descriptions  of  the  states,  we  learn  from  Cummings  that 
the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania  abounds  with  excellent  coal,  but 
we  get  no  hint  of  its  having  any  commercial  importance.  Indeed, 
coal  mining  as  an  industry  did  not  begin  until  1820  Before  that 
time  coal  was  in  the  same  category  as  were  petroleum  and  natural 
gas,  which  the  book  calls  '*  curiosities." 

Concerning  the  Andes  in  South  America,  we  are  told,  **  These 
amazing  mountains,  in  comparison  with  which  the  Alps  are  but  little 
hills,  have  fissures  in  some  places  a  mile  wide,  and  deep  in  proportion ; 
and  there  are  others  that  run  under  the  ground,  and  resemble  in 
extent  a  province." 

When  we  come  to  Europe,  we  are  made  to  realize  the  intense  cold 
of  the  Lapland  winters  by  the  statement  that,  "In  attempting  to 
drink  the  lips  are  frequently  frozen  to  the  cup."  It  is  affirmed,  too, 
that  if  there  is  a  crust  on  the  snow,  '^The  Laplander  travels  with 
his  reindeer  in  a  sledge  two  or  three  hundred  miles  a  day."  Another 
queer  bit  is  this  about  the  roads  in  Flanders,  an  old-time  province, 
which  included  all  the  coast  region  of  Belgium  and  extended  into 
France  and  Holland.  **They  are  generally  a  broad  causeway,  and 
run  several  miles  in  a  straight  line  till  they  terminate  in  a  view  of  some 
magnificent  building."  These  views  no  doubt  gave  pleasure,  but  I 
think  I  should  have  preferred  to  have  the  roads  continue. 


474 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


Deccmbor 


Presently  we  find  the  following  paragraph: 

III  the  neean  ihere  are  many  dangerous  whirlpools.  That  called 
the  Marlsiroom,  iipun  the  euast  of  Norway,  is  cotisidereil  as  the  must 
dreadful  and  voracious  in  the  wtirld.  A  minute  dpscription  of  the 
internal  parts  is  not  to  be  expected,  sinee  none,  \vh<i  were  there,  ever 
returned  to  l>nug  back  information.  The  body  of  the  waters,  that 
forn^  this  whirl  pool,  is  extended  in  a  circle  about  thirteen  miles  in 
circumferenee.  In  the  midst  of  this  stands  a  rork  agaijist  winch  the 
tide  in  its  ebl>  is  dashed  with  ineoneeivable  fury.  At  this  time 
it  instantly  swallows  u[)  everything  that  conies  within  the  sphere 
of  its  violence.  No  skill  in  the  niariner,  nor  strength  of  rowing,  can 
work  an  escape;  the  vessel's  motion,  th<mgh  slow  in  the  beginning, 
becomes  every  moment  more  rapid,  it  goes  around  in  circles  still 
narrower  and  narrow,  till  at  last  it  is  dashed  against  the  rocks  and 
instantly  rlisappears.  Nor  is  it  seen  again  for  six  hours;  till,  the  tide 
flowing,  it  is  thrown  forth  with  the  same  violence  \nth  which  it  was 
drawn  in.  The  noise  of  this  dreailful  vortex  still  farther  contributes 
to  increase  its  termr,  whicli,  with  the  dashing  of  the  waters,  makes 
one  of  the  \mM  tremeodoiis  objects  in  nature. 


Ojnntr\f  ikon,  tzMltUn^  tkt  FroJncKPfU  of  Variola  Q>tuilritt. 


FronO^piece. 
Froiw^^  "ll-^rd's  Geography  for  B^ginnmSt  1826. 


In  another  geography  tif  the  period  we  learn  that  even  "the  bel- 
lowing struggles  of  the  whale  have  not  always  redeemed  him  from 
the  danger/'  and  that  **the  bottom  is  full  of  craggy  spires,"  The 
real  maelstrom  is  caused  by  the  current  of  the  (Ireat  West  Fiord 
rushing  between  two  of  the  Loffoden  Isles.  Ordinarily  it  can  be 
traversed  without  apprehension,  but  when  the  wind  blows  directly 


f 


LATER  GEO(iRAPHIES 


475 


against  the  current,  the  sea  around  for  several  miles  is  violently 
agitated  and  extremely  dangerous. 

Adams's  Geography,  1818,  is  divided  into  three  parts — Part  I, 
''Geographical  Orthography/'  consisting  of  ten  pages  of  names  of 
states,  rivers,  towns,  etc.,  to  be  used  as  spelling  lessons;  Part  II, 
*'A  Grammar  of  Geography,"  fifty  pages,  being  an  epitome  of  main 
facts  "to  be  committed  to  memory'';  Part  III,  ''A  Description  of 


Cakiract  of  J^ia§rarff. 
From  Worcester's  Elements  of  Geography,  1828. 

the  Earth,''  making  up  the  body  of  the  book,  ''to  be  read  in  classes." 
The  first  four  excerpts  are  from  Part  II,  the  rest  from  Part  III. 
A  Mountain  is  a  vast  protuberance  of  the  earth. 

Europe  is  distinguished  for  its  learning,  poUteness,  government, 
and  laws;  for  the  industry  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  temperature 
of  its  climate. 

The  White  Mountains  are  the  highest  not  only  in  New  Hampshire, 
but  in  the  United  States. 

Switzerland  is  a  small  romantic  country,  lying  upon  the  Alps,  and 
is  the  highest  spot  in  Europe.     St.  Gothard  is  the  highest  mountain. 

Navigation  on  the  Mississippi  is  attended  ^vith  many  difficulties 
and  dangers,  from  the  sudden  crooks  and  bends  in  the  river,  the  falling 
in  of  its  banks,  and  more  especially  from  the  sawyers,  so  called, 
which  are  trees  whose  roots  have  by  some  means  become  fastened 
to  the  bottom  of  the  river,  in  such  a  manner,  that,  from  the  continual 
pressure  of  the  current,  they  receive  a  regular  vibratory  motion  from 
the  resemblance  of  which  to  a  saw-mill,  they  have  derived  their  name. 
Their  motion  is  sometimes  very  quick,  and  if  they  strike  a  boat,  it 


476 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


December 


is  immediately  upset  or  dashed  to  pieces.  \'cssels  are  from  five  to 
thirt}^  days  on  their  passage  up  to  New  Orleafis,  87  miles;  although 
with  a  favorable  wind,  they  will  sometimes  descend  in  12  hours. 
From  New  Orleans  to  Natchez^  310  ndles,  the  voyage  requires  from 
60  to  80  days.  Ships  rarely  ascend  alxive  that  place.  It  is  navigable 
for  boats,  carrying  abtnit  40  tons,  and  roweil  by  18  or  20  men  to  the 
falls  of  SL  Anihofiif. 

The  number  of  post-oflices  in  the  United  States  in  ISll,  was  2,043. 
The  mail  w^as  carried  46,.'iSU  miles  in  stages,  and  61,171  miles  in 
sulkies  and  on  horseback. 


J^aiurai  Bridgt  f>f  Virginia. 
Prom   Wurc esters  Ekmcnts  of  Gi,X'gTaphy,    iKjH. 

Several  mineral  springs  break  forth  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  most  celebrated  are  those  of  Saratoga  an*l  Ballstown 
in  the  state  of  New  York.  The  latter  place  is  much  frequented  by 
gay  and  fashionable  people j  as  well  as  by  invalids. 

Beer  is  the  common  drink  of  the  inhabitants  f»f  New  York  Stole, 
The  ft»rests  abound  with  l.jears,  wolves,  deer,  and  elks. 

Many  of  the  towns  and  plantations  in  Maim  are  destitute  of  any 
settled  minister  Missionaries  sent  among  them  have  been  affection- 
ately recei%^ed. 

Water  is  brought  to  Philadelphia  in  a  subterraneous  canal,  from 
the  SchuVlkilk  and  is  then  raised  bv  steam  30  or  40  feet  to  a  reservoir 


I 


1904 


LATER  GEOGRAPHIES 


477 


on  the  top  of  a  circular  edifice,  from  which  it  is  distributed  by  bored 
logs  to  the  different  parts  of  the  city. 

Pittsburg  is  supplied  with  foreign  goods  chiefly  by  land  from  Phil- 
adelphia and  Baltimore.  The  price  of  waggon  carriage  this  distance 
is  from  5  to  6  dollars  a  hundred  pounds  weight.  The  number  of 
inhabitants,  in  1810,  was  4,768. 

A  decade  later,  when  Pittsburg  had  a  population  of  seven  thou- 
sand, the  geographies  speak  of  it  as  ''one  of  the  greatest  manufac- 
turing towns  in  the  Union." 

I  quote  further  from  Adams,  beginning  with  what  he  has  to  say 
of  ''the  floating  mills  for  grinding  corn,  which  are  frequently  seen 
on  the  Ohio  River." 


Whale  Fishing. 
From  Worcester's  Elements  of  Geography,   1829. 

[  The  mill  is  supported  by  two  large  canoes,  with  the  wheel  between 
them;  this  is  moored  wherever  they  can  find  the  strongest  current, 
nearest  to  the  shore,  by  the  force  of  which  alone  the  mill  is  put  in 
operation.  It  is  floated  up  and  down  the  river  whenever  a  customer 
calls. 

The  exports  from  OhiOy  consisting  of  flour,  corn,  hemp,  flax,  beef, 
pork,  smoked  hams  of  venison,  whiskey,  peach  brandy,  and  lumber 
are  mostly  sent  down  the  Mississippi  to  New  Orleans.  Those  boats 
which  descend  with  the  produce  rarely  return,  but  on  arriving  at  New 
Orleans,  are  taken  to  pieces  and  sold  for  lumber. 

Cincinnati  is  a  pleasant,  flourishing  town.  It  contains  about 
3,000  inhabitants.  In  this  town  is  fort  Washington,  which  com- 
mences the  chain  of  forts  extending  to  the  westward. 


478 


THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY 


December 


Detroit  J  the  capital  of  Miebigau  Territ  iiry,  i«  a  place  of  considerable 
trade  J  which  con.sists  phiefly  in  a  l>arter  of  coarse  European  goods 
with  the  iiative.H  for  funs.  The  town  is  surruuncled  by  a  strong  block- 
ade, through  which  there  are  four  gates.     The  streets  are  generally 


i^-«S;.^ 


f^^J^^ 


Treck-ShHft. 

I' nun   WMrcf?ili.T's  EfifffKHls  of  Gcogriiphy,  tSjr^ 

iTfJwed  witli  Indians  in  the  day  time;  but  at  night  they  are  all  shut 
out  of  the  town,  except  such  as  get  admittance  into  private  houses, 
and  the  gates  are  cloned. 

St.  Louis ^  the  capital  of  the  Territory  of  Louisiana,  contains  about 
200  houses  and  is  well  fortified. 

The  people  of  Norway  are  justly  fanie^l  for  honesty  and  industry, 


■r> 


Bridges  in  Chili. 
From  Wood  ridge's  Rudimtnts  of  Geography,  18*9, 

and  retain  their  strength  so  long,  that  a  Norwegian  is  not  supposed 
incapable  of  labour,  till  he  is  upwards  of  100  years  old.  The  inhabi- 
tants in  some  of  the  interior  parts  it  is  said  live  till  weary  of  Ufe. 


LATER  GEOGRAPHIES 


479 


Jri  all  the  luirthern  puris  ui  Russia  the  winter  eohl  is  very  terrible, 
iirds  in  the  act  of  flying  liave  sometimes  been  known  to  drop  dowu 
dead  from  the  atniosphere  in  consequence  of  it;  drivers  of  carriaj^es 
are  frequently  frozen  to  tleath  upon  their  seats  without  being  able 
to  change  their  position.  At  Petersburg,  only  two  months  in  the 
year  are  entirely  free  from  snow. 

The  Condor  i»  undoubted  the  largest  bird  that  pervades  the  air. 
When  it  alights  on  the  grountl,  or  arises  from  it,  the  noise  it  makes 

FETER  FARLEY 

Going  to  tell  &bout  Geo^aphj. 


'im 


Ttke  dre  tliere  !  take  care  bojs  I  if  you  mn  against  my  toe, 
1*11  cot  tell  you  anotlier  etofy  1 

Frontispiece  tu  PcUr  Parky' 5  G<rot:raphy,  i8jo 

with  it8  wings  is  stich  as  to  terrify  and  almost  to  deafen  any  one  who 
happens  to  be  near  the  plaee. 

Among  the  animuls  peculiar  to  South  America,  the  most  extraor- 
dinary is  tlic  Sloth,  or  as  it  was  called  by  the  way  of  derision,  the 
swift  Petrc.  It  is  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  monkey,  but  of  a 
most  wretched  appearance.  It  never  stirs  unless  impelled  by  hunger; 
it  is  said  to  be  several  minutes  in  moving  one  of  its  legs.  Every 
effort  is  attended  with  a  niost  dismal  cry.     When  this  animal  finds 


48o 


THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY 


December 


no  wild  fruits  on  the  ground,  he  looks  out  with  a  great  deal  of  pain  for 
a  tree  well  loaded,  which  he  ascends  moving  and  crying,  and  stopping 
by  turns.  At  length,  having  mounted,  he  plucks  oflf  all  the  fruit  and 
throws  it  on  the  ground,  to  save  himself  such  another  troublesome 
journey ;  and  rather  than  be  fatigued  in  coming  down  the  tree,  gathers 
himself  in  a  bunch,  and  with  a  shriek  drops  to  the  ground. 

A  similar  description  of  the  sloth  in  Dwight's  Geography  includes 
the  statement  that  *'It  is  so  many  days  travelling  from  one  tree  to 
another,  that  it  frequently  grows  lean  during  the  journey." 

Peter  Parley^ s  Method  of  telling  about  Geography,  1829,  was  a  thin, 
square  little  book  with  leather  back  and  flexible  pasteboard  sides. 
For  years  it  had  an  immense  circulation.     The  style  is  simple  and 


Engliflh. 


A  Chinese  selling  Rats  and  Puppies 
for  pies. 


From  Peter  Parley's  Geography,  1820. 


colloquial;  there  are  numerous  pictures  and  a  variety  of  maps  and 
diagrams.  Perhaps  the  portion  best  remembered  by  those  who 
studied  the  book  is  a  rhymed  review  of  the  earlier  lessons,  beginning — 

The  world  is  round,  and  like  a  ball 
Seems  swinging  in  the  air, 
A  sky  extends  around  it  all, 
And  stars  are  shining  there. 

Pains  are  taken  to  inculcate  good  morals  and  religion,  and  we 
find  in  treating  of  Asia  considerable  Bible  history  with  appropriate 
comments.  ''This  history,''  the  author  says,  ''is  exceedingly  interest- 
ing, and  is  all  true.  A  great  part  of  the  history  of  almost  all  other 
nations  is  false;  but  the  Bible  tells  us  nothing  but  what  is  worthy 
of  belief.'' 


Z904 


LATER  GEOGRAPHIES 


481 


The  MaUe-Brun  Geography y  1831,  was  also  written  by  "Peter 
Parley,"  but  the  materials  for  the  book  were  drawn  chiefly  from 
the  large  work  by  the  noted  French  geographer,  whose  name  gives 
the  book  its  title.  Selections  that  show  something  of  the  character 
of  the  book  and  of  the  times  follow: 


Norwegian. 
From  Peter  Parley's  Geography. 


Occasional  bands  of  white  hunters  and  trappers  range  the  Missouri 
Territory  for  furs.  Some  of  them  extend  their  expeditions  to  the 
foot  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  some  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 


JVfute  Bear. 

From  Olney's  A  Practical  System  of  Modern  Geography,  1831, 

The  herds  of  buffaloes  that  are  seen  in  this  territory  sometimes  amount 
to  10,000  each.  When  the  herd  is  moving,  the  ground  trembles, 
and  the  grumbling  and  bellowing  of  the  multitude  is  heard  for  miles. 


window.     *^Upon    ray    wor<l/'    said    he,    '*that^s    a   strange-looking 
beast  and  travels  desperate  fast  for  such  a  short-le^c^ged  crittur/' 

Piter  Parki/s  Kaiionai  Geography^  1845,  was  the  earliest,  I  believe^ 
to  take  the  large,  flat  quarto  shape.     This  form  enabled  it  to  include 


1904 


LATER  GEOGRAPHIES 


485 


good-sized  maps  and  do  away  with  the  necessity  for  a  separate  atlas ; 
and  in  a  few  years  the  12mos  had  been  entirely  abandoned.  The 
chapters  of  the  National  Geography  were  enlivened  with  poetical 
introductions,  and  there  were  occasional  other  verses.  The  follow- 
ing selection,  the  last  I  have  to  make  from  the  geographies  of  our 
forefathers,  is  this  jingle  description  of  **a  general  custom  of  moving, 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  on  the  first  of  May." 

Bustle,  bustle!     Clear  the  way! 
He  moves,  they  move,  we  move,  to-day; — 
Pulling,  hauling,  fathers  calling; 
Mothers  brawling,  children  squalling, 
Coaxing;  teasing,  whimpering,  prattling; 
Pots  and  pans  and  kettles  rattling; 
Tumbling  bedsteads,  flying  bedspreads, 
Broken  chairs,  and  hollow  wares. 
Strew  the  streets — 'Tis  momng  day! 


^^r^ 

.^f^ 

fc 

~7^-:m. 

k^^J^  -^i^gg 

J^Z'^^^^i  M^aI 

iinSiSfe^ 

mmmemmm^, 

W^ 

\l^%  •ff'^ 

iT- 

Battle  of  Lenngton. 

From  Mitchell's  A  System  of  Modern  Geography,  1850. 


486  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES 

Trade  and  Commerce  in  Persia.— Persia  at  the  present  time,  with 
the  exception  of  the  carpet  trade  and,  to  a  very  limited  extent,  printed 
and  plain  cotton  goods,  is  without  manufactures.  This  means  that 
nearly  all  the  products  of  the  mine  and  loom  are  of  foreign  make  and 
composition.  This  provides  a  market  of  considerable  extent  for 
imported  goods,  which  has  been,  and  is  even  now,  monopolized  to  a 
great  extent  by  England  and  Russia.  Other  countries  are  repre- 
sented, but  to  a  much  smaller  extent.  American  goods  reach  Persia 
through  the  organized  channels  of  European  trade,  with  foreign  labels 
and  trade-marks,  the  extent  of  which  cannot  therefore  be  ascertained. 

American  lamps,  clocks,  watches,  and  locks  have  a  steadily  increas- 
ing sale  in  the  Teheran  bazaars,  especially  locks,  which  excel  in 
mechanical  complexity,  combined  wdth  lightness  and  convenience  of 
handling  (important  considerations),  anything  hitherto  put  on  sale. 
Phonographs  and  electric  fans  are  curiosities  in  demand.  American 
hand  pumps  and  cooking  and  warming  stoves  find  appreciative  pur- 
chasers and  should,  with  proper  management  and  competitive  enter- 
prise, soon  monopolize  the  market.  Our  exploiters  of  the  trade  of 
Persia  should  aim  at  creating  demands  by  the  supply  of  novelties, 
of  which  we  have  a  great  variety;  and  by  the  use  of  new  means  and 
machinery  reproduce  old  lines  of  goods  at  less  cost  than  others  and, 
if  possible,  in  more  attractive  designs  and  appearance.  This  could 
include  both  vegetable  and  mineral  raw  materials.  There  is  no  com- 
petition from  within  worth  mentioning,  except  in  carpets,  w^hich 
should  never  be  imported,  for  in  the  beauty  of  the  dyes,  the  purity 
of  taste  in  design,  the  harmonizing  and  shading  of  colors,  and  the 
durability  in  the  wear  the  native  article  is  unapproachable. 

Agricultural  machinery  of  a  simple,  portable  make,  such  as  horse- 
power threshing  machinery,  winnowing  and  chaff-cutting  machines, 
plows,  and  harrows,  will  meet  with  a  considerable  sale  as  soon  as  their 
utility  and  advantage  over  present  methods  are  known.  Much  more 
interest  is  now  being  evinced  in  tilling  the  land  and  nourishing,  har- 
vesting, and  threshing  out  the  crops  than  was  the  case  in  former 
times.  American  manufacturers  and  merchants  can,  mth  the  vast 
and  diverse  sources  of  supply  at  their  disposal,  outstrip  any  other 
country  in  stimulating  and  meeting  Persian  demands. —  Consular 
Reports,  March,   1904. 


GEOGRAPHICAL  NOTES  487 


EDITORIAL 

WHAT  A  CHILD  SHOULD  GAIN  FROM  HIS  SCHOOL  COURSE  IN 

GEOGRAPHY 

THE  papers  appearing  in  this  and  the  preceding  numbers  of  the 
JorKXAL.  and  devoted  to  the  problem  of  what  a  child  ought 
to  gain  from  his  school  geography  work,  are  the  first  of  a  series 
which  win  be  continued  later.  The  Editors  of  the  Jourxal  have  felt 
that  this  topic  was  one  of  the  most  important  in  school  geography, 
and  have  therefore  secured  the  assistance  of  a  number  of  geography 
teachers,  geographers,  superintendents,  and  authors  of  schor>l  text«. 
We  have  been  «liscussing  the  content  of  school  geography  and  the 
methods  to  be  followed  for  many  years,  but  there  has  hieen  but  little 
consideration  of  the  end-  to  be  attained!.  Each  worker  haft  ma/Ie 
hi?  own  decisions  as  to  the  aim-*  of  hi-f  schr^/I  ^e^>graphy  work,  and 
has  endeavore<i  to  have  hL-  cour^  niea.^ure  up  w^II  to  the  definition 
of  geography  a.-  generally  adopter  I.  f'nforrfiriately.  however,  not 
enough  consideration  ha>  been  ziv^ri  to  the  irr^ff^.r^rir  f^/inr.  a.*  Ut 
what  of  permaneriT.  value  ^frt/graphy  -r.fidy  rKo  A'l  'rof^f.ribute  f//  a 
chil*i'*  training.  \\V  riav*-  rj^r^n  arixi'-^f;.-  to  have  eA/rh  ye^if^f  'Aork 
effective  in  promotifiz  a  p'ipii'r  scer^e.'-al  Ir.forrfiariof.  rot^fr^fdn;/:  the 
world,  we  hav*r  nrie^i  'o  rr^ke  •K^  v^ric  >.r*'r^-''*.'r.3r  aM  thought 
inspiring.  r>"it  Tc<r  h^v^  .'.ezle^'^i  ^I^/'^srerr^-r  V/-,  rr.  ."r.  rr^-  'tit^^linary 
si«ie  and  r.he  iLd:^  .:*  Tilr.I.'.z  ^*  •''^  r.^  •'  v.  ^a.'r.  ;;y.fe  ^(*ri^*phy 
after  tLe  ^h\».,  -^.-.■.•i^-  -«  :^^r  '>r;..;.  -  Vmt  r.ji  .*:  t.';fy.^:  i^jc  v.^  f>re?i;^rr** 
and  to*  er.^>-j:r.  :',•  T.e  :  r  ,t^ 

ing  nhie  •.rer.-:   '.c  ••.■-,>./;-.•  *.-r.r..'./  >"V->r'  ^*  •^   vr,;^;*  x^.^zyr,}  ♦Kr,';i^ 
do  for  ;K  ^r..^:      •■.rjr^**'  "-^   *'-  -    :..<^-.'^.'. '. '   '/   •'•^jf  "f.^M*.    »..,    •>!: 


REVIfeTS 


488  THE  JOURNAL  OP  GEOGRAPHY  December 

Primarily  a  reference  volume  for  advanced  students,  it  is  too  advanced  and 
inclusive  for  school  use.  It  is,  however,  a  volume  which  is  of  great  assistance  to 
any  teacher  of  general  geography  and  a  necessary  oade  mecum  for  any  worker  in 
commercial  geography.  The  introduction  and  the  first  sixty-three  pages  of  the 
text  form  a  splendid  summary  of  the  principles  of  geography,  which  determine  or 
influence  commercial  conditions,  and  should  be  read  by  every  student  of  geography. 

The  rest  of  the  book  first  treats  of  the  different  products  involved  in  commerce 
and  then  of  the  conmiercial  geography  of  the  different  countries.  Under  the  topical 
treatment  the  conditions  are  described  that  make  for  the  success  or  failure  of  the 
product  concerned;  this  is  foUow^ed  by  a  statement  of  the  geographical  distribution 
of  the  product,  and  usually  by  a  comparative  statement  of  the  status  of  the  product 
in  the  different  countries.  In  the  regional  treatment  a  full  and  valuable  considera- 
tion is  first  given  to  the  general  geography  of  the  country,  followed  by  an  adequate 
treatment  of  the  commercial  conditions.  This  fonn  of  treatment  makes  the  book 
valuable  for  reference  by  the  student  of  general  as  well  as  commercial  geography, 
and  is  a  very  strong  factor  in  a  generally  satisfactory  book. 

An  appendix  contains  a  comprehensive  series  of  statistical  and  other  reference 
tables  available  for  comparative  study.  Unfortunately  some  of  these  statistics  are 
not  as  new  as  the  date  of  the  edition  would  warrant.  R.  E.  D. 

Stories  of  Discovery.  By  Edward  E.  Hale.  Pp.  vi  and  292.  New  edition, 
revised.     Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  1905. 

A  new  edition  of  Doctor  Hale's  well-tried  volume  of  Stories  of  Discover}^  is  a 
welcome  addition  to  the  available  and  trustworthy  volumes  for  supplementary^  work 
in  history  and  geography.  The  eleven  chapters  summarize  the  work  of  Columbus, 
Da  Gama,  Magalhaens,  and  Drake;  the  voyages  to  the  Atlantic  Coast,  in  the  Pacific, 
to  the  source  of  the  Nile,  and  to  the  mouth  of  the  Niger;  give  the  historj'  of  the  voy- 
ages in  the  Arctic  and  the  Antarctic,  while  one  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  conditions 
in  the  early  history  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

Recent  discoveries  in  the  Far  North  are  only  mentioned,  the  current  expeditions 
in  Antarctica  are  not  even  alluded  to,  and  even  the  work  of  Stanley  is  only  men- 
tioned as  having  been  brought  into  public  light  because  of  the  recent  death  of  the 
eminent  discoverer.  These  deficiencies  are  deeply  to  be  regretted,  for  they  make  the 
new  edition  more  new  in  name  than  in  fact.  R.  E.  D. 


NEWS  NOTES 

Resolutions  Adopted  by  the  Eighih  International  Geographic  Congress, 

September  13,   1904. 

Rules  for  Geographic  Names. — Local  names  are,  as  far  as  possible, 
to  be  preserved  not  only  in  those  regions  where  already  established, 
but  also  in  wild  regions.  They  should,  on  this  account,  be  determined 
with  all  the  accuracy  possible. 

Where  local  names  do  not  exist  or  cannot  be  discovered,  the  names 
applied  by  the  first  discoverer  should  be  used^until  further  investiga- 


NEWS  NOTES  489 


tion.  The  arbitrary  altering  of  historical,  long  existent  names,  well 
known  not  only  in  common  use  but  also  in  science,  is  to  be  regarded 
as  extremely  unadvisable,  and  every  means  should  be  employed  to 
resist  such  alterations.  Inappropriate  and  fantastical  names  are  to  be 
replaced,  as  far  as  possible,  by  local  and  more  appropriate  names. 

The  above  rules  are  not  to  be  rigorously  construed,  yet  they  should 
be  followed  to  a  greater  extent  than  heretofore  by  travelers  and  in 
scientific  works.  Their  publication  in  periodicals  as  the  opinion  of 
the  Congress  will  probably  prove  of  great  weight.  Although  in  recent 
years  many  official  systems  of  determination  of  geographic  names  have 
been  enunciated,  we  have  still  evidence  of  the  very  slight  influence 
which  the  wishes  of  the  International  Geographic  Congresses  exert 
over  the  decision  of  the  official  authorities  To  this  geographical 
societies  are  urged  to  give  wide  publicity. 

Introduction  of  the  Fractional  Scales  on  Maps. — The  Seventh  Inter- 
national Geographic  Congress  expressed  the  urgent  wish  that  upon  all 
charts,  including  those  published  by  the  lands  still  employing  the 
English  and  Russian  systems  of  measurement,  along  with  the  scale  of 
geographic  co-ordinance,  that  the  scale  of  reduction  should  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  usual  fractional  form,  l:x,  and  that  the  latter  be  added 
to  all  lists  of  charts  covering  land  and  sea,  and  requests  the  executive 
committee  of  the  Congress  to  bring  this  decision  to  the  attention  of 
all  governments,  geographical  societies,  and  establishments  engaged 
in  the  publication  of  charts. 

The  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  support  of  this  resolution, 
which  has  its  origin  with  the  editor  of  Peterman^s  MittheUungeriy  and 
the  extensive  dissemination  of  the  resolution,  is  at  once  evident.  In 
English  publications  a  custom  has  arisen  of  adding  a  statement  of  the 
ratio  1 :  X  to  the  usually  employed  x  miles  to  one  inch.  In  America 
the  custom  has  arisen  of  going  even  a  step  beyond  this,  namely:  The 
addition  of  the  ratio  of  reduction  has  led  to  the  direct  application  of 
the  decimal  system  in  the  units  of  measure  adopted  upon  the  charts. 

To  this  geographical  societies  are  urged  to  give  wide  publicity. 

The  Decimal  System. — The  Eighth  International  Geographic  Con- 
gress expresses  itself  in  favor  of  a  uniform  system  in  all  geographical 
researches  and  discussions,  and  it  recommends  for  this  purpose  the 
employment  of  the  metric  system  of  weights  and  measures,  as  also  the 
employment  of  the  centigrade  thermometric  scale. 

It  is  moreover  highly  desirable  that  there  should  always  be  added 


490  THE  JOURNAL  OF  GEOGRAPHY  December 

to  statements  of  the  Fahrenheit  and  the  Reaumur  scales  their  equiva- 
lent upon  the  scale  of  Celsius. 

Similar  is  this  question  of  the  metric  system  which  reaches  even 
more  deeply  than  the  former  into  the  well-established  customs  of 
daily  life,  and  has  proved  not  without  value  in  promoting  international 
uniformity  and  simplicity.  Although  the  metric  system  of  weights 
and  measures  has  made  slow  progress,  and  this  alone  through  the  por- 
tals of  scientific  work,  its  application  to  geophysics  and  geography  has 
already  made  a  fair  beginning.  In  England  a  special  organization, 
entitled  the  Decimal  Association,  has  taken  charge  of  the  matter.  The 
Commonwealth  of  Australia  has  entrusted  the  subject  to  a  commission. 
We  are  without  knowledge  of  the  efforts  in  this  direction  thus  far 
made  in  Russia. 

To  this  geographical  societies  are  urged  to  give  wide  publicity. 

Standard  Time. — Resolved,  In  view  of  the  fact  that  a  large  majority 
of  the  nations  of  the  world  have  already  adopted  systems  of  standard 
time  based  upon  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  as  prime  meridian,  that 
this  Congress  is  in  favor  of  the  universal  adoption  of  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich  as  the  basis  of  all  systems  of  standard  time. 

Publication  of  Photographs. — It  is  suggested  by  the  lantern  slides 
shown  by  Mr.  Siebcrs,  and  by  the  photographs  by  Mr.  Willis,  that  it 
is  desirable  that  in  these,  and  the  cases  of  other  exploring  travelers, 
photographs  of  geographical  significance  might  be  published,  and 
accompanied  ])y  short  explanatory  notes,  so  that  they  may  form  col- 
lections of  representative  physical  features  of  different  parts  of  the 
world. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION  LIBRARY. 


MACELS  SCHOOL 
HISTORY   0/  the 
UNITED  STATES 

FOR   GRAMMAR   GRADES 

DV    WILLIAM    U.  MACR 

Pn^fiSHtr  4? 7  History  iii  5truf i)5i,-  t*iiiWr- 

siiy.  SjiWtKiiS^,  X.  W 

Sapwrior  io  othrfs  btcaast: 

Its  DRAMATIC  STYLE  seizes  upon  the 
cliiJd*&  tnCcTest  ia  wJut  is  live  and  bumfia. 

lU  ARRAKGEMEriTS  IW  PERIODS 
kerpfi  elenflT  in  the  pupirs  mm4  tne  rr La- 
tion  of  evtnts  to  the  4atgeT  move  men  t  of 
which  they  are  a  part. 

Its  ARTISTIC  APPEARANCE,  secured 
througii  tr^p  iJrge  number  oi  pot  t- nils, 
illustration&i  hhiI  colored  platen  ^nd  mtpSi 
catches  the  scholar**  flncnlii^n  and  rjilists 
his  tympalhies  at  oacc- 

Fur  mrre  hifftrnuiiiou  ni-'mtt  llsi^  iT^Ti' 

RAND,    McNALLY    &    CO. 


The 

Overland 
Limited 

California 

the  most  tuxufious  train  in  the  Wdrld. 
Ieavi'5  C  lii  i  c  veo  8  .oo  p.  nw  da  i  1  y .  Less 
than  thriL^L-  days  ttt  San  Frantitico. 
Maunitii't^nf  i?c|iiifi'ni*'ntr  Solidlhroti^h 
itaiu.     Kh^vtuc  hi^htfd  thrLub^fntit. 

rifr  VEST  or  everything  \ 

in^t  !i,l!T  p.  Ml.  tlliFv.  wlib  ttiroug^  i^rvicc    , 
IQ  S4a  FfikncitcOp  Lq«  Angc^cA  Add  Pcrft-     ' 

Chicafo  &  North -Western, 

Union  Pacifk  and 
Southern  Pacific  Railways 

All  iiff  ni3  »ttl  tlcketi  via 
llEutttntfr]  tifKikied  oa 

ap|>UcB,HlDD    tij 

W.  D.  KNISIveK!^; 

CIIICAG4J,  IM. 

ur  S.  L.  LOMAX. 

OMAHA.  NEH. 

OLiA 


PHYSICAL     MAPS 


\TQV  cannot  ti'HLh  pliyr^k-ul  jc^ip^r:ipln-  wit  hi  ait  physisitl  iiistps,  Th<,-y  :ire 
ii  nete^iihj'  in  the  schwr>l  and  in  the  homt;.  Tlit?  physiiul  maps  issued 
by  Ratid,  McXally  &  Campiiliyt  of  ChicBjC"'  Nt'w  \"ork,  nnd  Ltmdun, 
have  been  rtfdugtiJKi^d  fmr  many  ycar.s  mlb  the  ''staiidnrd."  Thi.»y  shnw  four 
elevatjonsi  of  land  and  thrue  di-pths  of  walur  in  sliitdinj;^^  i>f  brnwn  and  bluq 
according  tfi  the  intcrPRtional  color  schi'me.  W'uTm  ocfun  currents  art 
?<!hown  in  brown  and  cold  currcntsi  in  blut?.  The  isiotherrnal  lines  fnr  July 
and  January  are  in  red  and  dcKref  s  of  heat  are  shuwn  in  Uiv  niiirijinsH 

They  are  the  f^nly  phyj^lca]  map;^  that  hhow  tM>rreL-t  plant  dii^tnbutiMns. 
for  North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  Tht?  maps  art;  6?. x^ci  and  ^frx^' 
incJiei;  in  stizt.  The  teacher's  mnniml  which  accompanfes  the  strica  wfl« 
prepared  by  Dr.  j.  Paul  lioode,  of  the  L*niversity  tjf  Pennsylvania^  with  an 
Lntroducttnn  by  Dr,  T.  C.  Chainbi^rlain,  of  the  Universlt}^  nf  ChicftK'^. 


RAMD.    McNALLY    ^    COMPANY^    PUBLISHERS 

Chicago  N«w  YcirH  LfOndon 


.  /;?  Important  Book  of  Travet 


AFRICA 


! 


FROM  SOUTH  TO  NORTH 
THROUGH    MAROTSELAND 

By  MAJOR  A.  St.  H.  GIBBONS,  F.  R.G.  S. 

Author  of  ''Exploration  and  Hunting  in  Central  Africa/" 
^With  Numerous  Illustrations  reproduced  from  Photo^ 
graphs,  and  MapH,     .■.-     •::     Octavo,     2  vols.    87.50  nt.t. 

Major  (SfMmis  e/t'sr/ipiiofi  of  his  Jnivtiis  ti**vu^h  fhe  'mkole  li*tiji(th  qf 


the  Afrkan  imitineni  is  amgtj 
fki$  ihfss  of  ii(eraiur£  §fibC 
iniporianf  features  i^yift^  it 
j^ambe^i  River  to  its  sdwhee 


valuabie  coutritiidtons  t^ 

ent  years.     Amongst  otkrr 

is  atj  fU taunt  af  the  tracini^  of  ike 

hkh  hatt  hitherto  remainat  itnJisunfert'd. 


ORDER   FORM 


^(W_ 


7  0  JOHN  LAXE,  PMishtr, 

6^  Fifth  ^\ venue,  Ne'^i*  York  City. 
Pt£iue  semi  me  "AFRICA   FROM   SOUTH   TO   XORTH 
THROUGH  MAROTSELAXD  "  /or-hfhith  /  emiose  Sj-jO 

Xitme .  ^,. _- 


Address 


JOHN   LANE,  Publisher,  'l^  New  York 


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